Four Gāndhārī Sa Yuktāgama Sūtras: Senior Kharo Hī Fragment 5

Four Gāndhārī Saṃyuktāgama Sūtras
Senior Kharoṣṭhī Fragment 5

Andrew Glass
with a contribution by Mark Allon
UNIVERSITY OF WASHINGTON PRESS

Seattle and London
Abbreviations
For complete citations to text editions, see References. For Pali texts, see Bechert 1990.
abl. ablative
abs. absolutive
acc. accusative
AG-GL Gāndhārī London Anavataptagāthā (BL Fragment 1, ed. Salomon,
forthcoming a)
AG-GS Gāndhārī Senior Anavataptagāthā (RS 14, ed. Salomon,
forthcoming a)
AG-Skt. Sanskrit Anavataptagāthā (ed. Bechert 1961)
AKU Śamathadeva/Zhi gnas lha, Abhidharmakośa-upāyikā-nāma-ṭīkā/
Chos mngon pa’i mdzod kyi ’grel bshad nye bar mkho ba zhes bya ba
(D 4094, Mngon pa, ju 1b1–ñu 95a7)
AKV Abhidharmakośavyākhyā (ed. Wogihara 1932–6)
Amg. Ardhamāgadhī
AN Aṅguttara-nikāya
AVin Arthaviniścaya-sūtra (ed. Samtani 1971)
B New Beijing printed edition of the Tanjur, Bstan ’gyur (dpe bsdur ma),
104 vols. (Beijing, 1994–)
BBS Ernst Waldschmidt, Bruchstücke buddhistischer Sūtras aus dem
zentralasiatischen Sanskritkanon (Leipzig, 1932)
BCSD Hirakawa Akira, Buddhist Chinese-Sanskrit Dictionary (Tokyo, 1997)
Be Burmese (Chaṭṭhasaṅgāyana) edition(s) of Pali texts
BhP Bhāvaprakāśa (ed. Srikantha Murthy 1998–2000)
BHS Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit
BHSD F. Edgerton, Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit Dictionary (New Haven, 1953)
BHSG F. Edgerton, Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit Grammar (New Haven, 1953)
BL British Library
BL 16 + 25 Gāndhārī manuscript of previous-birth stories (ed. Lenz 2003)
bv. bahuvrīhi compound
BV Bhaiṣajyavastu
BV-Chin. Chinese Bhaiṣajyavastu (T 24 no. 1448 pp. 1a1–97a24)
BV-Skt. Sanskrit Bhaiṣajyavastu (ed. Dutt 1984)
BV-Tib. Tibetan Bhaiṣajyavastu (D 1, ’Dul ba, ka 277b6–ga 50a7)
xviii
Abbreviations xix
BWD U. Wogihara, Bon-wa Daijiten 梵和大辭典 (Tokyo, 1979)

card. cardinal number
CBETA Chinese Buddhist Electronic Text Association 中華電子佛典協會,
Chinese Electronic Tripitaka Collection (Taipei, 2006)
CDIAL R. L. Turner, A Comparative Dictionary of the Indo-Aryan Languages
(London, 1966)
Ce Sri Lankan edition(s) of Pali texts
ch. chapter
Chin. Chinese
CKI Corpus of Kharoṣṭhī Inscriptions (Seattle, 2004–), http://ebmp.org
col. column
comm./comms. commentary, commentaries
CPD V. Trenckner et al., A Critical Pāli Dictionary, 2 vols. to date
(Copenhagen, 1924–)
CPS Catuṣpariṣat-sūtra (ed. Waldschmidt 1952–62)
D Derge Kanjur and Tanjur, Tibetan Buddhist Resource Center
CD‑ROM edition (New York, 2003–4)
DĀ Dīrghāgama
DĀ-Skt.Gil. Sanskrit Gilgit Dīrghāgama
Das S. C. Das, Tibetan-English Dictionary (Calcutta, 1902)
DbSū(1) Daśabala-sūtra 1 (ed. Waldschmidt 1932: 207–25)
DDB C. Muller, Digital Dictionary of Buddhism (2001–),
http://www.acmuller.net/ddb
dem. pron. demonstrative pronoun
Dhp Dhammapada (ed. von Hinüber and Norman 1994)
Dhp-GK Gāndhārī Khotan Dharmapada (Gāndhārī Dharmapada, ed. Brough
1962; formerly referred to as KDhp in Salomon 1999, 2000)
Dhp-GL Gāndhārī London Dharmapada (ed. Lenz 2003)
Dhs Dhammasaṅgaṇī
Dhsk Dharmaskandha (ed. Dietz 1984)
Divy Divyāvadāna (ed. Cowell and Neil 1886)
DN Dīgha-nikāya
DP M. Cone, A Dictionary of Pāli, 1 vol. to date (Oxford, 2001–)
du. dual
dv. dvandva compound
DV Dharmaguptaka-vinaya
EĀ-G Gāndhārī Ekottarikāgama (ed. Allon 2001)
EBMP Early Buddhist Manuscripts Project
Ee European (Pali Text Society) edition(s) of Pali texts
ETED T. Nima, G. Dorje, and T. Skorupski, eds., An Encyclopaedic Tibetan-
English Dictionary (London and Beijing, 2001–)
F Fángshān edition of the Chinese canon, Fángshān shí jīng 房山石經,
30 vols. (Beijing, 2000)
f. feminine
xx Four Gāndhārī Saṃyuktāgama Sūtras
FG Fóguāng edition of the Chinese Āgamas, Āhán zàng 阿含藏, 4 vols.

(Kaohsiung, 1983)
fl. flourished
frag. fragment
fut. future
G Gāndhārī
GBM R. Vira and L. Chandra, Gilgit Buddhist Manuscripts (Facsimile
Edition), 10 vols. (New Delhi, 1959–74)
GDP The Gāndhārī Dictionary Project (Seattle, 2003–), http://ebmp.org
HD Luó Zhúfēng, Hànyǔ Dàcídiǎn 漢語大詞典, 12 vols. (Shanghai, 1994)
Hema Hemacandra, Śabdānuśāsana (ed. Vaidya 1958)
HI Hirayama Ikuo Collection
impv. imperative
ind. indeclinable
instr. instrumental
interr. pron. interrogative pronoun
Jä H. A. Jäschke, A Tibetan-English Dictionary (London, 1881)
Jā Jātaka, together with Jātakatthavaṇṇanā
K Korean edition of the Chinese canon, Koryŏ Taejanggyŏng 高麗
大藏經, 48 vols. (Seoul, 1957–76)
kdh. karmadhāraya compound
Khe Khmer edition(s) of Pali texts
Khp Khuddakapāṭha
Khvs-G Gāndhārī *Khargaviṣaṇa-sutra (ed. Salomon 2000)
L Śel dkar (London) Manuscript Kanjur (Or. 6724)
LC Lokesh Chandra, Tibetan-Sanskrit Dictionary (New Delhi, 1959–61)
lit. literally
l./ll. line(s)
M Mongolian Kanjur, Śata-piṭaka series (New Delhi, 1973–79)
m. masculine
MĀ Madhyamāgama
MaitrU Maitrāyaṇīya-Upaniṣad (ed. van Buitenen 1962)
MBh Mahābhārata (critical edition; Poona, 1927–66)
MCED R. H. Mathews, Mathews’ Chinese-English Dictionary (Cambridge,
MA, 1943)
MED F. D. Lessing, Mongolian-English Dictionary (Berkeley, CA, 1960)
MIA Middle Indo-Aryan
Mil Milindapañha
MN Majjhima-nikāya
Mp Manorathapūraṇī, Aṅguttaranikāya-aṭṭakathā
MPS Mahāparinirvāṇa-sūtra
MPS-P Pali Mahāparinirvāṇa-sūtra
MPS-Skt. Sanskrit Mahāparinirvāṇa-sūtra (ed. Waldschmidt 1950–1)
Abbreviations xxi
MS Martin Schøyen Collection

MSV Mūlasarvāstivāda-vinaya (ed. Dutt 1984)
Mvu Mahāvastu-avadāna (ed. Senart 1882–97)
Mvy Mahāvyutpatti (ed. Sakaki 1926)
MW M. Monier-Williams, A Sanskrit-English Dictionary (Oxford, 1899)
N Narthang Kanjur and Tanjur
n. neuter
ND Niya Documents (Boyer, Rapson, Senart, and Noble 1920–9)
Ne Nālandā edition of Pali texts
neg. negative
Nett Nettipakaraṇa
NIA New Indo-Aryan
Nidd I Mahāniddesa
NidSa Nidāna-saṃyukta (ed. Tripāṭhī 1962)
Nir Niruttidīpanīpāṭha
obv. obverse
OIA Old Indo-Aryan
P Pali
p./pp. page(s)
pass. passive
Paṭis Paṭisambhidāmagga
Peṭ Peṭakopadesa
pl. plural
PoV Poṣadhavastu (ed. Hu-von Hinüber 1994)
pp. past participle
pres. present
pres. part. present participle
pret. preterite
PTSD T. W. Rhys Davids and W. Stede, The Pali Text Society’s Pali-English
Dictionary (London, 1921–5)
PW O. Böhtlingk and R. Roth, Sanskrit-Wörterbuch, 7 vols.
(St. Petersburg, 1855–75)
Q Peking edition of the Kanjur and Tanjur, Otani reprint (Tokyo, 1955–61)
r recto
RE Rock Edict
rel. pron. relative pronoun
resp. respectively
rev. reverse
RS Robert Senior Collection
S Stog Palace Kanjur
SĀ Saṃyuktāgama
SĀ(Ā) Ān Shìgāo’s Chinese translation of the Saṃyuktāgama, Zá āhán jīng
雜阿含經 (T 2 no. 101 pp. 493a1–499c1)
xxii Four Gāndhārī Saṃyuktāgama Sūtras
SĀ(LVP) Saṃyuktāgama (ed. La Vallée Poussin 1913)

SĀ(G) Guṇabhadra’s Chinese translation of the Saṃyuktāgama, Zá āhán jīng
雜阿含經 (T 2 no. 99 pp. 1a1–373b18)
SĀ(U) Chinese translation of the Saṃyuktāgama by an unknown translator,
Zá āhán jīng 雜阿含經 (T 2 no. 100 pp. 374a1–492a24)
Saṅg-G Gāndhārī Saṅgīti-sūtra and commentary (BL Fragment 15)
ŚBh Śrāvakabhūmi
ŚBh(S) Śrāvakabhūmi (ed. Shukla 1973)
Se Thai (King of Siam) edition(s) of Pali texts
sg. singular
SHT Sanskrithandschriften aus den Turfanfunden, 9 vols. to date
(Göttingen, 1965–)
Śikṣ Śikṣāsamuccaya (ed. Bendall 1897–1902)
Skt. Sanskrit
SN Saṃyutta-nikāya
SP Saddharmapuṇḍarīka (ed. Kern and Nanjio 1908–12)
Spk Sāratthapakāsinī, Saṃyuttanikāya-aṭṭhakathā
Spk-pṭ Sāratthapakāsinī-purānaṭīkā, Līnatthapakāsinī III
SRS(D) Samādhirāja-sūtra (ed. Dutt 1984a)
s.s. search string
ŚSPP(G) Śatasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā (ed. Ghoṣa 1902–13)
SuS Suśrutasaṃhitā (ed. Srikantha Murthy 2000–2)
Sv Sumaṅgalavilāsinī, Dīghanikāya-aṭṭhakathā
T J. Takakusu and K. Watanabe, eds., Taishō Shinshū Daizōkyō 大正新
脩大藏經, 100 vols. (Tokyo, 1924–34)
TCD Zhāng Yísūn, Bod rgya tshig mdzod chen mo/Zàng Hàn Dàcídiǎn 藏
漢大辭典 (Beijing, 1985)
Tib. Tibetan
TMCD Temürcidur, Γangjoriγ, and Mönggücimeg, Bod sog rgya gsum
gyi shan sbyar tshig mdzod chen mo/Töbed Mongγol Kitad
qaricaγuluγsan yeke toli/Zāng Měng Hàn Duìzhào Dàcídiǎn 臧蒙汉
对照大辞典 (Shenyang, 2001)
tp. tatpuruṣa compound
Uv Udānavarga (ed. Bernhard 1965–8)
Uvās Uvāsagadasāo (ed. Hoernle 1890)
v verso
v.l./vv.ll. varia lectio/variae lectiones
v./vv. verse(s)
Vism Visuddhimagga (ed. Rhys Davids 1920–1)
VRI Vipassana Research Institute
VRI-CD Vipassana Research Institute CD-ROM (Chaṭṭha Saṅgāyana CD-
ROM from Dhammagiri, Version 3.0 [Igatpuri: Vipassana Research
Institute, 1999])
VRIe Vipassana Research Institute Devanāgarī edition (Igatpuri: Vipassana
Research Institute, 1999)
Abbreviations xxiii
YBh Yogācārabhūmiśāstra (T 30 no. 1579; Derge 4035)

