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Abstract
Following the technological advances in recent decades, advanced electronic systems linked to the gas turbine industry
are increasingly considered by the designers of this field. For this purpose, new airborne systems in conjunction with jet
engines are developed, which are incorporated in many challenging design problems such as control law and configur-
ation design. Thus, a comprehensive modeling structure is needed that can bolster the integrity of the system devel-
opment such as the bond graph approach, which is known as an efficient method for modeling complicated mechatronic
systems. In this paper, modeling and simulation of a jet engine dynamic performance and aircraft motion are achieved
based on the bond graph approach. At first, the electric starter bond graph model is constructed and physical relation-
ships governing each engine component are obtained. In the aftermath, the modulated energy fields are developed for
the jet engine components. Subsequently, the bond graph model of the engine is numerically simulated and experimen-
tally tested and verified for a small jet engine. Finally, bond graph modeling and simulation of integrated engine and aircraft
system is presented. The test results indicate the acceptable accuracy of the modeling approach which can be applied for
innovative diagnosis and control systems design.
Keywords
Dynamic performance, jet engine, electric starter, bond graph, experimental test
parameters in simultaneous algebraic and differential physical design. The most notable features of this
equations. Thus the use of iteration loops is manda- method among other object-oriented methods are its
tory in order to verify the initial guesses. For this simplicity and compatibility. Bond graph is an object-
reason, the real-time simulations and optimization oriented method for power transfer representation of
processes of gas turbine dynamic behavior in terms interconnected components of a system in which
of running time, modeling the components and creat- energy passes through the network of bonds where
ing the engine modular structure has been a challen- the internal consistency of the component models is
ging task.4,5 guaranteed. It also provides a direct map from engin-
On this basis, the major issue with regard to the eering schematics to a clear interpretation of physical
development and verification of and innovative air- systems behavior and interaction via a functional
borne systems like jet engine-powered aircraft system schematic and handles causality in an explicit
(Figure 1), which are also jet engine models, is the and open procedure. It can also be used as a system-
mathematical modelling approach. This is due to the atic approach for obtaining state-space equations
fact that aerial vehicles require high functional integ- from the corresponding bond graph diagram prelim-
rity in order to reach their improved operational per- inary step of obtaining other models including linear
formance and efficiency. Thus, the management and parameter-varying (LPV) model.9 Other benefits of
control of the basic resources, such as heat and fuel, this approach include improvements in the simulation
electrical power, etc., require a rather complex inter- time for mechatronic systems and creation of modular
action between software and hardware systems, which structures for modeling the turbine components or
is most often difficult to optimize. Development cost other systems with various interconnected energy
is another challenge because of numerous compo- fields.7
nents, switches, and interfaces associated with the Bond graph modeling of turbo-machinery have
main system. been reported for a simple cycle single-shaft gas tur-
System-level modeling is a way to better under- bine,10–12 high-speed turbo-machines,13 an ideal
stand the behavior of a system and how it can be turbocharger,14 convergent-divergent nozzles with
controlled. In this regard, preparing the test bed for supersonic fluid flows,15 radial compressor system,16
a computer-based aerial vehicle model has become cold start phase of a microjet engine,17 turbocharged
fashionable. An aerial vehicle contains several diesel engines,18 and an industrial gas turbine.19 As
energy domains such as electrical, mechanical, two recent examples of applications of this approach,
thermodynamic, etc., which requires integrating vari- Montazeri-Gh et al.20,21 focused on modeling and
ous technologies, interfaces, and numerous subsys- simulation of the propulsion system and the engine’s
tems. For the development of such systems, an controller of industrial gas turbines and could obtain
intuitive and well-organized approach will be required acceptable accuracy from the conducted simulation in
that ensures an effective algorithm for rapid develop- addition to studying different influential parameters.
ment of different models for disparate purposes such In the above-mentioned studies,10–12 the newest of
as safety assessment, performance prediction, func- them being published in 1993, only one cycle of the
tional test, etc. In fact, a feasible approach such as gas generator in the gas turbine, which consists of the
bond graph, which is applicable in all energy fields, compressor, combustion chamber, and turbine has
will be advantageous.7,8 Representations of physical been modeled using the bond graph approach (with-
processes and the exposure of underlying structure of out employing energy fields). Furthermore, no valid-
energy transfer are more effective with the bond graph ation was performed on the simulation results of their
method. The idea is based on the topology of aerial models in other studies. Neither any gas turbine cycle
vehicle systems, schematics and, where suitable, nor any gas turbine engine were modeled in other
studies.13–16,18 In fact, the bond graph approach has power integral represents the energy. In other
been applied in modeling the diffusor and nozzle,13 words, the output effort or flow of each engine elem-
compressor and turbine,14 convergent-divergent ent is algebraically or differentially in relation with the
nozzle,15 radial compressor,16 and diesel engine.18 effort or input flow of that element.
