International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 62 (2012) 120–132

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International Journal of Mechanical Sciences

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ijmecsci

Vibration based damage detection in composite beams under temperature

variations using Poincaré maps
Emil Manoach n,1, Sylwester Samborski, Andrzej Mitura, Jerzy Warminski
Department of Applied Mechanics, Lublin University of Technology, Lublin 20-618, Poland

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: In this work numerical and experimental study of the vibration of laminated beams with damage,
Received 31 October 2011 subjected to dynamic loading and temperature variations is presented.
Received in revised form The goal of the study is to check the applicability of the damage detection technique based on an
8 May 2012
analysis of the Poincaré maps of the beam response. The geometrically nonlinear version of the
Accepted 11 June 2012
Available online 18 June 2012
Timoshenko beam theory is used to model the beam behavior. The damage is represented as a
reduction of the effective elastic modulus of the beam material in a small area of the structure.
Keywords: The beams are subjected to a harmonic loading, leading to large amplitude vibrations and to
Composite beam temperature changes. The main results are focused on establishing the influence of the damage on
Nonlinear vibrations
the vibration response of heated or unheated structures and the change in the time-history diagrams
Damage detection
and the Poincaré maps, caused by a damage and elevated temperature. The damage detection criterion
Poincaré map
formulated earlier for nonheated plates, based on analysing of the Poincaré maps of the damaged and
healthy plate, is modified and tested for the case of beams additionally subjected to elevated
temperatures. The importance of taking into account the actual temperature in the process of damage
detection is shown. Performed experimental tests (by an optical method) confirm the applicability and
sensitivity of the proposed method.
& 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Vibration-based structural health monitoring (VSHM) methods
are quite popular and are of extensive use for monitoring
structures and fault identification. They are based on the fact that
a damage will alter the stiffness, mass or energy dissipation
properties of the structure which in turn will alter its measured
vibration response. The vibration based damage detection is an
effective method due to its simplicity of implementation and
ability of acquiring both the global and the local information of
the structure.
Many of the previous efforts of researchers on VSHM were
directed towards methods based on changes in the dynamic
characteristics of the structures such as natural frequencies,
vibration mode, and modal curvature [1–7]. The simplest way
to perform a fault detection is the usage of the first several natural
frequencies of a structure which can be determined from a
conventional experiment. However, it seems that the lower order
resonance frequencies are not always very sensitive to a damage,
n
Corresponding author at: Institute of Mechanics, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences,
Acad. G. Bonchev Street, bl.4, Sofia 1113, Bulgaria.
E-mail address: e.manoach@imbm.bas.bg (E. Manoach).
1
On leave of absence from the Institue of Mechanics, Bulgarian Academy of
Sciences, Sofia 1113, Bulgaria.
except in cases with a very large damage [3,6–9]. Mode shapes
are in general more sensitive to damage but they are difficult to
measure and estimate from measured quantities. Some research-
ers looked at the loss factor as an indicator of damage in
composites (e.g. Lee et al. [10]). It could be a promising indicator
for the approaches for health monitoring, since some of the used
tools in VSHM, like Poincaré maps and phase plots, are very
sensitive to energy dissipation.
Another problem with the VSHM methods is that often they are
based on linear models of the structure. For systems which behave
as nonlinear, and the nonlinearities of the system are not taken into
account in the model, VSHM methods may give false alarms due to a
discrepancy between the measured and the expected responses.
To address some of the above mentioned problems, a lot of
authors started recently to study the possibility to employ
measured time series of the structure response and the nonlinear
dynamics theory [11–14]. The idea of using nonlinear dynamics
tools for damage detection purposes stems from the fact that a
damage (or a fault) introduces an additional nonlinearity, which
affects and changes the dynamics response of the system under
consideration. In general, damage detection can be performed by
extracting and monitoring certain parameters (features) that
change with the introduction and the growth of the damage.
Most of the studies in this field are devoted to the extraction of
such features from the structural vibration response. In [11] the

0020-7403/$ - see front matter & 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijmecsci.2012.06.006
 E. Manoach et al. / International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 62 (2012) 120–132 121

authors use the beating phenomenon for damage detection (DD) mid-axis of the beam, the displacements in the x and z directions
purposes. In [12,13] new attractor-based metrics are introduced are denoted by u and w, respectively. cx(x,t) is the angle of
as damage sensitive features. In [14–16] it is verified that due to rotation of the normal of the cross-section to the beam mid-axes.
the influence of the nonlinearity of typical cracks, superharmonic
vibration regimes appear in the system response. Many authors 2.1. Geometrical relationships
use statistical methods to detect and localize the damage [17–21].
In the authors’ previous works [21,22] a numerical approach to The strain and curvature-displacement relationships asso-
study the geometrically nonlinear vibrations of rectangular plates ciated with the mid-axes of the beam which consider large
with and without a damage is developed. A damage index and a displacements and shear can be expressed as
method for DD and location, based on the Poincaré map of the  
response, have been proposed. The suggested damage detection @u 1 @w 2 @w @c
e0x ¼ þ , e0xz ¼ c, k0 ¼  ð1Þ
method shows good capability to detect and localize a damage in @x 2 @x @x @x
T
plates. 0
The strain vector is given by e ¼ fe0x þzkx ,f ðzÞe0xz g , where f(z) is
Temperature changes can and do affect substantially the a function describing the distribution of the shear strain along the
vibration response of a structure. Thermal loads introduce stres- beam thickness.
ses due to thermal expansion, which lead to changes in the modal
properties. Thermal loads can also cause buckling and in some
2.2. Constitutive equations
cases even lead to chaotic behavior [23–26]. Thus, on a lot of
occasions the presence of a temperature field can either mask the
For each ith layer the relations between stresses and strains
effect of the damage or increase it, which will render a VSHM
are
method ineffective—it might give no alarm when a fault is
ðiÞ ðiÞ ðiÞ ðiÞ ðiÞ
present or might give a false alarm. This is why it is crucial to sðiÞ
x ¼ E ex aT ðTT 0 Þ, sðiÞ
xz ¼ G exz ð2Þ
take into account the temperature changes when developing (i) (i)
where E is the Young’s modulus and G is the shear modulus for
VSHM procedures.
each layer.
The main objectives of this study are the following:
The generalized forces are obtained by integrating the stresses
at each layer and summarizing the integrals (see [27,28])
1. To study the influence of defects, elevated temperatures and
"  2 #
their combination on the dynamic characteristics of composite @u @w
beams and on their geometrically nonlinear dynamic response. N ¼ A11 þ0:5 aT DT
@x @x
2. To test numerically the Poincaré maps based criteria for
identification of a fault in beams taking into account the M ¼ D11 k0
 