Z Beijing edition of the Chinese canon, Zhōnghuá Dàzàngjīng 中華大
藏經, 106 vols. (Beijing, 1984–96)
宋 Sòng edition of the Chinese canon of 1239
元 Yuán edition of the Chinese canon of 1290
明 Míng edition of the Chinese canon of 1601
聖 The Tempyō manuscripts (729–) and the Chinese manuscripts of the
Súi and Táng dynasties (581–617) belonging to the Imperial Treasure
House, Shōsō-in, Nara
Introduction: The Senior Manuscripts
Mark Allon
1. Introduction
Significant advances have been made in research on the Senior Kharoṣṭhī manuscript
collection since Richard Salomon’s introductory article “The Senior Manuscripts: Another
Collection of Gandhāran Buddhist Scrolls” was published in 2003. In this introduction I will
give a brief overview of the current state of research on these manuscripts, with a particular
emphasis on the identification of the texts. Greater detail will be provided in Allon, forth-
coming a.
The Senior Collection, which is named after its owner, Mr. Robert Senior (Butleigh,
Glastonbury, U.K.), consists of twenty-four birch bark scrolls or scroll fragments containing at
least forty-one Buddhist texts written in the Gāndhārī language and Kharoṣṭhī script. These
are preserved in thirty-four glass frames.
The Senior manuscripts represent the third of four major collections of Gāndhārī/Kharoṣṭhī
Buddhist manuscripts to have appeared since the early 1990s. The first was the British Library
Collection (Salomon 1999), three manuscripts of which have been published to date (Salomon
2000; Allon 2001; Lenz 2003). The second consists of numerous Gāndhārī/Kharoṣṭhī manu-
script fragments which were discovered in Bamiyan, Afghanistan, along with a larger quantity
of Sanskrit/Brāhmī manuscripts; most of these were acquired by the Norwegian manuscript
collector Mr. Martin Schøyen (see Braarvig 2000, 2002, 2006). The fourth major collection
reportedly came from the Bajaur region of northern Pakistan (Khan and Khan 2004; Khan and
Strauch, forthcoming) and is being studied by scholars in Peshawar and Berlin. Several smaller
manuscript finds have also recently appeared.
The provenance of the British Library and Senior manuscripts is unknown, but accord-
ing to Salomon (1999: 20–1; 2003: 74), both collections most likely come from Haḍḍa, near
Jalalabad in eastern Afghanistan. No information is currently available that would contradict
this assessment. The Senior manuscripts were found in an earthenware pot (height 35 cm,
diameter 30 cm) that was reportedly discovered “in an underground chamber.” The pot and its
associated lid both have dated inscriptions, which were published by Salomon (2003: 74–8).
His translation of the inscription on the pot is

I gave a comparable overview of the Senior Collection at the Fourteenth International Association
of Buddhist Studies Conference, London, August 29 to September 3, 2005, in a paper entitled “Further
Observations on the Senior Manuscripts.”

For an overview of discoveries of Buddhist manuscripts from Afghanistan and Pakistan, see
Allon, forthcoming c.

In the year [twelve], in the month Avadunaka, after (*five) days; at this time [this] was
established in honor of [his] father and mother, in honor of all beings; [the donation] of
Rohaṇa, son of Mas̱umatra.
His translation of the lid inscription is
Year 12, month Avadu[naka], after 5 days, (*established?) by Rohaṇa, son of Maumatra,
in the stūpa, in honor of all beings.
These inscriptions indicate that this pot, and undoubtedly also the manuscripts it contained,
were commissioned by Rohaṇa Maumatraputra, to be “established” (pratithavi(*da)), that is,
interred, in a stūpa (thubami) as a pious act. The fact that the manuscripts are all written by
the same scribe, probably within a short period of time, and contain texts that are all relatively
homogeneous in terms of genre supports the contention that these manuscripts constitute a
commissioned collection. In contrast, the British Library manuscripts, containing a diversity
of mostly unrelated texts written by different scribes, are thought to represent a miscellaneous
collection of discarded manuscripts which were deposited in a pot that had been used previ-
ously for another purpose (Salomon 1999: 152; 2003: 77).
Once the Senior manuscripts were interred in a stūpa, they would have functioned as relics,
in this case as Dharma relics. As is well known, in contrast to bodily relics (bodily remains of
the Buddha) or contact relics (objects used by him, such as a bowl or robe), whose power is based
on their physical association with the Buddha, Dharma relics work on the principle articulated
by the Buddha that whoever sees the Dharma (the Buddha’s teaching) sees the Buddha. Like
other relics associated with the Buddha and deposited in stūpas, these manuscripts, as Dharma
relics, would have made present the Buddha, thereby transforming the stūpa which housed
them into an object of veneration and the monastic compound associated with the stūpa into a
sacred space. This in turn would have attracted pious visitors and patrons to the monastery.
2. Date of the Manuscripts

On the basis of certain features of the dating formula of the inscriptions on the pot and its
lid, Salomon (2003: 76–8) argued that the era being referred to in these inscriptions must be
that of the Kuṣāṇa emperor Kaniṣka. Adopting the date of a.d. 127–8 advanced by Harry Falk
for the accession of Kaniṣka, he proposed ca. a.d. 140 as the most likely date for these inscrip-
tions and the interment of the pot. Since the Senior manuscripts represent a commission, it is
likely that the inscriptions on the pot and its lid were written at more or less the same time as
the texts which were deposited in the pot.
In 2004 two samples of bark from the Senior manuscripts were radiocarbon-dated, pro-
ducing a result of a.d. 130–250 (2 sigma). Although this is the date at which the bark was
harvested, rather than the date when the texts were written upon the bark scrolls, the difference
between these two events is likely to be a few years at most (Allon et al. 2006: 286). Therefore,

yo … dhammaṃ passati so maṃ passati; yo maṃ passati so dhammaṃ passati (SN III 120.28–31;
cf. It 91; Mil 71).

For this practice in Gandhāra, see Salomon 1999: 58–68.

For details, see Allon et al. 2006: 284.
if the date of ca. a.d. 140 proposed by Salomon for the inscriptions is correct, the manuscripts
must have been produced between a.d. 130 and 140. Although alternative dates for Kaniṣka
and therefore for the inscriptions were entertained by Salomon (in Allon et al. 2006: 287–8),
these were generally discredited by him. According to our current assessment, a.d. 130–40
therefore appears to be the most likely date for these manuscripts.
3. Sectarian Affiliation
An indication of the sectarian affiliation of the British Library manuscripts was provided
by the inscription on the pot in which they were found, which states that the pot is a gift to
the Dharmaguptaka community. This affiliation is supported by at least one of the texts in that
collection, the Saṅgīti-sūtra commentary, which closely parallels the version of the sūtra found
in the Chinese Dīrghāgama (長阿含經, T 1 no. 1), a collection commonly thought to belong to
this school because of the order in which it deals with topics. In contrast, the inscriptions on
the Senior pot and lid lack any such sectarian reference.
When Salomon wrote his introductory article on the Senior manuscripts (Salomon 2003),
the texts in the collection had not yet been studied in detail and he could at best speculate that
“[o]n circumstantial grounds, the a priori possibilities most likely for the sectarian affiliation of
the Senior scrolls would be Dharmaguptaka or Sarvāstivādin, these being, to judge from inscrip-
tional evidence, the dominant schools in the region and period in question” (2003: 90). More
detailed research now shows that these manuscripts were most likely produced by members of
a Dharmaguptaka monastery, since several texts show close affinities with the versions of these
stories found in Chinese translations of texts thought to belong to the Dharmaguptakas. The
texts concerned are (for descriptions of these texts and the numbering system, see § 4, below)
RS (Robert Senior) 2: Sāmaññaphala-sutta (to use the Pali title), which is closest to the
version found in the Chinese translation of the Dīrghāgama
RS 18 (or possibly 15 + 18): the episode of the Buddha visiting Sujātā’s house not long after his
enlightenment, which is preserved only in the Dharmaguptaka and Mahīśāsaka Vinayas
(T 22 nos. 1428 and 1421 respectively); the Gāndhārī is closest to the Dharmaguptaka
version
RS 24 text no. 1: the episode of the brahman youth Nāla(ka) and the nāga serpent Eraka
patta/ Elāpattra, which is closest to the version found in the Dharmaguptaka Vinaya
Three further texts are similar to their counterparts preserved in the Chinese Dīrghāgama
or Dharmaguptaka Vinaya on certain key points but on the whole match them less perfectly
than is the case with the three texts just listed. They are

For the implications of the results of the dating of these manuscripts for the dating of Kaniṣka,
see Allon et al. 2006: 285–8.

For details, see Salomon 1999: 166–78.

Pali titles of texts will be preferred throughout because these are attested and generally well
known.