Among the recently published studies,17,19–21 which In the following, the bond graph models of the jet
are also carried out by the same group of authors as engine components such as electric starter are first
this study, only three industrial gas turbine modeling developed. Utilizing the bonds of energy and informa-
were achieved with the aid of bond graph approach tion, zero and one junctions, the jet engine and air-
(using the energy fields) and the results of simulations craft bond graph models are then constructed.
were also validated. The outcomes of modeling in Subsequently, the test bed and monitoring system
Montazeri-Gh et al.20,21 were validated against empir- are provided to record the test data of a small jet
ical results, while the results of Montazeri-Gh and engine, and the simulation results are compared
Miran Fashandi19 were validated against the results with those of the experimental test.
of the GSP software.22 With regard to small jet
engines, Montazeri-Gh and Miran Fashandi17 pre- Bond graph modeling of jet
sented a simplified model of the microjet engine, and
no energy field and thermodynamic equations similar
engine components
to the ones used in the present study were incorpo- In this section, the effort and flow variables are
rated. Rahman and Whidborne23 developed a real- selected similar to Karnopp et al.26 in the thermofluid
time simulation model to evaluate the transient systems, and engine components (except starter) are
performance of a single-spool small turbojet engine considered as energy fields (a field is a multiport elem-
as well as its bleed air. MATLAB/Simulink was ent in the bond graph). For more information regard-
employed for performing the simulations and good ing the compressor, combustion chamber, turbine,
agreement with experimental results was found. and plenum modeling, one can refer to Montazeri-
Bakalis and Stamatis24 also studied a small turbojet Gh and Miran Fashandi19 as for the fact that only
engine with regard to the development of an adaptive the thermodynamic relations of these sections are
simulation model and analyzed the effect of various mentioned in this article.
parameters and calibrations. Other aspects of micro- Choice of the flow and effort variables is different
turbojets such as transonic inlet design have been in each pseudo-bond graph. The flow and effort vari-
studied, such as the one by Vyas et al.25 who took ables represent the energy flow and temperature in
advantage of compact turbojets in order to tackle one graph and mass flow and pressure in the other.
the limited operating the range of unmanned aer- Furthermore, in the modeling of the compressor and
ial vehicles with the aid of computational fluid the turbine, the torque and the engine speed are
dynamics. selected as the effort and flow variables, respectively.
In view of this literature review, no attempt has The engine components are modeled by the lumped
been made on modeling a small gas turbine engine mass elements which results in simplified elements
(small jet engine) in conjunction with its electric star- with no volume. All basic equations of thermo-
ter system (accompanied by the characteristic curves dynamic, heat transfer and fluid mechanics, momen-
of electric starter motor and its drive) using the bond tum, energy, and mass conservative laws are
graph approach and validated against experimental considered in the simulation of the gas turbine
findings. In addition, no effort has been made on inte- engine components. A schematic view of the jet
grating the aerial system composed of the propulsion engine components is presented in Figure 2. The fol-
subsystem (gas turbine engine) and aircraft subsystem lowing assumptions in the modeling of the engine and
(dynamics and aerodynamics) with the bond graph its subsystems are taken into account:
methodology. Noting the above-mentioned review,
the novelties of this study are as follows: (a) bond . Heat loss is negligible.
graph modeling of a small jet engine with the electric . Inlet pressure drop is negligible.
starter system and validation against empirical find- . The compressor mass flow rate is constant and no
ings, and (b) integrated modeling and simulation of energy is stored in the compressor.
propulsion system (small jet engine) and aircraft . The turbine mass flow rate is constant and has no
system (dynamics and aerodynamics). effect on energy storage.