elevated temperature and to study its sensitivity. s @w
Q ¼ k A55 c ð3Þ
3. To check experimentally (by high speed camera tests) the @x
applicability of the developed method for a damage detection
where
in composite beams.
Nl
X Nl
X ðkÞ
A11 ¼ b EðkÞ ðzðkÞ zðk1Þ Þ ¼ b EðkÞ h
k¼1 k¼1
Nl
X Nl
X ðkÞ
2. Theoretical model A55 ¼ b GðkÞ ðzðkÞ zðk1Þ Þ ¼ b GðkÞ h
k¼1 k¼1
Nl Nl
The object of investigation is a laminated beam with length l bX 3 3 X
and width b, having Nl number of layers, symmetrically disposed D¼ EðkÞ ðzðkÞ zðk1Þ Þ, aT ¼ aðkÞ
T ð4Þ
3k¼1 k¼1
around the mid-axis (Fig. 1).
The thickness of kth layer is h(k), its Young’s modulus E(k), In Eqs. (3) N is the longitudinal force, M is the bending moment
Poison’s ratio v(k) and the coefficients of thermal expansion a(k)
T . and Q is the shear force, h(k) is the thickness of each layer and ks
The beam is subjected to a transverse load p(x,t) and temperature characterizes the distribution of the shear stresses along the beam
variation DT (with respect to a reference temperature) leading to cross-section (shear correction factor).
large amplitude vibrations. In general, the distribution of DT can It should be noted that for laminates with nonsymmetric lay-
be assumed as nonuniform along the beam’s thickness. The ups additional terms considering coupling between in-axis and
geometrically nonlinear version of the Timoshenko beam theory out-of-axis behavior of laminates appear in the constitutive
is used to model the beam behavior, so that the shear deformation Eqs. (3) (see [27,28]). In this work the considerations are limited
and rotary inertia are taken into account. At each point of the to symmetric laminated beams and the coupling stiffness is equal
to zero.

2.3. Equations of motion

The equilibrium equations may be deduced by considering the

translational equilibrium in x and z directions and the rotational
equilibrium about x-axis.
The equations of motion of large amplitude vibrations of a
laminated Timoshenko beam with layers/plies symmetrically
arranged around the mid-axis can be written in the following
form:
@N @u @2 u
Fig. 1. Geometry of the beam. x1 and x2 denote the beginning and the end of the c1 RH 2 ¼ 0, h=2 r z rh=2 ð5aÞ
damaged part of the beam. @x @t @t
122 E. Manoach et al. / International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 62 (2012) 120–132

@M @c @2 c 3. Numerical solution of the problem

 þQ c2 RI 2 ¼ 0, 0 ox o l, t 4 0 ð5bÞ
@x @t @t
! In numerical solution of the problem the following set of
@Q @2 w @N @w @w @2 w dimensionless variables is used:
þN þ c1 RH 2 ¼ pðx,tÞ ð5cÞ
@x @x2 @x @x @x @t w ¼ w=l, u ¼ u=l, x ¼ x=l, z ¼ z=h, t ¼ tc=l, c2 ¼ E=r ð10Þ
Here, the following denotations are used: where
Nl
X X
N X
N
RI ¼ b=3 rðiÞ ðzðiÞ3 zði1Þ3 Þ ð6aÞ E¼ Ei =Nl , r¼ ri =N l ð11Þ
i¼1 i¼1 i¼1

Nl
X By omitting the bars in the dimensionless variables, the
RH ¼ b rðiÞ hðiÞ ð6bÞ governing Eqs. (7) describing the transverse vibrations of the
i¼1 beam can be written in the following form:
and with c1 and c2 are denoted the damping coefficients, which ( "   #)
@ @u 1 @w 2
are assumed to be proportional to the mass terms. A11 þ aT DT ¼0 ð12aÞ
@x @x 2 @x
Substituting Eqs. (3) into Eqs. (5) and neglecting the long-
itudinal inertia effects the following system of governing equa-    
@ @c s 2 @w @c E @2 c
tions is obtained: D11 þ k A55 l c d2 RI ¼ 0,
( "   #) @x @x @x @t r @t2
@ @u 1 @w 2 0 ox o l, t 4 0 ð12bÞ
A11 þ aT DT ¼0 ð7aÞ
@x @x 2 @x
  