I presented these findings at the Thirteenth International Association of Buddhist Studies Confer-
ence, Bangkok, December 8–13, 2002, in a paper entitled “A Gāndhārī Version of the Śrāmaṇyaphala
sūtra.” See also Salomon 2006: 361–2.
RS 4A: the account of Ānanda at the Buddha’s deathbed, the Buddha consoling Ānanda,
and Ānanda’s enlightenment
RS 22 text no. 2: the Buddha’s second discourse (P Anattalakkhaṇa-sutta); the Gāndhārī is
closest to the Chinese Dharmaguptaka Vinaya and Pali versions, but not identical with
either of them
RS 24 text no. 2: the account of the merchants Tapussa and Bhallika
Finally, although the four sūtras published in the present volume do not have Dharma
guptaka parallels, the list of “limbs of enlightenment” (P bodhipakkhiyadhamma) found in
one of them most closely matches the version of the list found in the Chinese Dīrghāgama and
Dharmaguptaka Vinaya (see § 1.2.5.3).
Even the first three texts listed above (RS 2, 18, 24 no. 1) do not match their parallels in the
Chinese Dīrghāgama or Dharmaguptaka Vinaya in every respect. This is not surprising, how-
ever, since there is ample evidence that slightly different versions of stories were transmitted by
the same school. In the case of the texts under review, a factor that may have contributed to the
differences encountered is the possible or even likely differences in time and/or place of origin
for our Gāndhārī texts and the Indic originals from which the Chinese translations were made.
The above texts represent a small portion of the forty-one texts preserved in the Senior
Collection. The parallels (Pali, Chinese, Sanskrit, Tibetan) to the remaining texts in the collec-
tion are for the most part found within nikāyas/āgamas or texts attributed to schools other than
the Dharmaguptakas. For example, most of these parallels are found in the Pali Saṃyutta- or
Majjhima-nikāya and/or in the Chinese Saṃyuktāgamas or Madhyamāgama. Any conclusions
as to the sectarian affiliation of these Gāndhārī texts are thereby restrained by the limited
number of works available to us that can be attributed to the Dharmaguptakas. Of course, this
applies equally to the literature of other schools; the above findings may well be different had
we at our disposal a larger proportion of the texts transmitted by the Śrāvakayāna schools.
In his detailed comparison of the four Gāndhārī sūtras published in this volume with their
parallels (ch. 2 below), most notably those found in the Pali Saṃyutta-nikāya and Chinese
Saṃyuktāgamas, Glass concludes that the text of the Gāndhārī sūtras is “not identical with any
other tradition but differs from all of the available parallels both in the inclusion of episodes
and in the details of the wording,” but that, in “almost all cases, Pali provides the closest
match to the Gāndhārī” (§ 2.3; see also § 2.4). The first part of his conclusion holds true for
all of the texts in the Senior Collection: none match their parallels in other languages in every
respect. However, as shown above, the Gāndhārī texts tend to exhibit greater similarities with
Dharmaguptaka versions when they are available. With reference to the second part of his
conclusion, although several of the sūtras in the Senior Collection whose parallels are found
in the Pali Saṃyutta-nikāya and Chinese Saṃyuktāgama(s) tend to be closer to the Pali than
to the Chinese version (e.g., RS 22 no. 6), further research is needed to see whether this is a
consistent pattern.
4. Catalog of Texts
In this section each manuscript is briefly described, followed by a list of the main parallels
in other languages, a brief summary of the text, and other comments where appropriate. This
is intended as a preliminary catalog of the material. The parallels listed, for example, are not
exhaustive but are sufficient for the identification of the text, its genre, and its classification
within the literature of other schools. The order in which the parallels are listed is (1) Pali,
(2) Sanskrit, (3) Chinese, and occasionally (4) Tibetan.10
As discussed in chapter 3, the scroll or scroll fragments that constitute the Senior Col-
lection came to the British Library in twenty-five packets, which were numbered by the con-
servators as they were opened (RS 1 to 25). The numbering of the scrolls or scroll fragments
therefore does not necessarily indicate a special relationship between the texts preserved on
them, although sometimes this is the case (e.g., RS 6, 7, and 8). In most cases the contents of a
packet represented the remnants of one scroll. However, once the manuscripts were conserved
and studied in greater detail, it became evident that in a few cases the remnants of a scroll
had been wrapped in separate packets (e.g., RS 16 and 23A). Packet no. 25 contained numer-
ous small miscellaneous fragments rather than the remnants of a single scroll. These were
conserved in one glass frame (RS 25). Without further study it is not possible to determine
the exact number of scrolls represented in the collection, although it is likely to be close to the
twenty-four recognized to date.
In some cases sections of a longer or larger manuscript were conserved in more than one
glass frame. In several cases the small fragments that resulted from unraveling a manuscript
were conserved in a different glass frame from the main fragment. These are sometimes re-
ferred to as “debris fragments” and “debris frame.”11 Where there are multiple frames associ-
ated with a scroll or scroll fragment, these are designated frame 1, 2, etc. (there are no more
than four frames associated with any one fragment). For example, in the case of RS 4, the four
frames are referred to as RS 4 frame 1, RS 4 frame 2, and so on; or, simply, as frame 4.1, frame
4.2, etc. As noted above, the Senior manuscripts are conserved in a total of thirty-four glass
frames.
The scribe appears to have written on the recto and verso of all scrolls except RS 14 (the
Anavatapta-gāthā) and RS 7 and 8, which are written only on the recto.
Many of the texts in the collection were first identified by Richard Salomon, particularly
by means of the Pali parallels. I have identified the remainder, with the exception of a few that
have evaded identification due to their fragmentary condition. The identification of the paral-
lels to the texts in the Senior Collection is the result of the combined efforts of several members
of the Early Buddhist Manuscripts Project (EBMP); Tien-chang Shih was particularly helpful
with the Chinese material. In the list of texts below, I have indicated only the individual who
first identified the text.
RS 1 + 3 (frames 1 and 3): RS 1 represents the left and right portions of a scroll, the central
vertical strip of which is missing. RS 3 represents the left portion of a separate section of bark.
As these preserve the remnant of one text, a sūtra (identified by Salomon), they have been
cataloged as one (RS 1 + 3).12 Both fragments are in poor condition.
Parallels: (1) Pali: Dhammacetiya-sutta, “Sutta on the monuments to the Dhamma,”13 no. 89
of the Majjhima-nikāya (II 118–25); cf. Aṅguttara-nikāya no. 10.30 (V 65–9). (2) Sanskrit: none.
10
For the most part, the Tibetan parallels have not been listed where Sanskrit and Chinese versions
are available.
11
For the debris fragments associated with RS 5, see § 3.1. These debris fragments are given the
siglum “D” in the current study by Glass.
12
Cf. RS 7 + 8 and RS 16 + 23A.
13
Following Ñāṇamoli and Bodhi 2002: 728.
(3) Chinese: the Fǎ zhuāngyán jīng 法莊嚴經, “Sūtra on the ornaments of the Dharma,” no. 213
of the Madhyamāgama, Zhōng āhán jīng 中阿含經 (T 1 no. 26 pp. 795b17–797c6); cf. sūtra no.
38.10 of the Ekottarikāgama, Zēngyī āhán jīng 增壹阿含經 (T 2 no. 125 pp. 724b28–725b13).
The account is also found in both the Chinese and Tibetan translations of the Mūlasarvāstivāda
Vinaya.14
Summary: King Praeṇao (P Pasenadi/Skt. Prasenajit) visits the Buddha, shows extraor-
dinary respect, and enumerates his reasons for his showing such respect, which amount to the
superiority of Buddha and his monks to other ascetics.
RS 2 (frame 2): This relatively long manuscript (originally a little over 50 cm in length) is
in reasonable condition and contains the beginning of a long sūtra (identified by Salomon).
Parallels: (1) Pali: Sāmaññaphala-sutta, “Sutta on the fruits of the homeless life,” no. 2
of the Dīgha-nikāya (I 47–86). (2) Sanskrit: the sūtra is preserved in the Dīrghāgama manu-
script that recently came to light (see Hartmann 2000, 2002, 2004); it also forms part of the
Saṅghabhedavastu of the Mūlasarvāstivāda Vinaya (ed. Gnoli, II 216.8–254.4). (3) Chinese:
Shāménguǒ jīng 沙門果經, “Sūtra on the fruits of the homeless life,” sūtra no. 27 of the
Dīrghāgama, Cháng āhán jīng 長阿含經 (T 1 no. 1 pp. 107a20–109c21); sūtra no. 43.7 of the
Ekottarikāgama, Zēngyī āhán jīng 增壹阿含經 (T 2 no. 125 pp. 762a7–764b12); an independent
translation (T 1 no. 22 pp. 270c28–276b6) titled Jìzhìguǒ jīng 寂志果經, “[Sūtra on] the fruits
of the life of one intent on tranquility” (MacQueen 1988: 51 n. 75). The text is also included in
the Chinese and Tibetan translations of the Saṅghabhedavastu of the Mūlasarvāstivāda Vinaya
(for references, see MacQueen 1988: 15–6, 18).
Summary: (Preserved in the Gāndhārī:) King Ajaḏaśastu (P Ajātasattu/Skt. Ajātaśatru)
asks his courtiers what activity would be suitable for the full-moon night. Various activities are
recommended, including visiting the six heretical teachers (only four are listed). On the recom-
mendation of Jivae (P/Skt. Jīvaka), he visits the Buddha. (Based on the parallels:) The king
asks the Buddha about the fruits of life as an ascetic (P samaṇa/Skt. śramaṇa), and the Buddha
sets out the path and benefits. The king becomes an upāsaka and declares his sin (patricide).
The Gāndhārī preserves only the initial events, up to the king’s visit to the Buddha. The
rest of the story, which represents the bulk of the text in the parallel versions, would have
required several more scrolls to complete. However, it is quite likely that the sūtra was never
completed (see § 5 below).
RS 3: See RS 1 + 3 above.
RS 4 subfragment A (frames 4.1–2 and 4.4): Frames 4.1 and 4.2 preserve the remnants of
one scroll, most of the vertical central strip of which is missing. Frame 4.4 contains numerous
small fragments belonging to this scroll and possibly also to subfragment B (frame 4.3).
This scroll records the following related events (identified by Allon), numbered here 1 to 4: (1)
the Buddha tells Ānanda of his interaction with various assemblies of people (in the parallel ver-
sions this occurs in Vesālī/Vaiśālī); (2) the Buddha is in Kusinārā/Kuśinagarī (or goes there) and
lies between the twin sal trees; Ānanda laments the Buddha’s impending death; (3) the Buddha
14
See Anālayo and Bucknell 2006: 228.
consoles Ānanda and predicts his enlightenment; (4) Ānanda achieves enlightenment, which in
the parallel versions occurs at the time of the first saṃgīti, shortly after the Buddha’s death.
Parallels: Events 1, 2, and 3 are found in texts which cover the period of the Buddha’s
death, such as the Mahāparinirvāṇa-sūtras and Vinaya texts; event 4 is preserved in the
Vinayas, Pali commentaries, and elsewhere. Several versions of the Mahāparinirvāṇa-sūtra are
known, appearing as part of the Dīgha-nikāya/Dīrghāgamas (Pali, Sanskrit, Chinese) and also
as an independent sūtra in the case of the Chinese. The parallels are too numerous and com-
plicated to list here in full. The Pali (MPS-P, referred to by the section numbers of the Ee) and
Sanskrit (MPS-Skt.) parallels to the first three events found in the Mahāparinirvāṇa-sūtras are
(1) MPS-P §§ 3.21–3 (DN II 109–10 = AN IV 307–8); MPS-Skt. §§ 23.4–6; (2) MPS-P §§ 5.1,
5.13 (DN II 137, 143–4); MPS-Skt. §§ 32.4–19; (3) MPS-P §§ 5.14–6 (DN II 144–6); MPS-Skt.
§§ 32.22–42. The Pali Vinaya version of event 4 is found in the Cullavagga (II 286).
Summary: See above.
Further research is needed to fully understand this text and the relationship between its
sections. Given that in virtually all the parallels in other languages numerous events occur
between events 1 and 2 and between 3 and 4, it is possible that the text on this scroll represents
a selection of closely related episodes, perhaps dealing with Ānanda and his enlightenment
(events 2–4 at least).
RS 4 subfragment B (frame 4.3): Frame 4.3 preserves the remnant of the left side of a
scroll containing a small amount of illegible text. Since it has not been possible to establish the
relationship between this fragment and the main scroll (frames 4.1–2), the two are treated here
as separate subfragments (A and B).
RS 5 (frames 5.1–2): Frame 5.1 contains a well-preserved scroll; frame 5.2 contains numerous
small fragments belonging to it. The scroll contains four sūtras (sūtras 2–4 identified by Salomon),
which are the subject of the current volume. The last sūtra on the scroll is incomplete.
Text no. 1 (aña-sutra;15 see ch. 8)
Parallels: No complete parallel.
Summary: The Buddha teaches the four perceptions (G aña/P saññā/Skt. saṃjñā): the
perception of foulness, death, repulsiveness of food, and nondelight in the entire world.
Text no. 2 (Ṇatuspahu-sutra; see ch. 9)
Parallels: (1) Pali: Natumhāka-sutta, “Sutta on what is not yours,” no. 22.33 (Khandha-
saṃyutta) of the Saṃyutta-nikāya (III 33–4). (2) Sanskrit: none. (3) Chinese: sūtra no. 269 of
the Saṃyuktāgama, Zá āhán jīng 雜阿含經 (T 2 no. 99 p. 70b1–c1); for further parallels, see
chapter 9.
Summary: The Buddha tells the monks that for their own benefit and happiness they should
abandon what is not theirs, namely, the five aggregates (P khandha). The Buddha illustrates
15
The sūtras presented in this volume have been given titles in Gāndhārī to facilitate reference.
These reconstructed titles have been based on the titles of the parallel texts in Pali or Chinese. In the
case of this first sūtra, which lacks a direct Pali parallel, the title comes from a key word in the text,
which is also used as a title for similar sūtras in Pali.
10 Four Gāndhārī Saṃyuktāgama Sūtras
this with a simile: the monks should regard the aggregates as they would regard the firewood,
kindling, etc., taken by people from the park in which the monks live.
Text no. 3 (Ṣadha-sutra; see ch. 10)
Parallels: (1) Pali: Kulaputtena-dukkhā- or Nibbidābahula-sutta, “Sutta on [living] full of
disgust,” no. 22.146 (Khandha-saṃyutta) of the Saṃyutta-nikāya (III 179). (2) Sanskrit: none.
(3) Chinese: sūtra no. 48 of the Saṃyuktāgama, Zá āhán jīng 雜阿含經 (T 2 no. 99 p. 12a18–
26); for further parallels, see chapter 10.
Summary: The Buddha tells the monks that there is a right method (G aṇudharma/P anu
dhamma) for a noble son (G kulaputra) who has gone forth because of faith; namely, he should
constantly dwell in a state of disgust (G ṇivriḏa/P nibbidā) with regard to the five aggregates.
Understanding the aggregates, one is released from them and from birth, old age, suffering,
and so on.
Text no. 4 (*Vasijaḍa-sutra;16 see ch. 11)
Parallels: (1) Pali: Vāsijaṭa-sutta, “Sutta on [the simile of] the adze handle,” no. 22.101
(Khandha-saṃyutta) of the Saṃyutta-nikāya (III 152–3). (2) Sanskrit: none. (3) Chinese: sūtra
no. 263 of the Saṃyuktāgama, Zá āhán jīng 雜阿含經 (T 2 no. 99 p. 67a22–c3); for further
parallels, see chapter 11.
Summary: The Buddha tells the monks that destruction of the taints (G aava/P āsava)
is for one who knows and sees each of the five aggregates, their arising, and their ceasing. A
monk asks the Buddha how the mind of a monk is not released from the taints; the Buddha
answers that it is on account of not cultivating wholesome states (G kuśala dharma), namely,
the “limbs of enlightenment” (P bodhipakkhiyadhamma); he illustrates this with the simile of
the chicken whose eggs will not hatch if she does not incubate them properly.
The Gāndhārī text finishes partway through the simile. In the Pali version the positive is
then presented, illustrated by two further similes.
RS 6 (frame 6): This small piece of blank bark (ca. 14 × 11 cm) likely originally formed
the top of RS 7, which it matches in size and quality of bark. This is supported by the fact that
it came to the British Library in the same packet as RS 7 + 8. A fragment from this frame was
radiocarbon-dated (see above).
RS 7 + 8 (frames 7 and 8): These two separate scrolls in excellent condition contain a
list of texts, some of which have survived in the present collection. Since the list on RS 8 is
a continuation of that on RS 7, these two scrolls are cataloged as one (RS 7 + 8). See § 5 for
discussion of the contents.
RS 9 (frame 9): Very little writing remains or is legible on the recto of this badly preserved
right side of a scroll, but with the aid of infrared images, the remnants of approximately eleven
lines are legible on the middle section of the verso. The text has not been identified. It has
therefore not been possible to determine whether this fragment belongs to another scroll in the
collection or is the remnant of a separate scroll.
16
This title has been reconstructed from P vāsijaṭa. However, since the simile of the adze handle
(vāsijaṭa) comes at the end of this sūtra, this term is not actually preserved on this manuscript, nor has
it yet been noticed anywhere else in Gāndhārī; therefore, it has been prefixed with an asterisk.
Introduction: The Senior Manuscripts 11
RS 10 (frame 10): This remnant is the left half of a scroll, the top of which is missing. It
preserves parts of one sūtra (identified by Allon). Much of the text is difficult to read, even with
the aid of infrared images.
Parallels: (1) Pali: most likely the Saṅkhārupapatti-sutta (v.l. Saṅkhāruppatti-), “Sutta on
the reappearance by aspiration,”17 no. 120 of the Majjhima-nikāya (III 99–103); cf. AN IV
239–41 and DN III 258–60 (part of Saṅgīti-sutta). (2) Sanskrit: none. (3) Chinese: Yìxíng jīng
意行經, “Sūtra on aspirations (P saṅkhāra),” sūtra no. 168 of the Madhyamāgama, Zhōng āhán
jīng 中阿含經 (T 1 no. 26 pp. 700b–701b).18
Summary: According to the Pali version, the Buddha teaches the monks rebirth accord-
ing to aspirations (saṅkhārupapatti; v.l. ~uppatti). Endowed with faith (saddhā), virtue (sīla),
learning (suta), generosity (cāga), and wisdom (paññā), a monk can develop the wish to be
reborn in a certain state, and because of his aspirations he will be reborn as such. The list of
states begins with rebirth as a khattiya, brāhmaṇa, or gahapati and progresses up through all
the various levels of gods to the Nevasaññānāsaññāyatanūpagā. Or finally, based on his faith,
etc., he can attain the destruction of the taints (āsava). Then he will not be reborn at all.
The fragment preserves remnants of the sūtra up to Dasasahasso Brahmā (MN III 101).
RS 11 (frames 11.1–3): These are remnants of a relatively long manuscript that has com-
pletely broken up into smaller fragments. At least fourteen short sūtras of the mixed prose and
verse genre (identified by Allon) are preserved. The text at the bottom of the verso, which may
represent another sūtra, has not been identified.
Parallels: (1) Pali: Vana-saṃyutta (9th saṃyutta; sutta nos. 9.1–14) of the Saṃyutta-nikāya
(I 197–205). (2) Sanskrit: none. (3) Chinese: sūtra nos. 1331–44 of the Saṃyuktāgama, Zá āhán
jīng 雜阿含經 (T 2 no. 99 pp. 367c–370b); sūtra nos. 351–64 of the second Saṃyuktāgama,
Biéyì zá āhán jīng 別譯雜阿含經 (T 2 no. 100 pp. 489b–492a).
Summary: Each sūtra in this collection (P saṃyutta) depicts more or less the same set of
events: a monk (or some monks) lives in a certain forest grove; there is some fault in his prac-
tice or attitude, and out of compassion for him and in order to spur him on to better practice,
a deity (P devatā) comes to him and utters one or more verses; the monk exerts himself and
becomes an arhat (lacking in the Pali).
The order of the sūtras in each version (Gāndhārī, Pali, Chinese) is different.
RS 12 (frames 12.1–2): This is the left half of a manuscript, the upper section of which is
missing. It is one of the longest in the collection and contains one sūtra, which is reasonably
legible (identified by Salomon).
Parallels: (1) Cūḷagosiṅga-sutta, “Shorter sutta [set] in the Gosiṅga [forest],” no. 31 of the
Majjhima-nikāya (I 205–11); a section of the sutta appears in the Upakkilesa-sutta, MN no. 128
(II 155–7) and in the Mahāvagga of the Vinaya-piṭaka (I 350–2). (2) Sanskrit: none. (3) Chi-
nese: Niújiǎo suōluólín jīng 牛角娑羅林經, “Sūtra [set] in the Gosiṅga sal-tree forest,” no. 185
of the Madhyamāgama, Zhōng āhán jīng 中阿含經 (T 1 no. 26 pp. 729b28–731a28); cf. sūtra
no. 24.8 of the Ekottarikāgama, Zēngyī āhán jīng 增壹阿含經 (T 2 no. 125 pp. 629a15–630a6)
and Chángshòu wáng běnqǐ jīng 長壽王本起經, MĀ no. 72 (T 1 no. 26 p. 536a17–c16).
17
Following Ñāṇamoli and Bodhi 2002: 959.
18
Referred to as a partial parallel to MN no. 120 by Anālayo and Bucknell (2006: 230, 242 n. 56).
Summary: The Gāndhārī begins with a description of some monks who live in harmony
(parallel to the Chinese Ekottarikāgama version): presumably the monks are Aṇarudha (P Anu
ruddha), Naḍia (P Nandiya), and Kibhira (P Kimbila), as in the remainder of the sūtra. The
Buddha visits them and asks whether they are well supported and live in harmony. He asks
Aṇarudha whether there is an ease of living higher than this, and Aṇarudha describes the
absorptions (P jhāna). The Buddha departs and a deity tells the Buddha that it is a gain for the
Vajjis that these three monks live in their territory. The Buddha confirms this and states that
whoever remembers these three will benefit. The deity’s proclamation is passed on up through
the various classes of gods.
RS 13 (frame 13): The manuscript is in reasonable condition. It contains one incomplete