The purpose of this study is to model and simulate . The nozzle mass flow rate is constant with no effect
the dynamic performance of a jet engine and an air- of energy storage.27
craft using the bond graph approach. Unlike the con-
ventional thermodynamic models, the developed
engine model in this study uses the exchange of
power between engine components which is the inter-
Electric starter
action of effort and flow. The product of these two Electric drive systems are subjected to mechanical,
parameters can be expressed as the power and the electrical, and thermal stresses. As a result, modeling
4 Proc IMechE Part G: J Aerospace Engineering 0(0)
Figure 4. (a) Circuit of the series motor, and (b) bond graph model of the series motor.
and simulation of an electric starter in order to applicability of the proposed method. The motor
investigate its behavior is of great importance. elements are assigned by bond-group types and
Independent development of electric starters in dif- their associated dynamic variables have been speci-
ferent simulation environments along with other sub- fied as is shown in Figure 4(b). The DC motor prop-
systems might probably lead to some technical erties are listed in Table 1.
problems such as coupling the subsystem models.28 In the bond graph model of Figure 4(a), the current
Another innovation of this article is the electric and speed at one nodes are used as feedbacks where
starter modeling via bond graph approach, con- transmitted to the motor characteristic curves by the
nected to the small jet engine model. Regarding information bonds. GY is then modulated by the
the separately-excited DC motor, an introductory obtained information and the unknown motor param-
schematic is provided in Figure 3 along with the eters are also calculated from the characteristic curve
equivalent bond graph model. One may benefit at any moment. The motor model is comprised of
from this model for a number of different motor electrical and mechanical parts. The electrical part
types including series and parallel connections includes the stator windings, the rotor bars and the
between various elements. For instance, a DC battery connections, and converts the battery elec-
motor, with the circuit shown in Figure 4(a), is trical energy to mechanical energy on the shaft.
taken as a small jet engine starter to verify the The mechanical part, which transfers the produced
Montazeri-Gh and Fashandi 5
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Equation (11) is used to evaluate the plenum tempera- 2
ture and pressure variations due to the mass accumu- F ¼ Cv m_ RTu 1 Pr1= ð13Þ
1
lation, which is assumed as a C-field in the complete
jet engine bond graph model of Figure 6.
where R is the universal gas constant. When the pres-
sure ratio is smaller than the critical pressure, choking
Nozzle
occurs, m_ remains constant and mass flow rate and
The fluid internal energy is converted into the kinetic thrust at the nozzle outlet can be calculated by27,30
energy in the nozzle module to produce the thrust.
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffisffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
þ1
For the convergent nozzle, the cross-sectional area
1 2 1
ð14Þ
decreases along with the flow so that the smallest m_ ¼ Pu A
cross-sectional area is at the nozzle outlet. It is RTu þ1
assumed that Pu and Tu are the pressure and tempera- sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ture at the nozzle upstream while pd and Td are the 2
pressure and temperature at the nozzle downstream. F ¼ Cv m_ RTu 1 Pr1= þ AðPcr Po Þ
1
A is the output cross-sectional area and m_ is the
input mass flow rate. If the output flow is considered ð15Þ
to be isentropic, the mass flow rate m_ will be more
dependent on the pressure ratio (Pr ¼ Pd =Pu ) than the With regard to the defined equations, the modu-
pressure drop (Pu Pd ) inside the nozzle. As long as lated R-field representing the nozzle can be defined
the pressure ratio is greater than the critical pressure as presented in Figure 5. Temperature and pressure
(Prcrit ¼ ð2= þ 1Þ=1 ), m_ and thrust are obtained by are the field inputs while mass flow and energy flow
are its outputs. An information input bond, which is
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Pu 2 pffiffiffiffiffi2= the turbine fuel-to-air ratio, enters the nozzle. The
m_ ¼ A pffiffiffiffiffiffi Pr Prþ1= ð12Þ preferred causality indicated from the model equa-
Tu Rð 1Þ
tions are effort input on all fluid bonds.
Figure 5. Pseudo-bond graph models of jet engine components: (a) nozzle, (b) engine shaft, (c) compressor, (d) combustion
chamber.19
Montazeri-Gh and Fashandi 7
Mfric ¼ mech MT ð16Þ where mech is the coefficient of the mechanical effi-
ciency. The related bond graph model is shown in
dN 30 Figure 5, which shows the pseudo-bond graph
¼ ðMT MC Mfric Þ ð17Þ
dt I models of jet engine components.