s @ @w @w E @2 w
    k A55 c d1 RH ¼ pl þ GL2 þ GT2 ð12cÞ
@ @c s @w @2 c @x @x @t r @t2
 D11 þ k A55 c RI 2 ¼ 0 ð7bÞ
@x @x @x @t where by GL2 and GT2 the component of the following, the so-called
   "   # pseudo-load vectors (see [20,28]) due to the geometrical non-
s @ @w @u 1 @w 2 @2 w linearities and thermal changes are denoted
k A55 c þ A11 þ
@x @x @x 2 @x @x2 "   2 # 2
@u @w @ w
@2 w @2 w GL2 ¼ A11 þ 0:5 ð13aÞ
A11 aT DT 2
RH 2 ¼ p ð7cÞ @x @x @x2
@x @t
It is assumed that the defect manifests itself in a reduction of @2 w
the effective elastic modulus of the beam at the corresponding part GT2 ¼ A11 aT DT ð13bÞ
@x2
of its cross-section. Ideas of how delamination could be taken into
Here d1 ¼ c1lc, d2 ¼ c2lc.
account in the determining of the effective properties of the beam
It is easy to notice that from Eq. (12a) follows:
could be found for example in [29,30]. It is clear that this approach  
for modeling a defect in a composite structure is quite simple and @u
¼ C=A11 þ Guw þ GuT ð14Þ
does not consider the concomitant complicated phenomena as the @x
changes in a stress field, additional damping, sliding between
where C is a constant and
layers, opening and closing modes of the defect (e.g. delamination),
 
etc. Reduction of the rigidity is only one of the manifestations of 1 @w 2
Guw ¼  , GuT ¼ aT DT ð15Þ
the damage in composite beam. On the other hand, the other 2 @x
phenomena going along with the damage usually enforce its
The solution of the above equation regarding u is
influence on the response. The present study is focused on the Z x Z x Z x
damage detection approach and due to this reason it is acceptable uðxÞ ¼ C A1 dx þ G u
d x þ GuT dx þC 2 ð16Þ
11 w
to use the model of the reduced rigidity for a DD purpose. 0 0 0
In the theoretical model described above, the variable rigidity Considering the boundary conditions and taking into account
of the beam due to the defect is considered. that the part of the beam between x1 and x2 (see Fig. 1) has
different mechanical properties it is easy to obtain that C2 ¼ 0 and
2.4. Boundary and initial conditions Z l  !
x1 x2 x1 lx2
C¼ ðGuw þGuT Þ dx þ þ ð17Þ
In the present work the numerical model is applied for fully 0 A111 A211 A111
clamped and in-axis fixed beams. Thus, the boundary conditions are
Here A111 and A211 denote elastic constants defined by Eq. (4) for a
uð0,tÞ ¼ uðl,tÞ ¼ wð0,tÞ ¼ wðl,tÞ ¼ 0, cð0,tÞ ¼ cðl,tÞ ¼ 0 ð8Þ healthy and damaged part of the beam, correspondingly.
The influence of the temperature variation is more essential Thus, if one considers Guw andGuT as known functions, the sum of
for such beams due to the thermal expansion. the components of pseudo-load vectors due to the large displace-
The initial conditions are accepted in the following general form: ments and the temperature changes, can be expressed using Eqs.
(13)–(15) and (17) as
"    #
wðx,0Þ ¼ w0 @u 1 @w 2 @2 w @2 w @2 w
ð9aÞ GL2 þ GT2 ¼ A11 þ 2
þ A11 aT DT 2 ¼ C 2
@x 2 @x @x @x @x
_
wðx,0Þ _0
¼w ð9bÞ ð18Þ
The left hand side of Eqs. (12b) and (12c) is a linear form. If one
cðx,0Þ ¼ c0 ð9cÞ
considers GL2 and GT2 as components of the known force vectors
0 GL and GT the mode superposition method can be applied for the
c_ ðx,0Þ ¼ c_ ð9dÞ solution of these equations. As the normal modes of the free
 E. Manoach et al. / International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 62 (2012) 120–132 123

vibrations of the beam do not correspond to those of the non- 4. Damage detection technique
linear system, these modes are called pseudo-normal or quasi-
normal modes [31,32]. Thus, the generalized displacements The damage identification technique is based on analysing the
vector v ¼ {c,w}T is expanded as a sum of the product of Poincaré maps of the responses of the inspected structure. This
pseudo-normal modes vn and the time dependent functions technique is suggested in [22,21] for damage detections in plates.
qn(t) as In these works damage was modeled as a part of the structure
Nf
with a reduced thickness. According to these works the following
X
v¼ vn ðxÞqn ðtÞ ð19Þ damage index was suggested:
n¼1
9Sui Sdi 9
Idi ¼ ð26Þ
Substituting Eq. (19) into Eqs. (12b) and (12c), multiplying by Sui
vm(x), integrating the product over the beam length, invoking the
orthogonality condition, and assuming ‘‘proportional damping’’ in where
R1 2
the sense 0 ðd1 cn þ d2 w2n Þ dx ¼ 2xn on the equations for qn(t) are NXp 1 qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi

‘‘uncoupled’’ in the form: Sui ¼ ðwui,j þ 1 wui,j Þ2 þ ðw _ ui,j þ 1 w _ ui,j Þ2 ð27aÞ

j¼1
q€ n þ 2xn on q_ n þ o2n qn ¼ F n ðtÞ ð20Þ
NXp 1 qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Here on are natural frequencies of the (undamped) Timoshenko
Sdi ¼ ðwdi,j þ 1 wdi,j Þ2 þ ðw _ di,j þ 1 w _ di,j Þ2 ð27bÞ
beam, xn are modal damping coefficients and
j¼1
Z 1
F n ðtÞ ¼ vTn ðxÞ½Pðx,tÞ þGðx,tÞ dx, Pðx,tÞ ¼ ð0,pÞT , G ¼ GL þ GT In the above equations i ¼ 1, 2, y, N, where N is the number of
0
nodes, Np is the number of points in the Poincaré map for each
ð21Þ _ uij Þ and ðwdij , w
node, and ðwuij , w _ dij Þ denote the jth point on Poincaré
The initial conditions defined by Eqs. (9) are transformed also maps generated for undamaged (healthy) and damaged states,
in terms of qn ð0Þ and q_ n ð0Þ. Eqs. (20) are strongly coupled due to respectively.
the nonlinear terms on the right hand sides of the equations The Poincaré map is a standard tool for inspecting dynamical
(which depend on the solution). systems, since it preserves many properties of periodic and quasi-
Let the total time interval in which the dynamic response is periodic orbits of the original system and has a lower dimension.
desired be divided into a sequence of time increments [ti,ti þ 1]. The Poincaré maps contain data for the displacements and the
Using the methodology developed by Kukreti and Issa [31], the velocities of the structure in a compact form and since these two
pseudo-load vector {P þ G} is interpolated by a quadratic poly- parameters are expected to be sensitive to damage, these dia-
nomial of time, i.e. grams can be used to detect damage. The suggested damage index
represents the relative difference between the lengths of the
Pðx, tÞ þGðx, tÞ ¼ AðxÞ þ BðxÞUt þ CðxÞUt2 , 0 r t r Lt ð22Þ curves formed by connecting the dots on the Poincaré maps for
where Lt ¼ ti þ 1 – ti represents the time increment and the vari- the nondamaged and the damaged plate for ith node, respectively.
able t, defined as t ¼ t  ti, identifies a new time origin for each This difference is accepted by us as a measure for the global
time increment. change (during the total period of vibration) in the dynamic
Denoting behavior of the damaged structure in comparison with the
undamaged one.
P0 ðxÞ ¼ Pðx,0Þ, 0oxo1 ð23aÞ The damage index described above depends on the location of
the point on the beam’s x-axis and consequently it is a function of
P1 ðxÞ ¼ Pðx,mLt Þ, 0 o x o1 ð23bÞ the beam coordinate x.
The expectations are that if the function Id(x) has a maximum
P2 ðxÞ ¼ Pðx,Lt Þ, 0 ox o 1 ð23cÞ
and it is strongly concave in the vicinity of the maximum, the
beam has damage and the nodes close to the maximal value of the
G0 ðxÞ ¼ Gðx,0Þ, 0 o m o1 ð23dÞ
function will represent the damaged area.
The damage criterion based on this index presumes setting a
G1 ðxÞ ¼ Gðx,mLt Þ, 0 o m o1 ð23eÞ
threshold value Td for the damage index:
G2 ðxÞ ¼ Gðx,Lt Þ, 0 o mo 1 ð23fÞ Id ðx, DTÞ 4T d ð28Þ
the expressions for constants A, B and C can be developed in This threshold depends on the specificity of the problem as
terms of Pi, Gi (i ¼ 0/2). well as on the sampling. It is important to notice that the
Here, t ¼ mLt represents an intermediate point in the time temperature changes should also be taken into account. For this
interval Lt. reason the damage index defined by Eqs. (26) and (27) is
The general solution of Eq. (20) is calculated at equal values of DT for the healthy and
damaged beams.
qn ðtÞ ¼ E1n q0n þE2n q_ 0n þ F 1n an þ F 2n bn þ F 3n cn ð24Þ

where E1n, E2n, F1n, F2n, F3n denote complicated mathematical

expressions containing on, xn and t (for details see [24,32,33]) 5. The case study
and
Z 1 Z 1 Z 1 The numerical study focuses on damage detection and locali-
an ¼ b vTn A dx, bn ¼ b vTn B dx, cn ¼ b vTn C dx ð25Þ zation of composite beams. This is level II of damage detection
0 0 0
according to the Rytter’s classification of damage detection [34].
The iteration procedure applied to solve the above equations is As the beams with different levels of damage are studied in this
very similar to the ones applied in [24,32,33] and that is why it is work and the influence of the level of the damage on the damage
not presented here. index is shown, one can conclude that the study includes also
124 E. Manoach et al. / International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 62 (2012) 120–132