sūtra (identified by Salomon), the text ending partway through the description of the fourth of
seven things. If the remainder of the text was written on another scroll, it has not survived.
Parallels: (1) Pali: Veḷudvāreyya-sutta, “Sutta concerning the inhabitants of Veḷudvāra,”
no. 55.7 (Sotāpatti-saṃyutta) of the Saṃyutta-nikāya (V 352–6). (2) Sanskrit: none. (3) Chi-
nese: sūtra no. 1044 of the Saṃyuktāgama, Zá āhán jīng 雜阿含經 (T 2 no. 99 p. 273b9–c7);
cf. sūtras 1042 and 1043.
Summary: The residents of Veḍudala (P Veḷudvāra) hear that the Buddha has arrived in
town. They tell the Buddha that they desire sons, rebirth in heaven, etc., and ask him to preach
the Dharma so that they can attain these things. Instead, the Buddha preaches the dharmapaïao
(P dhammapariyāya), endowed with which they will know that they have escaped rebirth in
bad states and are Stream Enterers (G soḏavaṇa/P sotāpanna); these are the seven (only four
survive in the Gāndhārī) virtues (not killing, not stealing, etc.).
RS 14 (frame 14): This is the lower right side of a scroll in relatively poor condition. It con-
tains the end of the introductory verses and part of the first chapter (the verses of Mahākāśyapa)
of the Anavatapta-gāthā (identified by Salomon). This fragment and the Gāndhārī Anavatapta-
gāthā text preserved in the British Library Collection (Fragment 1) are currently being prepared
for publication by Salomon (forthcoming a).
Parallels (entries under a are independent texts; entries under b are those incorporated into
the Mūlasarvāstivāda Vinaya): (1) Pali: no complete parallel, some sections are quoted in the
Nettippakaraṇa and Apadāna. (2) Sanskrit: (a) Turfan fragments (ed. Bechert 1961); (b) Gilgit
fragments (ed. Bechert 1961; Wille 1990: 70–9). (3) Chinese: (a) Fó wǔbǎi dìzǐ zì shuō běnqǐ
jīng 佛五百弟子自說本起經 (T 4 no. 199 p. 190a–b22); (b) T 24 no. 1448 p. 78a24–b27. (4)
Tibetan: (b) Q 41 no. 1030, 224b1–226a5 (ed. Hofinger 1982: 46–8).
Summary: Following the introductory verses, Mahākāśyapa (G Kaśava) relays the actions
and events (karmic history) that brought him to enlightenment under the Buddha.
The Gāndhārī text finishes at the bottom of the recto of this scroll partway through
Mahākāśyapa’s verses. It is possible that the scribe never actually completed the remainder of
Mahākāśyapa’s verses and the Anavatapta verses of the Buddha and other monks listed in RS
7 + 8 (Salomon 2003: 82).
RS 15 (frame 15): What remains of the text on this small and poorly preserved fragment is
difficult to read. Some of its wording, particularly [bhayava uruvela] = P bhagavā uruvela-, “the
Bhagavat (was living) in Uruvelā,” suggests that it depicts an event that occurred immediately
after the Buddha’s enlightenment. The fragment may therefore belong to RS 18, the text of
which depicts the conversion of Sujātā and her family at this time. However, if /// [aa mu]
? [?/l. ?/d.] ṇa g̱a ra [?/y.] ? /// 19 is to be read as [aa mu](*ca)[l](*i)[d(*a) ṇag̱ara[y](*a),
the equivalent of P atha mucalindo nāgarājā, then the text probably recounts the episode in
which Mucalinda protects the Buddha from the unseasonable rain cloud just after the Buddha’s
enlightenment (e.g., Vin I 3). In that case either the fragment is the remnant of a separate
manuscript or both stories were written on the same manuscript (and, therefore, RS 15 is part
of RS 18).
RS 16: See RS 16 + 23A below.
RS 17 (frame 17): This lower right portion of a scroll contains the remnants of two sūtras.
A miscellaneous fragment preserved with RS 9 (frame 9) may belong to the top of the recto
(= bottom of the verso) of this scroll and contain the conclusion to the second sūtra.
Text no. 1 (identified by Allon)
Parallels: (1) Pali: the first part of the Gāndhārī sūtra, the simile of the river, is the same
as the first part of the Nadī-sutta, “Sutta on [the simile of] the river,” no. 22.93 (Khandha-
saṃyutta) of the Saṃyutta-nikāya (III 137–8), while the second part is parallel to a passage
in the Pali Gaddula-sutta, no. 22.99 (Khandha-saṃyutta) of the Saṃyutta-nikāya (II 150).
(2) Sanskrit: none. (3) Chinese: sūtra no. 268 of the Saṃyuktāgama, Zá āhán jīng 雜阿含經
(T 2 no. 99 p. 70a12–29), provides an imperfect parallel to both the Gāndhārī sūtra and the Pali
Nadī-sutta.
Summary: All that remains are traces of the simile found in the Pali Nadī-sutta, which
illustrates how one who sees the five aggregates as self comes to calamity, and a concluding
statement that such a person is not released from the aggregates and is therefore not released
from birth, old age, etc.
Text no. 2 (identified by Salomon)
Parallels: (1) Pali: Tissa-sutta, “Sutta concerning Tissa,” no. 22.84 (Khandha-saṃyutta)
of the Saṃyutta-nikāya (III 106–9). (2) Sanskrit: none. (3) Chinese: sūtra no. 271 of the
Saṃyuktāgama, Zá āhán jīng 雜阿含經 (T 2 no. 99 p. 71a4–c13).
Summary: The monk Tiśa (P Tissa) expresses his dissatisfaction with living the religious
life. The Buddha questions Tiśa and makes him see that suffering arises for one who has lust,
etc., for each of the five aggregates. The Buddha recites the simile of the one who knows the
way to a pleasant place and shows the way to one who does not know it; he then identifies
himself with the former.
RS 18 (frame 18): This fragment is the lower right portion of a poorly preserved manu-
script. It contains part of the description of an event that occurred soon after the Buddha’s
enlightenment: the conversion of Sujātā and her family (identified by Allon). The text finishes
at the bottom of the verso partway through the narrative. The remainder may have been written
on another scroll, if at all. RS 15 may contain further portions of this story.
Parallels: The story is preserved only in the Chinese translations of the Vinayas of the Mahī
śāsakas (T 22 no. 1421 p. 103b32–c6) and Dharmaguptakas (T 22 no. 1428 p. 786a10–b7).
19
?/l., for example, indicates that the reading of the akṣara is uncertain, but that l. is one possibility.
Summary: The Buddha makes several visits to a brahman’s house for alms, converting
different family members on each occasion. Based on the parallels, this includes Sujātā, who
is described as the first upāsikā.
RS 19 (frame 19): This well-preserved manuscript contains one complete sūtra (identified
by Salomon). This manuscript is currently being edited by Tien-chang Shih for her doctoral
thesis (University of Washington).
Parallels: (1) Pali: Dārukkhandha-sutta (1), “The [first] sutta on [the simile of] the [float-
ing] log,” no. 35.241 according to Be and Bodhi (2000: 1241–3) or 35.200 according to Ee
(Saḷāyatana-saṃyutta) of the Saṃyutta-nikāya (IV 179–81). (2) Sanskrit: Bhaiṣajyavastu of
Mūlasarvāstivāda Vinaya (MSV I 48–53). (3) Chinese: sūtra no. 1174 of the Saṃyuktāgama,
Zá āhán jīng 雜阿含經 (T 2 no. 99 pp. 314c7–315b6); cf. sūtra no. 43.3 of the Ekottarikāgama,
Zēngyī āhán jīng 增壹阿含經 (T 2 no. 125 pp. 758c12–759a28) and others. The text is also
included in the Chinese and Tibetan translations of the Bhaiṣajyavastu of the Mūlasarvāstivāda
Vinaya. The Chinese version is T 24 no. 1448 pp. 48c10–49c1.
Summary: A monk asks the Buddha for instruction. The Buddha sees a log floating down
the Ganges and states that it will flow to the ocean if it is not stopped by any of eight things
(getting stuck on the near shore, far shore, etc.). Similarly, a monk will attain nirvāṇa if he is
not thwarted by any of eight things (six internal sense faculties, six external sense faculties,
etc.), that is, based on his right view. The cowherd Ṇada (P/Skt. Nanda) hears this, states that
he is free from these things, and asks to become a monk. He soon becomes an arhat.
RS 20 (frame 20): This well-preserved manuscript contains two complete sūtras.

