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194 Opinion TRENDS in Biotechnology Vol.20 No.5 May 2002
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Opinion TRENDS in Biotechnology Vol.20 No.5 May 2002 195
disease, insect- and drought-resistant crops. Sustainable agriculture is not guided by the same
And biotechnologists are working on a broad range productionist logic as conventional agriculture.
of biopesticides. Instead, the imperative to produce as much food as
Beyond issues of environmental degradation cheaply as possible is filtered through a set of
and depletion, however, are the negative social and environmental and social concerns. Community
community consequences associated with problem-solving, rather than economic competition,
conventional agriculture. Because the conventional is the social foundation of sustainable agriculture.
model is anchored to the neoclassical theory of
economics, it is not surprising that conventional Sustainable agriculture and agricultural biotechnologies
agriculture entirely neglects the issues of rural I believe that ‘sustainable agriculture’ and
community and farm viability. By fixing attention ‘conventional agriculture’ represent two distinct
solely on production and efficiency, the conventional and essentially incompatible biological paradigms.
model does not take into account issues of farm Although there might be points of intersection
household and community welfare. The on-going between experimental biology and ecological biology,
‘farm crisis’, especially in North America, is the reductionist nature of the former and the systems
characterized by low commodity prices, lack of focus of the latter are not easily reconciled.
competitive markets and the abnegation of Experimental biology focuses on ‘traits’ within a
responsibility by governments for the welfare and variety or species, whereas ecology is all about
well-being of farmers and their communities. processes and linkages.
It is not surprising that large corporations have
What is sustainable agriculture? become primary actors in the creation and
Sustainable agriculture is a term that has been dissemination of advanced agricultural
used to denote a more environmentally sound and biotechnologies. Through intellectual property
socially responsible system of agricultural regimes, the genetically engineered products are
production than has traditionally existed in most turned into ‘commodities’ that create wealth for the
western societies. Although there are literally companies that developed them.
hundreds of definitions of sustainable agriculture, Sustainable agriculture, however, is
one of the more widely accepted definitions, fundamentally about ‘problem-solving.’ Ecological
developed by the US Department of Agriculture approaches to agriculture seek not so much to
(USDA), is ‘an integrated system of plant and increase output or yield but to identify and moderate
animal production practices having a site-specific production processes that are ‘optimal’.
application that will, over the long-term: (1) satisfy In a seminal study of the differences between
human food and fiber needs; (2) enhance conventional agriculture and sustainable agriculture,
environmental quality and the natural resource Beus and Dunlap [10] identify key elements that
base upon which the agricultural economy depends; distinguish the two agricultural paradigms (Table 1).
(3) make the most efficient use of nonrenewable They see domination of nature versus harmony with
resources and integrate, where appropriate, nature as one of the key points of demarcation
natural biological cycles and controls; (4) sustain between the two approaches. Likewise, the
the economic viability of farm operations; and reductionist nature of conventional agriculture is
(5) enhance the quality of life for farmers and captured by the emphasis on specialization, whereas
society as a whole [9]. the problem-solving attribute of sustainable
It is important to note that this definition agriculture is aligned with diversity.
encompasses the three dimensions most closely The underlying social science paradigms are
associated with sustainable agriculture – the portrayed by Beus and Dunlap as competition versus
economic dimension, the environmental dimension community. Conventional agriculture rests on a
and the social and community dimension. A truly business orientation, with a primary emphasis on
sustainable agriculture is one that is economically speed, quantity and profit. The community
profitable for farmers, preserves and enhances orientation of sustainable agriculture, however, rests
environmental quality, contributes to the well-being on cooperation, with an emphasis on permanence,
of farm households and nurtures local community quality and beauty.
development. Sustainable agriculture denotes a The term ‘civic agriculture’ captures the
holistic, systems-oriented approach to farming that problem-solving foundations of sustainable
focuses on the interrelationships of social, economic agriculture [11]. Civic agriculture refers to the
and environmental processes. emergence and growth of community-based
A small, but growing, number of academic agriculture and food-production activities that not
programs and research projects, especially in only meet consumer demands for fresh, safe and
Europe, are being organized around ecological locally produced foods, but also create jobs,
agriculture. An ecological approach necessitates a encourage entrepreneurship and strengthen
reintegration of the production-oriented disciplines community identity. Civic agriculture brings
that have driven conventional agriculture. together production and consumption activities
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196 Opinion TRENDS in Biotechnology Vol.20 No.5 May 2002
a
Table 1. Selected elements of conventional and sustainable agriculture
Conventional agriculture Sustainable agriculture
within communities and offers consumers real and for human and animal health that are only
alternatives to the commodities produced, processed now coming into view in both the advanced
and marketed by large agribusiness firms. industrial and the developing world are likely
to be profound in social, economic, political and
Conclusion demographic terms.
The 21st century is being called the ‘the century of Agricultural sustainability presents a challenge
biology’ by academic and industry leaders alike. to conventional agriculture and genetic
Bio-based industries and services promise to be engineering. It is likely that the productionist
powerful engines of the economy, especially in approach that has long dominated agricultural
advanced industrial nations. At the same time, development must accommodate not only the
developing countries might be challenged by the environmental and but also the community
changes that accompany the introduction of bio-based dimensions that are embodied in sustainable
activities in their countries. agriculture. Many farmers [12], environmentalists [13]
Acknowledgements With respect to agriculture and food, advanced and consumer advocates [14] are calling for a
Support for this research
was provided by the
biotechnologies have the potential to revolutionize more sustainable food and agricultural system.
Cornell University virtually all aspects of society, from how, where, Given the fundamental differences between
Agricultural Experiment when and by whom food is produced, processed conventional agriculture and sustainable
Station in conjunction
and consumed to how dietary changes might be used agriculture, it might be that in the near term we will
with CSREES/USDA
regional research projects to treat illness and disease. The consequences of see the development of two rather distinct systems
NE-185 and NC-1001. genomics for agriculture and food production of food production.
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