8 Proc IMechE Part G: J Aerospace Engineering 0(0)
1.2
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
Complete bond graph model of the jet engine Bond graph model of integrated
engine and aircraft system
The complete jet engine model is constructed as in
Figure 6 where there is a unique mapping between An aircraft is a complex mechatronic system interact-
the bond graph and jet engine components. This illus- ing with an external/internal environment during
trates the ability of the bond graph approach to ground phase and flight operations. Figure 7 demon-
modulate the system components, by which a soft- strates an aircraft. The rigid body motion of the air-
ware library of gas turbine engine component systems craft is defined by a set of Euler’s equations presented
can be made. The environment and the fuel mass flow in Figure 8.
are considered as sources of effort and flow, respect- The data in other studies31–33 are used for aircraft
ively. The compressor, turbine, and nozzle are translational and rotational dynamics modeling.
assumed to be the energy dissipater elements (resist- More detailed information with regard to the aircraft
ance). The shaft dynamics and combustion chamber motion modeling can be found in Diston.33 The bond
are modeled as energy capacitor elements (i.e. inertia graph illustration of the Newton–Euler equation is
and capacitor). demonstrated in Figure 8 where rotational dynamics
10 Proc IMechE Part G: J Aerospace Engineering 0(0)
(a) (b)
1.5 80
60
1
40
0.5
20
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000
(c) (d)
1.5 80
60
1
40
0.5
20
0 0
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 0 0.5 1 1.5
Figure 13. Characteristic of DC starter motor: (a) torque current characteristic, (b) power speed characteristic, (c) torque speed
characteristic, (d) power torque characteristic.
and energy flow in translational dynamics are defined Euler methods. All applied forces are brought
by the lower and upper triangles respectively. The together at the aircraft CG by the OS components
nodes for external moments and forces have been pro- while alignment with aircraft body axes is ensured
vided by the three 1-junctions in the triangles. Finally, by AT2 components. Before the application of
with the integration of aerodynamics and propulsion motion equations, velocity/force information are rea-
(jet engine) models, the bond graph motion model is ligned with aircraft Pals by AT components. The add-
obtained, which is shown in Figure 9. The rigid body itional R component compensates for the frame
motion component description of an aircraft is also rotation effects as in Diston33 by the CR matrix. In
presented in Figure 9 using the combination of pro- addition, the gravity and wind shear effects are also
pulsive and aerodynamic forces with Newton and considered.
Montazeri-Gh and Fashandi 11
(a) (b)
6000 0.2
Experiment 0.15
4000
Simulation
0.1
2000
0.05
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 0
0 1 2 3 4 5
(c) 60 (d)
13
40
6
20
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5
0.6
5 0.4
0.2
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5
60 4
40
2
20
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5
Figure 14. Starter motor performance parameters: (a) DC motor speed, (b) DC motor output torque, (c) DC motor output
power, (d) motor input voltage, (e) motor input current (f) drive switch duty-cycle, (g) drive input power, (h) drive input current.
Table 4. Design point modeling of the small jet engine. Table 4. Continued
Figure 15. Compressor performance curves: (a) pressure ratio versus corrected mass flow, (b) efficiency versus pressure ratio.
(a) (b)
0.02 1100
Simulation Simulation
1000
0.015 Experiment Experiment
900
0.01
800
0.005
700
0 600
20 40 60 80 100 20 40 60 80 100
Figure 17. Steady-state results: (a) fuel flow versus shaft speed, (b) EGT versus shaft speed.
Controller design of integrated engine and modes. The controller schematic is presented in
Figure 10.
aircraft system
In this section, the aircraft and the engine fuel con- Jet engine controller design. The jet engine controller
trollers34,35 are described based on the flight simula- design34,35 fulfills three different control modes,
tion control requirements and engine controlling which are as follows: at steady-state conditions, the
Montazeri-Gh and Fashandi 13
first control mode satisfies the pilot command (steady- designed with an industrial algorithm that divides the
state control mode), the second control mode engine fuel flow into two parts: steady-state and tran-
regulates the time response of the engine at transient sient fuel flows.36,37 At each equilibrium point, the
conditions (transient control mode) and physical limi- steady-state fuel flow is calculated by the steady-
tation such as over speed, over temperature, and aero- state control mode, which incorporates a scheduling
dynamic limitations are accomplished by the third controller as illustrated in Figure 10. In addition, the
control mode. In this research, the fuel controller is transient fuel flow is assigned to the other two con-
trolling modes. The transient fuel flow is determined
by a min–max strategy with four control loops includ-
1 ing acceleration loop, deceleration loop, maximum
engine speed loop, and PLA loop as shown in
Figure 10.