Text no. 1
Parallels: No complete parallel has been identified. The topic suggests that this sūtra would
most naturally be located in a Saḷāyatana-saṃyutta.
Summary: A brahman asks the Buddha about the causes of happiness and suffering in
the world. The Buddha states that happiness and suffering result from six causes: eye and
eye contact; ear and ear contact; and so on. The Buddha illustrates this with the simile of the
gatekeeper (cf., e.g., SN V 160; AN V 194–5; DN II 83). The brahman declares his conversion
to lay status.
Parallels: (1) Pali: Mahāpariḷāha-sutta, “Sutta on the great burning,” no. 56.43 (Sacca-
saṃyutta) of the Saṃyutta-nikāya (V 450–2) and other similar suttas. (2) Sanskrit: SHT II 51
f1 + 2 R1f. preserves a small portion of this text. (3) Chinese: sūtra no. 422 of the Saṃyuktāgama,
Zá āhán jīng 雜阿含經 (T 2 no. 99 p. 111b10–24); cf. sūtra nos. 421 and 423.
Summary: The Buddha tells the monks that there are hells of great burning where the bodies
of beings born there are heated and cooked, just as an iron ball that is heated all day. A monk
asks the Buddha whether there is a greater and more fearful hell than this. The Buddha says
there is, namely, that when a monk or brahman does not understand the Four Noble Truths, he
will construct formations (P saṅkhāra) conducive to birth, old age, etc., and thereby experience
the burning of birth, old age, etc. He exhorts the monks to apply themselves to the Four Truths.
RS 21 (frame 21): The frame contains a small right-hand section of a scroll. The small
amount of text is difficult to read and has not been identified. It is therefore unclear whether
this fragment belongs to another scroll preserved in the collection or is the remnant of a scroll
that, otherwise, has not survived.
RS 22 (frames 22.1–4): This manuscript is in relatively good condition and is among the
longest in the collection (ca. 87 cm for the reconstructed scroll). It contains the remnants of six
texts, at least five of which are sūtras.
Text no. 1
Parallels: Only a small portion of the end of the text survives. The identification of the
text is not certain, but what remains is similar to the ending of the Pali Dhanuggaha-sutta,
“Sutta on [the simile of] the archers,” no. 20.6 (Opamma-saṃyutta) of the Saṃyutta-nikāya
(II 265–6). A Sanskrit parallel to this Pali sutta is SHT II 504 V2–R5. The Chinese parallel
given by Akanuma (1929: 65, 204), sūtra no. 612 of the Saṃyuktāgama, Zá āhán jīng 雜阿含經
(T 2 no. 99 p. 171c6–18), in fact deals with a different topic and uses a different archery simile.
The correct parallel is sūtra no. 1257 (p. 345a12–29).
Summary: Given the likely Pali parallel, the topic is probably the fleeting nature of “forma-
tions of life” (P āyusaṅkhāra). What remains of the text appears to be part of the description
of the gods going in front of the vimāna of the sun and moon.
Parallels: (1) Pali: Anattalakkhaṇa-sutta, “Sutta on the characteristic of not-self,” no. 22.59
(Khandha-saṃyutta) of the Saṃyutta-nikāya (III 66–8); Mahāvagga of the Vinaya-piṭaka
(I 13–4). (2) Sanskrit: According to Jin-il Chung (private communication, 2007), Sanskrit frag-
ments of an independent sūtra are found among the Pelliot (Bleu) fragments: 441.1–2 r1–v3;
414+57 r1–v2; 76 recto. It also occurs within several larger texts, including Catuṣpariṣat-sūtra
§ 15 (see also pp. 448–9) and the Saṅghabhedavastu of the Mūlasarvāstivāda Vinaya (ed. Gnoli)
I 138–9; cf. Mahāvastu (ed. Senart) III 337.7–340.17 and Avadānaśataka (ed. Speijer) II 168.9–
70.5. (3) Chinese: found as both an independent sūtra and within larger texts. Examples are
sūtra no. 34 of the Saṃyuktāgama, Zá āhán jīng 雜阿含經 (T 2 no. 99 pp. 7c13–8a4), and
Wǔyùn jiēkōng jīng 五蘊皆空經, “Sūtra on the emptiness of the five aggregates” (T 2 no. 102
p. 499c). Vinaya versions include Mahīśāsaka (T 22 no. 1421 p. 105a15–25), Dharmaguptaka
(T 22 no. 1428 p. 789a12–b4). The story also occurs in the Chinese and Tibetan translations of
the Mūlasarvāstivāda Vinaya. The Chinese version is T 24 no. 1450 p. 128b16–c12.
Summary: The Buddha addresses five monks just after his enlightenment. Through a se-
ries of questions and answers the Buddha shows the not-self (G aṇatva/P anattā) characteristic
of the five aggregates, as well as their impermanent and suffering nature. The noble disciple
is disgusted with them, dispassionate, and therefore released. While this discourse was being
given, the minds of the five monks were released from the taints (G aava/P āsava).
Parallels:20 (1) Pali: Dutiyacchiggaḷayuga-sutta, “Second sutta on [the simile of] the hole in
the yoke,” no. 56.48 (Sacca-saṃyutta) of the Saṃyutta-nikāya (V 456–7). (2) Sanskrit: none.
(3) Chinese: no complete parallel; the simile occurs in sūtra no. 406 of the Saṃyuktāgama, Zá
āhán jīng 雜阿含經 (T 2 no. 99 p. 108c6–20).
Summary: By means of the simile of the blind turtle, which surfaces every hundred years,
and the likelihood of its inserting its neck into a yoke with a single hole that is floating on a
20
For discussion of the simile of the turtle and the hole in the yoke, see Allon, forthcoming b.
vast ocean, the Buddha illustrates the rarity of the occurrence of the optimal conditions under
which one may attain enlightenment. The conditions are the presence of a Tathāgata, his teach-
ing the Dharma, and one’s birth as a human being. The subject most worthy of attention when
these conditions are in place is the Four Noble Truths.
Parallels: (1) Pali: Uppāda-sutta, “Sutta on arising,” no. 22.30 (Khandha-saṃyutta) of the
Saṃyutta-nikāya (III 31–2) = Khandha-sutta, “Sutta on the aggregates,” no. 26.10 (Uppāda-
saṃyutta; SN III 231). (2) Sanskrit: none. (3) Chinese: sūtra no. 78 of the Saṃyuktāgama, Zá
āhán jīng 雜阿含經 (T 2 no. 99 p. 20a3–9).
Summary: The Buddha tells the monks that the arising, continuation, and manifestation of
each of the five aggregates are the arising, etc., of suffering, disease, old age, and death. The
cessation, etc., of each of the five aggregates are the cessation, etc., of suffering, etc.
Text no. 5
Parallels: This text, which consists of a series of verses (or perhaps verse mixed with prose),
remains unidentified. Although much of the wording is familiar, only one verse (ll. 73–4) has
a Pali parallel. This is the second verse of the Akitti-jātaka, Jātaka no. 480 (IV 240.1–2). The
overall sentiment of the text appears to be in keeping with the story and verses of this Jātaka.
Summary: The main ideas expressed in what survives of this text are disgust (G ṇiviḏa/
P nibbidā), not being busy, (disregarding) wealth, contemplating impermanence, cutting off
bonds, and that rebirth, death, and the like are suffering.
Parallels: (1) Pali: Puppha-sutta, “Sutta on [the simile of the lotus] flowers,” no. 22.94
(Khandha-saṃyutta) of the Saṃyutta-nikāya (III 138–40). (2) Sanskrit: none. (3) Chinese:
sūtra no. 37 of the Saṃyuktāgama, Zá āhán jīng 雜阿含經 (T 2 no. 99 p. 8b15–c7).
Summary: The Buddha tells the monks that he does not dispute with the world but that the
world disputes with him. Both he and the wise consider the five aggregates to be impermanent,
suffering, and subject to change. He cannot do anything for one who does not understand this
when it is being declared by him. In conclusion, the Buddha gives the simile of the lotus in
water: just as a lotus is not defiled by the water it grows in, so the Tathāgata is not defiled by
the world.
RS 16 + 23 subfragment A (frames 16 and 23.1): Fragments 16 (frame 16) and 23A (frame
23.1) are the remnants of one scroll, the former representing part of the right side, the latter the
lower left portion. They are therefore cataloged here together (RS 16 + 23A). Both are in poor
condition. The recto and verso each contain a narrative text, the parallels to which are found
close to one another in the Vinayas (identified by Allon). Due to its fragmentary nature, it is
not possible to determine how much of each story was originally preserved on this scroll. For
RS 23 subfragment B, see below.
Text no. 1 (recto)
Parallels: (1) Pali: Cullavagga § 7.2.2–4 of the Vinaya-piṭaka (II 185–7), referred
to as Devadattavatthu and Pañcasatthukathā by Be; sutta no. 100 of the Pañcaka-nipāta of
the Aṅguttara-nikāya (III 122–6). (2) Sanskrit: forms part of the Saṅghabhedavastu of the
Mūlasarvāstivāda Vinaya (ed. Gnoli, II 73–8). (3) Chinese: Vinaya versions include Mahīśāsaka
(T 22 no. 1421 p. 18a1–22), Dharmaguptaka (T 22 no. 1428 pp. 591c24–593a29), Sarvāstivādin