elements of level III (assessment of damage) according to the
Rytter’s classification.
The considered structure is a symmetric cross-ply laminated
beam composed of 10 orthotropic layers, each 0.25 mm thick. The
two layers located above and under the neutral surface have 01
orientation with respect to x-axis. The whole beam sequence of
layers (plies) is [(90/0)2/0]s. The length of the beam is l ¼ 80 mm
and the width b ¼ 5 mm. Material characteristics of the single ply
are as follows:
1. Young’s moduli: E1 ¼ 56 GPa, E2 ¼ 16 GPa,
2. Poisson’s ratio: u ¼ 0.269,
3. thermal expansion coefficient: aT ¼ 13.2  10  6 K  1,
4. mass density r ¼ 2052 kg/m3.
These characteristics correspond to a glass-epoxy composite
material.
Using Eqs. (4) one can obtain D11 ¼ 1.6375  102 Nm and
A55 ¼ 3.9401  107 N/m. Concerning the rigidity (stiffness) prop-
erties of the beam these coefficients correspond to an equivalent
homogenous beam with effective properties Eef ¼ 41.92 GPa,
nef ¼ 0.32991.
In the first considered case of a damage (Case A), a beam fault
is modeled by prescribing to a small part of the beam reduced
rigidity. The defect is located at x A (0.56 m, 0.64 m) (10% of the
beam length, c.f. Fig. 1) and has the following stiffness character-
istic: Edef ¼ 0:5Eef ¼ 20:96 GPa. The beam is discretized by 40 linear
beam finite elements. This reduction of the Young’s modulus is
quite high and we may expect the influence of the damage to be
well expressed. The goal is also to study the influence of the
temperature changes on the DD process when damage is
essential.
Then two other cases are considered—Case B with the Young’s
modulus reduction Edef ¼ 0:8Eef and Case C with the Young’s
modulus Edef ¼ 0:9Eef .
These different cases of a damage are analysed in order to
clarify the sensitivity of the method to detect damages with
different sizes. It is known that the material discontinuities, such
as cracks, pores or delaminations (single or multiple) can be a
source of enlarged compliance (reduced stiffness). Some cracks or
delaminations in thick beams can provoke a very small reduction
of the stiffness of the beam. That is why we consider a beam with
10% and 20% reduction of the Young’s modulus. For the consid-
ered set of composite samples used in our experimental study
(see Section 7) a special 3 point bending test was performed, in
which the span of the bottom rollers was reduced to the length of
the delamination (approx. 30 mm) and the force-deflection curve
was obtained with the Zwick Z100/SN3A universal testing
machine and the appropriate TestExpert software. The plot was
subsequently compared to a similar one, obtained for the healthy
structure at the same span of the supporting rolls. Next, inclina-
tion angles of experimental curves in their straight parts were
compared. The ratio of the inclination angles’ tangencies was
assumed to be the equivalent of bending-moduli ratio in case of
the delaminated and the healthy beam, respectively. According to
the measured results the value of the ratio was 0.62. These tests
defined for us that the upper limit of the Young’s modulus
reduction in our numerical calculation to be 50% (Case A).
The location of the damage for Cases B and C is the same as for
Case A.
The aim of the following numerical examples is to test the
procedure for DD at the presence of temperature changes, to
detect and localize damage (delamination), to check the sensitiv-
ity of the method and to estimate the temperature influence on
the process of damage detection.
6. Results from the numerical simulations and discussion
In this section results of the detection and localization of the
defects described in the above-considered beams are discussed.
The influences of the defect and the temperature changes on the
system response are also commented.
First of all, the sensitivity of the first seven natural frequencies
of the beams (calculated by FE method) to damage are tested (see
Table 1). For the beam with a considerable fault the change in the
first natural frequency is only 0.45%. The change in the third and
the second frequencies is more essential (about 5%) and could be
eventually an indicator for damage (without showing its loca-
tion). The changes in the natural frequency in Case B and Case C
are so small (less than 1%) that they cannot be used as indicators
for damage.
Then the forced response of the beam subjected to a harmonic
loading is tested. All considered beams are subjected to two kinds
of loadings: (a) excitation with frequency equal (or very close) to
the first natural frequency and (b) excitation with a frequency
equal to a half of the first natural frequency. The beams are
additionally subjected to different temperature changes.
The beam from Case A is subjected to thermal loads:
DT ¼ 10 K, DT ¼ 20 K and DT ¼ 30 K. In all cases time history
diagrams and Poincaré maps are plotted for intact (healthy) and
damaged beams. Let us first have a look at the time histories of
the beams’ responses. In the cases when the excitation frequency
is close to the first natural frequency of the beam a beating
phenomenon is observed (c.f. [22,24]).
The influence of damage on the time history diagrams of the
beam subjected to a loading with excitation frequency
oe ¼ 5665 rad/s (  o1/2) at different temperature changes can
be seen in Fig. 2a–c. In Fig. 3a–c are shown time history diagrams
at excitation frequency almost equal to the first natural frequency

Table 1
Comparison of the natural frequencies of the healthy and damaged beams.

Mode no. Healthy beam’s natural Damaged beams

frequencies (rad/s)
Edef ¼ 0.5Eef Edef ¼ 0.8Eef Edef ¼ 0.9Eef

Frequencies Relative differences Frequencies Relative differences Frequencies Relative

(rad/s) (%) (rad/s) (%) (rad/s) differences (%)

1 11,330 11,278 0.46 11,324 0.05 11,320 0.09

2 30,996 29,365 5.26 30,671 1.05 30,737 0.84
3 60,171 57,293 4.78 59,381 1.31 59,494 1.13
4 98,265 96,239 2.06 97,756 0.52 97,580 0.70
5 144,702 140,329 3.02 144,145 0.38 143,857 0.58
6 198,818 190,244 4.31 196,753 1.04 197,348 0.74
7 259,887 249,922 3.83 256,881 1.16 257,840 0.79
 E. Manoach et al. / International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 62 (2012) 120–132 125

0.004 0.0050

0.002 0.0025
w/l

w/l
0.000
0.0000

-0.002
16000 20000 24000 28000 32000 -0.0025
0 10000 20000 30000
dimensionless time dimensionless time