0.947
Aircraft controller design. An aircraft control system con-
0.895
sists of PID controllers with adjusted coefficients
using trial and error whose inputs are eu and e
(eu ¼ Udesired Uactual , e ¼ desired actual ) and the
0.842 output are PLA and Elevator. The jet engine control
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
system regulates the input fuel to the engine and the
input voltage to the electric starter. By controlling the
output of the engine thrust, it is possible to stabilize
Figure 18. Input signal (fuel mass flow (FMF)). the aircraft at a desired condition.
(a) 1 (b)
1.02
0.99
1
0.98
0.98
0.97
0.96
0.96
0.94
0.95
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Figure 20. Engine speed and EGT in the simulation and experiment: (a) speed versus time, (b) EGT versus time.
RPM: revolutions per minute; EGT: exhaust gas temperature.
14 Proc IMechE Part G: J Aerospace Engineering 0(0)
(a) (b)
1.03 1.02
1 1
0.97 0.98
0.95 0.965
0.92 0.95
0.89 0.93
0.97 0.98 0.985 0.993 1 1.007 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
(c) (d)
1.007 1.02
1 1
0.99 0.97
0.985 0.946
0.98 0.92
0.97 0.89
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
(e) (f)
7 1.02
1
6
0.974
5
0.95
4 0.92
0.897
3
0.87
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Figure 21. Engine performance parameters for the step input presented in Figure 18: (a) CPR versus CAMF, (b) TIT versus time,
(c) CAMF versus time, (d) CPR versus time, (e) stall margin versus time, (f) thrust versus time.
CPR: compressor pressure ratio; TIT: turbine inlet temperature; CAMF: compressor air mass flow.
330 55
50 Altitude(1540m)
320
45
310 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
(c) (d)
0.6 0.25
0.4
0.2
0.2
0.15
0
-0.2 0.1
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5
(e) (f)
2 0.2
0 0
-2 -0.2
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5
Figure 22. Simulated response of integrated engine and aircraft system: (a) net thrust versus Mach number, (b) SFC versus Mach
number, (c) roll versus time, (d) pitch versus time, (e) angular velocity of the component Wx versus time, (f) angular velocity of the
component Wy versus time.
SFC: specific fuel consumption.
(Figure 21(d)). Regarding the compressor characteris- The obtained bond graph model can be used as the
tic curve, since the speed is constant and the compres- basis of the state-space equations of nonlinear models.
sor pressure ratio is elevating, the air flow is reduced It can also be implemented in real-world applications
(Figure 21(c)). Since the input fuel flow rate (step func- including the performance modeling of various gas
tion) immediately reaches its maximum value (with no turbines (including turbo-fan, turbo-shaft, and
delay), the turbine inlet gas temperature is very high turbo-prop), hardware in the loop tests, new control-
during the early moments as is demonstrated in ler design, modeling the electric starter system, and
Figure 21(b). On the other hand, the air flow rate is start-up phase of different gas turbines as well as
declining and the fuel-to-air ratio is high. Therefore, their fuel systems.
the gas is produced at a high temperature, which may
be higher than the allowable limit that may damage Declaration of Conflicting Interests
the turbine vanes. For the next moments, regarding The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with
the acceleration line, the air flow increases gradually respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of
and the exhaust gas temperature declines to the design this article.
point temperature.
Figure 21(e) shows that the stall margin (SM) value Funding
decreases by about 3.5%. Due to sudden increase in the The author(s) received no financial support for the research,
fuel flow rate, the engine accelerates and the engine authorship, and/or publication of this article.
performance line approaches the surge line. The rise
in fuel flow rate leads to temperature increase, although ORCID iD
the rotor does not have the time to increase its speed Seyed Alireza Miran Fashandi http://orcid.org/0000-
and provide more air flow. Therefore, the initial per- 0002-9163-7941
formance trend line is toward the surge line owing to
the acceleration and compressor pressure ratio augmen- References
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18 Proc IMechE Part G: J Aerospace Engineering 0(0)
Subscripts
C compressor