(T 23 no. 1435 pp. 258a9–259a8), and Mūlasarvāstivādin (T 24 no. 1450 pp. 169a12–170b24).
Summary: Based on the Pali parallel, Moggallāna (G Mogalaṇa) tells the Buddha that a
deity had informed him of Devadatta’s wish to lead the Sangha. The Buddha enumerates the
five kinds of teachers (only two are preserved in the Gāndhārī text).
Text no. 2 (verso)
Parallels: (1) Pali: Cullavagga §§ 7.1.1–4 of the Vinaya-piṭaka (II 180–3), referred to
as Chasakyapabbajjākathā by Be. (2) Sanskrit: forms part of the Saṅghabhedavastu of the
Mūlasarvāstivāda Vinaya (ed. Gnoli, I 200ff.); cf. Mahāvastu (ed. Senart) III 176ff. and others.
(3) Chinese: Vinaya versions include Mahīśāsaka (T 22 no. 1421 pp. 16c21–17c14), Dharma-
guptaka (T 22 no. 1428 pp. 590b13–591c16), and Mūlasarvāstivādin (T 24 no. 1450 pp. 144b9–
145b14).
Summary: The fragment preserves traces of the following events: Aṇarudha’s (P Anu
ruddha) decision to go forth; getting permission from Bhadia (P Bhaddiya) and his mother (?);
and asking the Buddha for ordination along with other Śākyas.
RS 23 subfragment B (frame 23.2): The status of the poorly preserved fragments in this
frame is uncertain. Numerous fragments have been aligned in two columns in the frame. Those
in the left column, which are in slightly better condition, appear to represent the remnant of the
left side of a scroll. Those in the right column may represent miscellaneous fragments. The text
is difficult to read and has not been identified. There appears to be no connection between the
fragments in this frame and RS 16 + 23A.
RS 24 (frame 24): This large, wide manuscript is in relatively poor condition. It contains
portions of two episodes from the biography of the Buddha, the canonical parallels to which
are mostly found in the Vinayas (identified by Allon).
Text no. 1 (recto)
Parallels: (1) Pali: Erakapattanāgarājavatthu of Dhammapadaṭṭhakathā (III 230–6). (2) San-
skrit: only partial parallels, e.g., Mahāvastu (ed. Senart) III 382.8–389.11. (3) Chinese: it is
found in the following Vinayas: Mahīśāsaka (T 22 no. 1421 pp. 106a6–107a15), Dharmaguptaka
(T 22 no. 1428 pp. 791a6–792c15), Mūlasarvāstivādin (T 24 no. 1451 pp. 303a6–305a17); plus
in other texts such as the Fóběnxíng jí jīng 佛本行集經 (*Abhiniṣkramaṇasūtra, T 3 no. 190
pp. 825a18–831b9).
Summary: The manuscript preserves remnants of the story of the youth Ṇala (P Nāla/
Skt. Nālada/Nālaka) and the nāgarāja Elapatra (P Erakapatta/Skt. Elāpattra). This includes
Ṇala’s becoming a monk (as requested by his uncle the sage Aśita when he saw the newborn
Siddhārtha) and his attainment of enlightenment, and Elapatra’s encounter with the Buddha
concerning his state as a nāga.
Text no. 2 (verso)
Parallels: (1) Pali: Mahāvagga (§ I.4) of the Vinayapiṭaka (I 3–4); Jātaka Nidāna-kathā
(Jā I 80–1). (2) Sanskrit: Catuṣpariṣat-sūtra (ed. Waldschmidt) §§ 2.1–4.1 (see pp. 435–8);
Saṅghabhedavastu of the Mūlasarvāstivāda Vinaya (ed. Gnoli) I 122–4; Mahāvastu (ed. Senart)
III 302–11; Lalitavistara (ed. Lefmann) 381.3–386.2. (3) Chinese: Vinaya versions include
Mahīśāsaka Vinaya (T 22 no. 1421 p. 103a10–b7) and Dharmaguptaka Vinaya (T 22 no. 1428
pp. 781c11–785c27); cf. also Fóběnxíng jí jīng 佛本行集經 (*Abhiniṣkramaṇasūtra, T 3 no. 190
pp. 801a12–803b11).21
Summary: The merchants Trivua (P Tapussa/Skt. Tripuṣa, Tripusa, etc.) and Valia (P/Skt.
Bhallika) offer the Buddha his first meal after his enlightenment and become the first upāsakas.
The four Lokapālas offer the Buddha four bowls in which to receive the merchants’ food and,
based on the parallels, he forms one bowl out of the four.
RS 25: This large glass frame contains numerous, mostly small, miscellaneous fragments.
A connection between these and others in the collection is yet to be established.
5. Character of the Collection