0.0050

0.0025
w/l

0.0000

-0.0025
10000 15000 20000 25000 30000
dimensionless time

Fig. 2. Time histories of the beam center for different temperatures. p ¼ 50 N, oe ¼ 5665 rad/s (Case A). (a) DT ¼ 0; (b) DT ¼ 10; (c) DT ¼ 30. Black line, healthy beam;
red line, damaged beam. (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure caption, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

of the healthy beam (oe ¼ 11,330 rad/s). From these time-history
diagrams it can be concluded that the considered damage leads to
small changes in the amplitude of responses but the time
histories undergo significant changes in the period of beating. It
can be seen that at the very beginning (t ¼ 0) the responses
almost coincide. Then the phase shifts and the differences
between the responses increase (see zooms inserted in the main
figures with time histories shown for a very short period of time).
The changes are more essential when oe ¼ o1. It is reasonable to
expect that small changes in the first natural frequency due to
damage are more important when a beam is excited in the most
sensitive frequency region. The computations confirm these
expectations.
Figs. 4a–c and 5a–c show that the considered damage does not
change the type of the Poincaré map but it only slightly influences
the size of the radius of the circle formed by the dots. Never-
theless, in all cases of temperature loading the presence of
damage and its location is very well predicted by the damage
criterion based on the damage index (Eq. (26) ) (see Figs. 6 and 7).
It is important to notice that when oe E o1/2 the level of the
damage index increases with the temperature elevation, i.e. the
elevated temperature strengthens the influence of damage. How-
ever, when oe E o1, the relation between the damage index and
the temperature is opposite—the increased temperature
decreases the damage index in the delaminated area. The expla-
nation of this phenomenon is simple. The increased temperature
leads to a change of the natural frequencies of the beam and in
this way takes away the response of the beam from the most
sensitive region around the resonance. This leads to reduced
deflections in comparison with case DT ¼ 0 and the absolute
values of the corresponding damage indexes for the heated beams
are a little smaller than the damage index for the unheated beam.
This observation could be important when an excitation fre-
quency must be chosen for a damage detection purposes. In all
126 E. Manoach et al. / International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 62 (2012) 120–132

0.050
0.050

0.025
0.025
w/l

w/l
0.000
0.000

-0.025
-0.025
0 10000 20000 30000 0 10000 20000 30000
dimensionless time dimensionless time

0.06

0.03
w/l

0.00

-0.03
0 10000 20000 30000
dimensionless time

Fig. 3. Time history diagrams of the beam center at different temperatures. (a) DT ¼ 0; (b) DT ¼ 10; and (c) DT ¼ 30. p ¼ 50 N, oe ¼ 11,330 rad/s (Case A). Black line,
healthy beam; red line, damaged beam. (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure caption, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

cases the damage criterion based on the damage index suggested
here shows very good capability to predict the damage location.
The next examples aim to show the applicability of the
damage detection criterion in a case of beams having very small
faults leading to reduction of Young’s modulus by 20 or 10% only.
Usually such faults are not easy to be registered by the traditional
methods and in some cases are not dangerous for the structure.
Only those cases when the excitation frequency is practically
equal to the first natural frequency are shown here because at this
excitation the structures are more sensitive to any changes, as can
be seen from the levels of the damage indexes plotted in
Figs. 6 and 7. As can be expected the damage does not influence
essentially the Poincaré map of the response (not shown here).
Nevertheless, if one computes the damage index by Eq. (26)
the damage location is very well expressed as the nodes with the
maximal values of the function Id(x)—see Fig. 8. Similarly to the
case shown in Fig. 7 the elevated temperature decreases the value
of the damage index. However, if one tries to construct a damage
index using data for the unheated healthy beam and for the
heated damaged beam the damage index is high (which means
that there are large differences between the beams responses) but
the damage location cannot be predicted as can be seen in Fig. 9.
Moreover, the nature of the curve Id(x) in Fig. 9 could not be
considered as an indication of intact condition of the beam
because the curve Id(x) does not have a well-expressed maximum.
This example shows that it is very important to measure the data
 E. Manoach et al. / International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 62 (2012) 120–132
0.0002
dimensionless velocity
0.0000
-0.0002
-0.002
dimensionless velocity
Fig. 4. Poincaré maps for the response of the beam center at different temperatures. p ¼ 50 N, oe ¼ 5665 rad/s (Case A). (a) DT ¼ 0; (b) DT ¼ 10; and (c) DT ¼ 30. Black
dots, undamaged beam; red dots, damaged beam. (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure caption, the reader is referred to the web version of this
article.)
for the inspected damaged structure at the same temperature at
which data are collected for the reference one.
The smallest damage considered in Case C (Ed/E ¼ 0.9) leads to
very small changes in the time history diagrams and in Poincaré
maps, which for DT ¼ 15 are smaller than for DT ¼ 0 (not shown
here). Nevertheless, the computed Damage index for this case
again shows quite precisely the location of the damage—see
Fig. 10.
It is notable that the maximum of the curve, which the damage
index forms, is not in the center of the defect but at the edge of
the defect (in the direction of the increasing values of the
deflection).
7. Experimental tests
7.1. Specimens and experimental set-up
The goal of the paper is to validate the proposed method for
DD and to check its applicability by the series of experimental
laboratory tests. The specimens are composite beams prepared
from 10-layer glass-epoxy composite. The laminates were fabri-
cated according to the ‘‘prepreg’’ technology in a form of plates.
For this purpose the TVR380M12/26%/R glass-epoxy roving tape
127
0.0002
dimensionless velocity
0.0000
-0.0002
0.000 0.002 -0.002 0.000 0.002
w/l
w/l
0.00025
0.00000
-0.00025
-0.002 0.000 0.002
w/l
was used and the laminate was cured with an autoclaving
technique. A package of 10 correctly oriented composite layers
was put into a hermetic foil and a sub-atmospheric pressure of
 80 kPa was established with a vacuum pump. Next, the whole
package was placed in an autoclave under 450 kPa of over-
pressure, what kept the laminas in a correct position while curing.
The total curing time was more than 4 h with 2.5 h at a constant
135 1C temperature providing the high quality of polymerization
process.
The manufactured plates were subsequently cut into stripes –
the beams of two different widths: 12.5 7 0.5 mm and
25 7 0.5 mm. The cutting process was realized with a cutting
machine equipped with a diamond saw. Each ply’s thickness was
0.255 mm. The ply sequence was [(7451)201]s. what gave
2.55 mm of the beam thickness in total. During the manufacturing
process in the mid-plane, i.e. between the two 01-plies in chosen
places, pieces of 0.02 mm thick polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) foil
were introduced in order to imitate a damage in the form of
delamination. Such a procedure is a standard one used for making
an artificial delamination in layered composites.
The experiments have been performed for cantilever beam
samples with and without delamination and two different geo-
metries. In the first series of the specimens (Case 1) the beam
has a 93 mm length measured from the clamp and 25 mm width.
128 E. Manoach et al. / International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 62 (2012) 120–132