As noted above, the manuscripts preserve at least forty-one texts or textual units. In most
cases the counting of a text as a discrete unit is straightforward. Those that need further com-
ments are the following: the list of texts on RS 7 + 8 is not counted here as a textual unit,
because it belongs in a different category from the sūtras and stories that compose the rest of
the texts in the collection; the text on RS 14, the Anavatapta verses of Mahākāśyapa, has been
counted as one text, despite the fact that RS 7 + 8 (ll. 22–3) refers to the Anavatapta verses of
seven individuals; there are fourteen texts (sūtras) on RS 11, corresponding to the Pali Vana-
saṃyutta, although further research may show there to be more; the stories of the encounter of
the following individuals with the Buddha have each been counted as one: Ānanda (RS 4A);
Moggallāna (RS 16 + 23A no. 1); Anuruddha (RS 16 + 23A no. 2); Sujātā (RS 18 or 15 + 18);22
Nāla(ka) and Erakapatta/Elāpattra (RS 24 no. 1); and the merchants Tapussa and Bhallika
(RS 24 no. 2). The texts on RS 4B, 9, 21, and 23B and on the fragments in frame 25 have not yet
been identified due to the difficulty in reading them. The number of texts in the collection may
therefore increase once these poorly preserved fragments have received further attention.
Of great importance to understanding this collection of texts is the list of texts or refer-
ences to texts on RS 7 + 8, a proportion of which refer to texts preserved on the surviving
manuscripts (see Salomon 2003: 80–3). Although written on two separate pieces of bark of
different dimensions, we are dealing with a single list of texts, the list on RS 8 being a continu-
ation of that on RS 7. In several respects this list parallels the uddānas—the mnemonic verses
that guide the arrangement of texts in a collection or the arrangement of sections within a text
or the sequence of its verses—commonly encountered in Buddhist literature. However, this
list differs in many ways from the uddānas with which we are most familiar. For example, it is
not metrical as is normally the case with uddānas, although it is laid out as if it were a metrical
text, with blank spaces of usually two or more letters’ width separating blocks of text.23 Again,
although some entries are like those found in uddānas in that they consist of the title of the
text or of one or two significant words from it (often the same thing), in many cases the entry
21
For further details, including the Chinese and Tibetan parallels, see Waldschmidt 1951: 88–90;
CPS §§ 2.1–4.1; and Lamotte 1958: 72, 87 = 1988: 66, 80.
22
If the text on RS 15 concerns Mucalinda rather than Sujātā, then the count will be one each for
RS 15 and 18.
23
The same layout is seen in the metrical Gāndhārī Khotan Dharmapada (Brough 1962) and Rhi-
noceros sūtra (Salomon 2000) manuscripts.
consists of one or more sentences quoted from the text, which is very un-uddāna-like (Salomon
2003: 82; for examples, see ibid.: 80–3).
The list of texts on RS 7 + 8 concludes with the statement sarvapiḍa sutra pacapacaïśa 20
20 10 4 1 (l. 26 = l. 6 of RS 8), translated by Salomon (2003: 83) as “In all fifty-five, 55, sūtras.”
And, indeed, there do appear to be fifty-five texts listed on RS 7 + 8.24
Of the surviving texts, only twelve have a clear reference on RS 7 + 8,25 while the iden-
tification of another seven with references on RS 7 + 8 is possible but far from certain.26 The
remaining twenty-two of the forty-one surviving texts appear to have no corresponding refer-
ence on RS 7 + 8.27 This means that thirty-six of the fifty-five texts listed on RS 7 + 8 do not refer
to one of the surviving texts.28 The wording of some of these entries is too general in meaning
to allow the text being referenced to be identified. An example of such a reference is aṇicasaña
= P anicca-saññā, “perception of impermanence” (l. 3), which could refer to any number of
sūtras dealing with this topic. However, in many cases the identification of the text being refer-
enced is more certain but that text is not found among the surviving manuscripts. An example
is ag̱akṣaṇa, “wish” (l. 1), the parallels to which are likely to be the Pali Ākaṅkheyya-sutta,
“Sutta on ‘if [a monk] should wish,’” Majjhima-nikāya no. 6 (I 33–6; cf. Ākaṅkha-sutta, AN
V 131–3), and the Chinese Yuàn jīng 願經, “Sūtra on wishing,” Madhyamāgama, Zhōng āhán
jīng 中阿含經, no. 105 (T 1 no. 26 pp. 595c11–596b8). Another example is gaḍiḵare, “Gaḍiḵara
[the potter]” (l. 2), whose Pali parallel is probably the Ghaṭīkāra-sutta, “Sutta concerning [the
potter] Ghaṭīkāra,” Majjhima-nikāya no. 81 (II 45–54), and Chinese parallel Bǐngpólíngqí jīng
鞞婆陵耆經, “Sūtra [set in] Vebhaḷiṅga/Veruḍiṅga,” Madhyamāgama, Zhōng āhán jīng 中阿含
經, no. 63 (T 1 no. 26 pp. 499a6–503a20).
From the above it is obvious that there is a major mismatch between the texts listed on
RS 7 + 8 and the texts that have actually survived: many texts that have survived do not appear
to have entries in this list, while many entries in this list refer to texts that have not survived.
We are therefore dealing with three collections of texts: the collection of texts listed on RS 7 +
8; the collection of texts that have survived or, better, the collection of texts that were deposited
in the pot (excluding RS 7 + 8), a proportion of which have survived; and the combination of
the two. In attempting to understand these collections and how they relate to one another, it is
assumed that the manuscripts which were placed in the surviving pot and interred in a stūpa
do represent a commission that was paid for by Rohaṇa Maumatraputra, the donor mentioned
in the inscriptions on the pot and its lid.
The list of texts on RS 7 + 8 may have been written by the scribe as a guide to the texts he
was to write out for the commission, or it may have been written after the event as a record of the
texts that he had copied, which he may then have shown to the donor or overseer of the project
24
Although the count of the number of entries on several of the lines may differ by 1 depending on
how the text is understood, in most cases the count of entries per line is unambiguous. This is often aided
by a numeral at the beginning of the line that records the number of texts referenced on that line.
25
RS 5 nos. 1–4; 12; 13; 14; 20 no. 2; 22 nos. 2–4, 6.
26
RS 1 + 3; 10; 17 nos. 1–2; 19; 20 no. 1; 22 no. 1.
27
This includes the fourteen sūtras on RS 11. However, if the text of the latter half of l. 12 on
RS 7 + 8 is taken as a collective reference to these fourteen sūtras, rather than as a possible reference to
the two texts on RS 17, then the calculations will be different.
28
There being twelve entries identified with surviving texts, and another seven tentatively identified
with surviving texts.
for his approval. Several features of the actual entries on RS 7 + 8 and of the surviving texts
make the former more likely. Most importantly, the order of the entries for texts on RS 7 + 8
does not correspond to the order in which the surviving texts are actually written on a particu-
lar scroll. For example, the four sūtras on RS 5 are referenced on RS 7 + 8, but in a different
order: sūtra 3 on line 15, sūtra 2 on line 16, sūtra 1 on lines 23–4, and sūtra 4 on line 25 (see
§§ 8.1.3; 9.1.3; 10.1.3; 11.1.3). It is most likely that this discrepancy resulted from the scribe’s
choosing texts of particular lengths from the list he had already written in order to fit them on
a given scroll.29 Another possibility, suggested by Glass, is that the sequence of the texts on the
scrolls was influenced by the ordering in the scribe’s written archetype (see § 1.5). Had the list
on RS 7 + 8 been written after the texts had been written, we would have expected the order of
entries to correspond to the order in which the texts appeared on a given scroll. We would also
have expected more of the surviving texts to be listed on RS 7 + 8 than is currently the case.
Unfortunately, we cannot be certain that the surviving manuscripts represent the complete
collection of scrolls that were deposited in the surviving pot. In fact, it is quite likely that at
least some manuscripts were destroyed subsequent to their discovery in the modern period. It
is therefore not possible to determine whether the texts listed on RS 7 + 8 that are not found
in the present collection were actually included in the original deposit or not. If they were
included, then we have indeed lost a large proportion of the original deposit. It is, however,
more difficult to explain the presence of texts in the surviving collection that are not listed
on RS 7 + 8. One possible scenario is that the scribe compiled the list as a guide to the texts
he was going to write for the commission but then changed his mind, excluding some while
writing others he had not listed. Alternatively, all the texts listed on RS 7 + 8 were included
in the original deposit along with others he had not listed, with a large proportion of these not
surviving. Yet another possibility is that the collection of texts listed on RS 7 + 8 was not writ-
ten as a guide to or record of the texts that were included in this commission but was initially
drawn up for another purpose. This list and a proportion of the texts referenced in it were then
included in the collection of texts that were placed in the pot for ritual burial. Unfortunately,
we do not have enough information about the deposit to determine which of these scenarios is
the most likely.
Noteworthy are the four clear instances where the last line of writing on a scroll cor-
responds to a point partway through the text, the scroll not being long enough for the scribe
to complete the text he was writing (RS 2, 5, 13, 14).30 RS 2 (Sāmaññaphala-sutta) and 14
(Anavatapta-gāthā) both preserve the beginning of large texts (judging by their parallels in
other languages) that would have required several additional scrolls of comparable size to
the first to complete, while the last of the four short sūtras on RS 5 and the sūtra of medium
length on RS 13 could both have been completed on a single additional scroll (for RS 5, see
§ 11.1.1). Yet, in each case, the manuscript or manuscripts containing the rest of the text have
not survived. Given that the Senior manuscripts represent a commission rather than a selection
of manuscripts from a library that were produced to be read and studied, it is quite likely
that the scribe never completed these texts on additional scrolls but rather took what he had
29
In the case of Scroll 5, the scribe marked the layout of the four sūtras on the scroll by first writing
the abbreviated nidāna to each with a smaller nib at the point on the scroll where he judged each should
start (see § 4.2).
30
Other possible instances are RS 18, RS 16 + 23A, and RS 24.
written as sufficient for his purposes, regarding a portion of the text as representative of the
complete text.31
In the case of the Sāmaññaphala-sutta (RS 2) and the Anavatapta-gāthā (RS 14), there are,
however, alternative explanations. Although the text on RS 2 represents only a small portion
of the complete sūtra as it is known from the surviving parallels, it may have been all that was
required for the purpose of this commission, since this introductory narrative portion of the
text depicts a great king (Skt. Ajātaśatru) choosing to visit the Buddha rather than any of his
religious rivals (see § 7). In the case of RS 14, which preserves remnants of the introduction
to the Anavatapta-gāthā and the Anavatapta verses of Mahākāśyapa, it is possible that the
Anavatapta verses of the other six individuals whose Anavataptas are referenced on RS 7 + 8
were not written for the same reason that many texts referenced in that list were not written;
namely, as noted above, whether the list on RS 7 + 8 was initially composed as a guide to the
texts that were to be written out for the commission or was drawn up for another purpose, it is
possible that the scribe chose to write only a few of the texts on that list.
6. Classification of the Texts and Genres

Whatever the relationship between the list of texts on RS 7 + 8 and the collection of texts
that were deposited in the pot may be, all three collections (as outlined above) are anthologies,
which, of course, involve choice. Someone has chosen these texts in preference to others.
Of the forty-one surviving texts, thirty-three are sūtras whose primary parallels are found
in one of the Pali nikāyas and/or Chinese or Sanskrit āgamas or, if they lack a parallel, are
clearly of this class. Of these, twenty-six sūtras have their primary or closest parallels in the
Pali Saṃyutta-nikāya and/or Chinese Saṃyuktāgama (see §§ 1.2.5.1–2). A further three sūtras
(RS 5 no. 1; RS 17 no. 1; and RS 20 no. 1) lack parallels in other languages but are likely to be
of the SN/SĀ classification, since they are similar to the other SN/SĀ sūtras in the collection
in subject matter and length. This makes a total of twenty-nine sūtras of the SN/SĀ type. A
further three sūtras (RS 1 + 3; 10; 12) have their primary parallel in the Pali Majjhima-nikāya
and Chinese Madhyamāgama.32 One sūtra, the Sāmaññaphala-sutta/Śrāmaṇyaphala-sūtra (RS
2), has its primary parallel in the Pali Dīgha-nikāya and Sanskrit and Chinese Dīrghāgamas.
As shown by Glass in his study below (§ 1.5), it is evident that the sūtras with parallels in
the Saṃyutta-nikāya/Saṃyuktāgama were selected from a Saṃyuktāgama (although it may
not have been called that) whose sūtras were organized into saṃyuktas according to the same
principles as those employed for the arrangement of suttas/sūtras in the Saṃyutta-nikāya and
Saṃyuktāgamas that we know in Pali, Sanskrit, and Chinese.33 The fourteen sūtras on RS 11 are
particularly important in this regard because the same fourteen suttas form the Vana-saṃyutta
of the Pali Saṃyutta-nikāya and a similar division within the Chinese Saṃyuktāgamas, al-
though the order of the sūtras differs in each case. The Saṃyuktāgama sūtras in the collec-
31
This theory is further pursued by Richard Salomon (2006: 369–70; and forthcoming b; cf. 2003:
84), who discusses two further examples among the British Library manuscripts. Although this raises the
possibility that the texts listed on RS 7 + 8 that are not found among the surviving texts were not actually
written out—the writing of their titles or a small quotation from each being considered sufficient—this
seems unlikely, since there would then have been no reason to actually write any of the texts.
32
Several sūtras in the collection (RS 1 + 3; 2; 12; 19) have a parallel or partial parallel in the Pali
AN and/or Chinese EĀ, besides their SN/SĀ or MN/MĀ parallel.
33
For an expression of doubt about the existence of āgamas at this time, see Salomon 2006: 368 n. 24.
tion, and particularly the “Vana-saṃyutta” group on RS 11, indicate that a stable, if not fixed,
Saṃyuktāgama was known to the Gandhāran community who produced these manuscripts in
the first half of the second century a.d. But given that more than five centuries had passed since
the death of the Buddha, this is not particularly surprising. Besides, this stability must predate
our Gandhāran manuscripts by several centuries, going back into the centuries b.c. when the
lines of transmission for the Gāndhārī and Pali nikāyas/āgamas separated.
There are too few sūtras in the Senior Collection with parallels in the nikāyas/āgamas other
than the Saṃyutta-/Saṃyukta- to give an indication of the makeup and arrangement of the
āgama from which they were taken. In fact, although it is highly likely that the Dīrghāgama of
the Gandhāran community who produced these manuscripts contained a Sāmaññaphala-sutta
(RS 2), given that this sūtra is found in all three surviving DN/DĀs (Pali, Sanskrit, Chinese),34
we cannot be certain that the sūtras whose primary parallels are found in the Pali Majjhima-
nikāya and Chinese Madhyamāgama (RS 1 + 3; 10; 12) were found in the Madhyamāgama of
this community.
Of the remaining eight texts in the surviving collection, five are narrative texts whose
parallels are primarily found in vinaya literature (RS 18 or 15 + 18; 16 + 23A nos. 1–2; 24 nos.
1–2), while another text appears to be a compilation of episodes with sūtra and vinaya parallels
(RS 4A). None of these six texts are listed on RS 7 + 8. The classification of the Anavatapta-
gāthā, a portion of which is preserved on RS 14, is problematic. As it appears in the collection
of fifty-five texts listed on RS 7 + 8, which are collectively referred to as sūtras, it was appar-
ently regarded as a sūtra by those who compiled this list. The Anavatapta-gāthā survives in
Sanskrit, Chinese, and Tibetan as an independent text, not referred to as a sūtra, and was, like
much else, subsequently incorporated into the Vinaya of the Mūlasarvāstivādins.35 The genre
and classification of one text (RS 22 no. 5) are uncertain.
The classification of the texts listed on RS 7 + 8 is more complex, since in many cases we
cannot identify with certainty the text being referred to. Also, several of the texts identified as
possible referents (as well as some of the RS texts) are found in more than one nikāya/āgama
or piṭaka. The information presented here is therefore tentative. More details will be provided
in Allon, forthcoming a.
Of the fifty-five texts listed on RS 7 + 8, twenty-two may refer to texts found in the SN/SĀs;
and of these, sixteen either refer to a text that has survived or may refer to one. Another ten
entries may refer to texts found in the MN/MĀs; and of these, three either refer to a text that
has survived or may do so. One reference is probably to a sūtra that in Pali is found in the
Itivuttaka. As just noted, the classification of the Anavatapta verses of the seven individuals
referred to on RS 7 + 8 (ll. 22–3) is problematic. The remaining fifteen entries are not specific
enough to allow the text being referenced to be identified with any degree of certainty.
The bulk of the surviving texts are sūtras selected from a Saṃyuktāgama or, in a few cases,
probably a Madhyamāgama. A small number can be loosely classed as narrative “vinaya”
prose texts. A similar pattern is evident in the classification of the texts listed on RS 7 + 8
and identified to date, with the exception of the narrative “vinaya” texts, which are not listed.
That is, most of the references on RS 7 + 8 are probably to sūtras whose parallels are found in
34
This is also supported by the similarity between our Gāndhārī Sāmaññaphala-sutta and the ver-
sion found in the Chinese Dīrghāgama (長阿含經, T 1 no. 1).
35
The classification of the Anavatapta-gāthā and its status as a sūtra (it being so classed in RS 7 + 8)
will be discussed in detail in Salomon, forthcoming a.
the SN/SĀ or MN/MĀ. Clearly, the Saṃyuktāgama was the āgama favored by the individual
or individuals who determined the makeup of the commissioned collection, followed by the
Madhyamāgama.
7. The Identification of Themes