0.004
0.004

dimensionless velocity
dimensionless velocity

0.000
0.000

-0.004 -0.004
-0.02 0.00 0.02 -0.02 0.00 0.02
w/l w/l

0.005
dimensionless velocity

0.000

-0.005
-0.03 0.00 0.03
w/l

Fig. 5. Poincaré maps for the response of the beam center at different temperatures. p ¼ 50 N, oe ¼ 11,330 rad/s (Case A). (a) DT ¼ 0; (b) DT ¼ 10; and (c) DT ¼ 30. Black
dots, undamaged beam; red dots, damaged beam. (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure caption, the reader is referred to the web version of this
article.)

The delamination in the damaged beams has a 10 mm length and – a visional sub-system – is designed to record the movements of
it starts at 4 mm from the clamped edge. both beams in the series of images. The high speed camera that is
The second set of specimens (Case 2) is of length 100 mm and used has a maximal resolution of 1632  1200 pixels and a
width 12 7 0.5 mm. The delamination for the damaged beams corresponding speed of 1016 frames per second (fps). In the
for this series was located between 35 and 45 mm, measuring presented example the camera resolution of 912  304 pixels
from the clamp. Sketches of the samples can be seen in Fig. 11a and a speed of 6250 fps have been used. The experiment lasted
and b. 8468 ms with 52,926 recorded pictures. The position of the
These figures present the 10 markers which are plotted for camera was calibrated so that its optical axis was perpendicular
each of the beams. As can be seen in the case of the longer beam to the plane of the beam motion. This allowed us to use a 2D
the markers are not equidistance but they are condensed in the analysis method. The images have been processed in ‘‘TEMA’’
delaminated area—two markers at the edges of the delamination software by applying the best tracking algorithm, ‘‘Quad’’ [35].
and one in the middle. The ‘‘Quad’’ algorithm uses markers with a clearly defined shape.
A special clamp has been designed in order to clamp two The accuracy of this tracking method is about 0.1 pixels. The final
beams, damaged and undamaged, simultaneously. results from the analysis of the images are time series of velocities
The experimental setup has two sub-systems. The first excita- and displacements of the observed nodes.
tion sub-system consists of an electrodynamic shaker with a The experimental setup is presented in Fig. 12a and b.
dynamic range 650 N and a controller. Two composite beams
with and without a defect are placed in parallel in the handle 7.2. Experimental results
which is fixed to the shaker armature. To control the motion of
the shaker’s armature (kinematic excitation) a closed loop con- Series of experiments have been performed with the beams
troller is applied. A desired kinematic excitation follows a sine with the two different geometries. A large number of tests with
rule with 10 g amplitude (where g is the gravity acceleration) and specially selected combination of the samples have been per-
a frequency of excitation close to the first natural frequency of the formed in order to avoid any influence of the accidental differ-
bending mode. The control algorithm takes a signal from an ences in the beam’s geometry or material. One health beam has
acceleration sensor which is mounted on the clamp. The second been excited consecutively with three different damaged beams,
 E. Manoach et al. / International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 62 (2012) 120–132
Fig. 6. Damage index for a beam subjected to harmonic mechanical loading with
an amplitude p ¼ 50 N, excitation frequency oe ¼ 5665 rad/s and different
thermal loads.
Fig. 7. Damage index for a beam subjected to harmonic mechanical loading with
an amplitude p ¼ 50 N, excitation frequency oe ¼ 11,330 rad/s and different
thermal loads.
then another healthy beam has been again tested together with
three damaged beams, etc.
Case 1. For Case 1 the beams are tested with two slightly different
excitation frequencies oe ¼ 140.625 Hz and oe ¼ 140 Hz.
The results from all performed experiments are very similar. In
some of them some errors arise in the displacements and velocity
in node 10 and for these experiments node 10 has been excluded
from the computations of the damage index. Due to the limited
129
Fig. 8. Damage index for a beam (Case B) subjected to harmonic mechanical
loading with an amplitude p ¼ 10 N, excitation frequency oe ¼ 11,330 rad/s at
two thermal loads.
Fig. 9. Damage index for a beam subjected to harmonic mechanical loading with
an amplitude p ¼ 10 N, excitation frequency oe ¼ 11,330 rad/s computed taking
the response for unheated healthy beam and heated (DT ¼ 15) damaged beam.
space of the paper it is not possible to present all results received
from the experiment. Therefore, only some representative results
are presented. In Fig. 13 typical time-history diagrams for node 5
(center of delamination) are shown. The calculated damage
indexes from the responses of the beams excited with two
different frequencies are shown in Fig. 14. As can be seen the
curve of DI has a strongly expressed maximum in node 6 which
neighbors node 5 presenting the center of the delaminated area.
In order to clarify whether this maximum of DI is connected with
the delamination, the delaminated zone was marked with three
markers in the next experiment—Case 2.
Case 2. For this set of beams a simple modal analysis was
performed. Using a modal hammer with piezoelectric sensor
(to measure the input signal) and an optic sensor (to measure
the resulting displacements) the first natural frequencies of the
130 E. Manoach et al. / International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 62 (2012) 120–132