At least three individuals may have determined or influenced the makeup of the three col-
lections of texts outlined above. They are the donor, Rohaṇa, mentioned in the inscriptions on
the pot and lid; the scribe; and possibly a senior monastic who oversaw the project.
Unfortunately, any conclusions reached concerning the theme or themes of these collec-
tions and the possible reason or reasons for including each text in them will be limited. In
the case of the texts that were deposited in the pot, it is highly likely that not all of them have
survived. In the case of the collection listed on RS 7 + 8, a significant proportion (15 out of 55)
of the entries have yet to be connected with a specific text, while in several cases the identifica-
tion of the text being referenced is probable but not certain. Finally, many, if not most, texts
have more than one theme, one or all of which may have been the basis for the inclusion of that
text in the collection. Keeping these limitations in mind, we can, however, make the following
observations.
In the surviving collection, several texts present the Buddha as being superior to all other
ascetics or teachers. They are the Dhammacetiya-sutta (RS 1 + 3), in which a king lists the
reasons why the Buddha and his monks are superior to all others; the Sāmaññaphala-sutta
(RS 2), in which a king chooses to visit the Buddha in preference to his main rivals; and the
Pañcasatthukathā (RS 16 + 23A no. 1), in which the Buddha enumerates the five kinds of
teacher, identifying himself with the best of them. Others concern the related theme of the
person and status of the Tathāgata. An example is the Dutiyachiggaḷa-sutta (RS 22 no. 3),
whose theme is the rarity of the appearance of a Tathāgata in the world, of his teaching of the
Dharma, and of birth as a human being, which is illustrated by means of the simile of the blind
turtle and the hole in the yoke. Another example is the Anavatapta-gāthā (RS 14), in which
Mahākāśyapa praises the Buddha and outlines the process by which he came to his attainments
under the Buddha.36 Of course, since the Buddha is always presented as the superior being in
Śrāvakayāna Buddhist literature, this theme is evident in many texts in the collection.
Although those concerning the Buddha are important, the majority of texts in the surviving
collection concern monks (nuns do not feature). Parallel to the above-mentioned texts concern-
ing the Buddha, a few texts present the superiority of the Buddha’s monks (Dhammacetiya-
sutta [RS 1 + 3]; Cūḷagosiṅga-sutta [RS 12]) or the benefit good monks bring to the people and
country (Cūḷagosiṅga-sutta). In the text on RS 4A, the good qualities of Ānanda are praised
by the Buddha, as is the service he has rendered the Buddha. However, in the texts concerning
monks, the dominant theme is correct practice and right path, and this theme is most commonly
articulated by the Buddha in the form of a discourse. Core Buddhist teachings are presented
in many of these texts. Topics include understanding the five aggregates (RS 5 nos. 2–4; 17
nos. 1–2; 22 nos. 2, 4, 6), the six sense-bases (RS 19; 20 no. 1), and the Four Noble Truths (RS
20 no. 2; 22 no. 3); aiming for nibbāna rather than the realms of the gods (Saṅkhārupapatti-
sutta [RS 10]); errors in a monk’s practice (Vana-saṃyutta [RS 11]; Tissa-sutta [RS 17 no. 2]);
36
Cf. also the Puppha-sutta (RS 22 no. 6) and some of the narrative “vinaya” prose texts (RS 4A;
18; 24 nos. 1–2).
and the benefit of living in harmony and of practicing the meditative absorptions, P jhāna
(Cūḷagosiṅga-sutta [RS 12]).
Although the main theme of the Anattalakkhaṇa-sutta (RS 22 no. 2) is the not-self char-
acteristic of the five aggregates, the text is closely associated with the foundation of the com-
munity of monks. It was the first discourse delivered by the Buddha to the five monks after they
were ordained (initiated by the Dhammacakkappavattana-sutta), with all five monks destroy-
ing the taints (P āsava) and becoming arhats at the conclusion of the discourse. If this theme
was important to those who compiled these collections (it is also referred to on RS 7 + 8), then
it parallels several surviving texts which concern the foundation of the lay community. This
includes the account of the merchants Tapussa and Bhallika becoming the first laymen (RS 24
no. 2); Sujātā becoming the first laywoman (RS 18 or 15 + 18); and possibly the nāga Elāpattra
becoming the first animal convert (RS 24 no. 1).37
Central to accounts of the merchants Tapussa and Bhallika and of Sujātā is the act of giv-
ing food to the Buddha, which can be equated with supporting the Sangha. Most importantly,
the merchants are the first to give the Buddha a meal after his enlightenment, while Sujātā
was the first to do so when he abandoned fasting prior to his enlightenment (an account not
preserved among these texts). It is therefore possible that these stories were included because
they espouse the primary duty of laypeople.
Of the texts concerning laymen, at least one, the Veḷudvāreyya-sutta (RS 13), articulates
right practice and right path for laymen, while in another text (RS 20 no. 1) the Buddha tells
a brahman that happiness and suffering result from the six senses and contact, a discussion
which leads the brahman to become a layman. In the portion of the Sāmaññaphala-sutta (RS 2)
that does not survive (or was never written), the Buddha tells a king of the benefits of life as a
religious ascetic (P samaṇa).
The two stories preserved on RS 24 may be significant because of the association of
the characters involved with the northwest of the Indian subcontinent, which, of course, is
the region of origin for the Senior manuscripts. In some Chinese and Sanskrit sources, the
nāga Elāpattra, who features in the story on the recto of RS 24 (text no. 1), is associated with
greater Gandhāra. Xuánzàng 玄奘, for example, gives an account of Elāpattra’s residence 70
lis northeast of Takṣaśilā and of a stūpa erected to him by King Aśoka (see Lamotte 1944–80:
3.1581–2).
The merchants Tapussa and Bhallika, who feature on the verso of RS 24 (text no. 2), are
similarly associated in some sources with the northwest, particularly Bactria,38 and it is possible
that this story was included in the collection because it is an account of the first followers of the
Buddha from the northwest. The story may also have been included because it establishes the
origins of the Buddha’s bowl, which was an object of veneration and pilgrimage in Gandhāra.39
According to Bareau (1963–71: 1.113–4) the story of these merchants offering food to the
37
The reference to the nāga becoming the first animal convert is not preserved in the Gāndhārī text,
since the story is incomplete on this manuscript. But as the reference appears in the Dharmaguptaka
Vinaya version of the story, which provides the closest parallel to the Gāndhārī, it is quite possible that
it was a feature of the story as it was known to this scribe and his community.
38
Lamotte 1976: 72 = 1988: 66; for an expression of doubt about this tradition, see Fussman 1994: 34.
39
See Bareau 1963–71: 1.118–9; Kuwayama 1990. Falk 2005 provides further discussion, including
the location of the bowl.
Buddha functioned to honor the importance of merchants to the Buddhist community.40 This
idea raises the intriguing possibility that Rohaṇa, the donor, was a merchant and that this was
the reason for the inclusion of this story in the collection. Yet again, in the Dharmaguptaka Vi-
naya version of the story, which is closest to the Gāndhārī text, the Buddha gives the merchants
some of his hair and nail parings and tells them to establish a stūpa for their honor. Unfortu-
nately, because of damage to the scroll, we cannot verify that this episode was included in the
manuscript. If it was, it may have been included because it establishes the practice of relic and
stūpa worship, of which this commission of manuscripts is a later manifestation.
Finally, as is the case with the vast majority of Śrāvakayāna texts, a theme central to most
texts in the surviving collection is the importance and significance of the Buddha’s teaching
and the benefits resulting from following this path.
The themes of those texts listed on RS 7 + 8 whose likely referent has not survived are
for the most part similar to those identified for the surviving texts. In other words, the themes
identified for the collection of texts that have survived and for the collection of texts listed on
RS 7 + 8 are roughly the same. The main difference between the two is the omission in the lat-
ter (RS 7 + 8) of the themes evident in the stories concerning Sujātā (RS 18), the nāga Elāpattra
(RS 24 no. 1), and the merchants Tapussa and Bhallika (RS 24 no. 2).
It will be apparent from the brief account given here that the texts in these two collections
encompass a wide range of themes, perhaps to be interpreted as a little something for everyone.
It is possible to group these themes in at least two different ways, both involving a threefold
division. The first is to group them into (a) texts concerning the Buddha or Tathāgata, (b) texts
concerning monks, and (c) texts concerning laypeople. In other words, it is possible that the
texts in this collection concern the Buddhist community (although the nuns are not repre-
sented). Alternatively, we can divide the texts into those concerning (a) the Buddha, (b) the
Dharma, and (c) the Sangha. In other words, the texts in these collections may be a celebration
of the three jewels (Skt. triratna).41
Although both are possible, the second division seems more attractive. The concept of the
three jewels encompasses all that is central to the Buddhist religion, and it would undoubtedly
have been important to the Buddhist community who produced these manuscripts. The three
jewels would therefore be more appropriate as the overriding theme for a collection of texts
that was commissioned for ritual interment in a stūpa by a member of this community. How-
ever, although simple and attractive, this interpretation remains speculative. Much information
that would throw light on these manuscripts has been lost, including a full inventory of the
manuscripts that were deposited in the pot, the order in which they were placed in the pot,
where the pot was buried, and what other objects were buried with the pot.
40
See also Lamotte 1976: 72 = 1988: 66.
41
This possibility was suggested to me by Timothy Lenz.
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Four Gāndhārī Sa Yuktāgama Sūtras: Senior Kharo Hī Fragment 5

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Four Gāndhārī Saṃyuktāgama Sūtras

Senior Kharoṣṭhī Fragment 5

UNIVERSITY OF WASHINGTON PRESS

BWD U. Wogihara, Bon-wa Daijiten 梵和大辭典 (Tokyo, 1979)

FG Fóguāng edition of the Chinese Āgamas, Āhán zàng 阿含藏, 4 vols.

MS Martin Schøyen Collection

SĀ(LVP) Saṃyuktāgama (ed. La Vallée Poussin 1913)

YBh Yogācārabhūmiśāstra (T 30 no. 1579; Derge 4035)

His translation of the lid inscription is

2. Date of the Manuscripts

RS 13 (frame 13): The manuscript is in reasonable condition. It contains one incomplete

RS 16: See RS 16 + 23A below.

RS 20 (frame 20): This well-preserved manuscript contains two complete sūtras.

(T 22 no. 1421 p. 18a1–22), Dharmaguptaka (T 22 no. 1428 pp. 591c24–593a29), Sarvāstivādin

5. Character of the Collection

6. Classification of the Texts and Genres

7. The Identification of Themes

2. Editions of the Chinese Tripiṭaka

3. Editions of the Tibetan Tripiṭaka

———. 1939. Bukkyō kyōten-shi ron 佛教経典史論. Nagoya: Sanbōshoin.

Chung Jin-il. 2006. “Dharmacakrapravartana-dharmaparyaya of the Sarvāstivāda and Mulasarvastivada

———. 1990. “Uigurische Āgama-Fragmente (2).” Altorientalische Forschungen 17: 130–45.

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