healthy and damaged beams have been determined. They are: For the second set of beams, by changing the beams which are
ou1 ¼ 125:6 Hz for the healthy beam and od1 ¼ 125:1 Hz for the simultaneously clamped, 10 tests have been performed. Three
beam with delamination. The relative difference in the first healthy and three damaged beams have been used in various
natural frequencies is 0.4%. combinations. The healthy and damaged beams have been excited
with a frequency of 125 Hz and acceleration equal to 10 g.
Actually, in 9 of all 10 experiments were obtained identical
0.06 results.
Phase–plot diagrams with Poincaré maps on them for node
6 for the healthy and damaged beams are shown in Fig. 15.
A typical plot of the measured damage index obtained for the
T=0
second sets of beams (Case 2) is shown in Fig. 16. The experi-
mentally obtained damage index has its maximum in node 6 that
0.04 is the edge of the delamination in a direction of increasing
displacements. This result has been obtained in 9 of 10 experi-
Damage index

mental series. The magnitude of the damage index varies slightly

in each experiment. This value depends on the starting time of the
sampling of the trajectories which the nodes describe in the phase
T=15 space. Only in one experiment the maximum has been obtained
0.02 in node 7.

1.5
1
2.5
0.5

0 0
2 -0.5
1 11 21 31 41
Node numbers -1
1.5 -1.5
Fig. 10. Damage index for a beam (Case C) subjected to harmonic mechanical 0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008
loading with an amplitude p ¼ 10 N, excitation frequency oe ¼ 11,330 rad/s at
two thermal loads. 1
w, mm

0.5

-0.5

-1

-1.5
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2
time, s

Fig. 13. Time history diagram for point 6. Healthy (black color) and damaged (red
color) beams. Excitation frequency oe ¼ 140 Hz. (For interpretation of the
Fig. 11. Scheme of the tested beams with the markers. (a) Beam Case 1 and references to color in this figure caption, the reader is referred to the web version
(b) beam Case 2. of this article.)

Fig. 12. Experimental set-up.

 E. Manoach et al. / International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 62 (2012) 120–132 131

4 5

4
3

Damage index
Damage index
3
2
2

1
1

0 0
1 3 5 7 9 2 4 6 8 10
Node numbers Node numbers

Fig. 14. Damage indexes (Case 1). (a) oe ¼ 140 Hz and (b) oe ¼ 140.625 Hz.

1500 5
Poincare maps

1000 4

Damage index
500 3
velocity, mm/s

0
2

-500
1

-1000
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Node numbers
-1500
-2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Fig. 16. Damage index for the beams excited with oe ¼ 125 Hz (Case 2).
w, mm

Fig. 15. Phase diagram of the response of healthy (black lines) and damaged (red
line) beams in Node 6. The Poincaré map of the damaged beam is ploted with
black dots and the Poincaré map of the healthy beam – with red dots –
oe ¼ 125 Hz. (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure caption,
the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
All experimental results allow us to conclude that the pro-
posed damage index is quite sensitive to the presence of delami-
nation and it shows exactly the edge of the delamination in the
direction of the increasing displacements. These experimental
results correspond to the results obtained numerically (see
Section 5). Obviously, the end of the defect is the location where
a sharp change of the properties of the material occurs, which
lead to the biggest disturbance in the stress and strain fields of the
beam. These changes affect the damage index.
It should be noted that the experimental study was performed
only for beams at room temperature. With these experimental
tests we proved only the capability of the proposed method for
damage detection to predict a damage and its location. The
sensitivity of the damage index to the temperature influence is
not studied experimentally due to lack of laboratory equipment.
8. Conclusions
A numerical approach has been applied to study the geome-
trically nonlinear vibration of thermally loaded composite beams
with or without damage. Computed time-domain responses have
been used to analyse the behavior of either intact or damaged
beams. Based on these analyses a concept of damage index
developed previously has been adapted and applied for a damage
detection and location. It has been demonstrated that damage can
influence substantially the time-domain response of a beam
despite its very small influence on the beam natural frequencies.
It has turned out that the influence of the temperature changes is
essential and able to change substantially the nonlinear dynamic
response of the beam. For this reason temperature changes
should be taken into account when developing damage assess-
ment procedures.
A vision based measurement technique has been applied to
test the suggested vibration based damage detection method
experimentally. Laminated beams in intact condition have been
excited simultaneously with beams having delamination and new
damage detection criteria have been tested.
The experimental results confirmed perfectly the applicability
of the method. The proposed approach for a damage detection can
be applied without a priori information of the presence of a
damage and it does not need any knowledge of the model of the
structure. These facts and the simplicity of the method make the
proposed approach for a damage detection potentially very useful
for inspection of structures in variety of industrial applications.
The authors have submitted a patent pending application for the
method to the Polish and European patent office.
132 E. Manoach et al. / International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 62 (2012) 120–132
Acknowledgments
The research leading to these results has received funding
from the European Union Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/
2007-2013), FP7-REGPOT-2009-1, under Grant agreement no.
245479. The support by Polish Ministry of Science and Higher
Education—Grant no 1471-1/7.PR UE/2010/7 is also acknowl-
edged. The first author wishes to acknowledge the partial support
received through Bulgarian NSF Grant DCVP 02/1.
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