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Space-Time Analogy in Synthetic Coherence Functions Applied to Optical

Tomography and Profilometry

Conference Paper · December 2003

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 Space-Time Analogy in Synthetic Coherence Functions
Applied to Optical Tomography and Profilometry

Mitsuo Takeda, Joseph Rosen* and Duan Zhihui

The University of Electro-Communications, Department of Information and Communication Engineering
Laboratory for Information Photonics and Wave Signal Processing, 1-5-1, Chofugaoka, Chofu, Tokyo, 182-8585, JAPAN
*
Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
P.O.Box 653, Beer-Sheva 84105, ISRAEL

Abstract Recent developments in new principles and experimental demonstrations of optical tomography
and profilometry using computer-controlled synthetic coherence functions are reviewed. A particular
emphasis is placed on space-time analogy in coherence theory, which permits one to form a unified
understanding of two different principles of optical tomography and profilometry, one being based on a
synthetic temporal coherence function and the other on a synthetic spatial coherence function.

Keywords Coherence, Tomography, Profilometry

1. Introduction

The analogy between space and time can be found in many principles of optical metrology [1]. The analogy
not only provides a new insight into the real essence of the principles, but it also gives us a hint for a new
idea of optical metrology. In this talk, we will review the recent developments in optical sensing techniques
that are based on the new principle of synthetic coherence functions. A particular emphasis will be placed on
the methodological analogy between the two novel techniques of coherence tomography and profilometry, of
which one uses a synthesized temporal coherence function and the other uses a synthesized spatial coherence
function. First we will identify the problems of existing techniques of low-coherence interferometry as a
means for optical tomography and profilometry. Next, we review the principle of new interferometry based
on temporal coherence control proposed by Hotate et al. [2-5]. Then we will show that, from the analogy
between space and time, we can think of yet another type of interferometric technique that is based on spatial
coherence control [6]. We will introduce some of our recent results of experiments that demonstrate the
validity and the potential of our spatial coherence control technique [7-9].

2. Space-Time Analogy in Coherence Theory

Wiener Khinchin Γ(τ )
As is well known [10], mutual coherence obeys two wave S (v ) Theorem
equations
 2 1 ∂2 Source Spectrum
∇1 Γ(∆r,τ ) = c 2 ∂τ 2 Γ(∆r,τ ) Temporal Coherence
 (1)
∇ 2 Γ(∆r,τ ) = 1 ∂ Γ(∆r,τ )
2
Van Cittert Zernike
 2 c 2 ∂τ 2 Theorem
where the space variable ∆r = r1 − r2 is given by the S ( xS , yS ) Γ ( ∆r )
difference between position vectors, the time variable
τ = t1 − t2 is time difference, and ∇1 and ∇ 2 are
Spatial
differentiations with respect to space variables r1 and r2 ,
Source Shape Coherence
respectively. Noting the symmetry of operations for time
and space, one may naturally expect that, if a certain Fig.1 Relation between temporal
coherence and spatial coherence.
physical law of coherence exists for time variable, a similar
law also exists for space variable, and vice versa. For example, a temporal coherence function Γ(0,τ ) is
related to the source spectral density S (ν ) through the Fourier transform by Wiener-Khinchin theorem.
Similarly, a spatial coherence function Γ( ∆r , 0) for far field is related to the source intensity distribution
S ( xS , yS ) of a spatially incoherent quasi-monochromatic source through the Fourier transform by van
Cittert-Zernike theorem.

3. Temporal Coherence Tomography and Profilometry

Various techniques have already been proposed for optical coherence tomography and profilometry. It is of
interest to note that existing techniques are based exclusively on temporal coherence.

3.1 Low-coherence tomography and profilometry

Low-coherence tomography [11] and proflimometry [12,13] use a broad-spectrum point source that produces
a high coherence peak only at a particular location where optical path difference is compensated. From the
Wiener-Khinchin Theorem, a broad source spectrum is required for high depth resolution. Therefore these
techniques intrinsically suffer from severe dispersion problems in biological applications, where dispersion
of the object and/or the propagation medium is unavoidable. Further more, the system needs to have
mechanical moving components for the compensation of optical path difference.

3.2 Synthesis of Temporal Coherence Function: The Hotate Method

The Wiener-Khinchin Theorem states that one can control the temporal coherence function if one has a
means to vary the spectral density of the light source. From the Fourier transform relation of the
Wiener-Khinchin Theorem, light from a multimode laser, whose spectral density has a comb shape
S (ν ) = comb(ν /∆ν ) with an axial mode separation ∆ν , has a temporal coherence function that is also given
by a comb function Γ(0,τ ) = comb(∆ντ ) . When this light is introduced into an interferometer, it exhibits high
coherence at selected locations where time delay τ caused by the optical path difference in the interferometer
becomes integer multiple of 1/ ∆ν . Therefore, if one can vary the axial mode separation of the multimode
laser continuously, one can section the three-dimensional volume in the interferometer by a plane
corresponding to one of the high peaks of the temporal coherence function. However, the realization of such
a variable mode-separation multimode laser still needs many technological challenges. To get around these
device-related technological challenges, Hotate et al. [2-5] proposed a new technique, which they referred to
as synthesis of (temporal) coherence function.

(a) (b) (c)

Fig.2 (a) Injection current to frequency-tunable laser diode. (b) Time-integrated effective
source spectral density. (c) Synthesized coherence function.
(K. Hotate and O. Kamatani, J. Lightwave Technol. Vol.11, 1993. Courtesy of K. Hotate)

Instead of using a multimode laser, they used a frequency-tunable single-mode laser diode as a light source
for synthesizing a temporal coherence function. By scanning the optical frequency of the tunable single-mode
laser diode with a speed much higher than the integration time of photo-detectors (or an image sensor), they
produced, in effect, a synthetic light source with an arbitrary spectral density distribution within the tunable
range of the laser diode. As shown in Fig.2 (a), the injection current to the laser diode is modulated around
the bias current i0 , where the swing of the injection current gives rise to a proportional amount of frequency
shift from the central wavelength determined by the bias current. As a consequence of time-integration of the
swinging line spectrum, the source spectral density looks as if it were that of a multimode laser as shown in
Fig.2 (b). From the Wiener-Khinchin theorem, the synthetic coherence function with multiple peaks is
obtained as shown in Fig.3 (b). The coherence sectioning can be realized by scanning the position of the
coherence peaks. For this purpose the effective mode separation, ∆ν = f sep , is varied by changing the
amplitude of the swinging injection current. Figure 3 shows examples of interference fringes generated by a
Michelson interferometer. The object is composed of two mirror surfaces indicated by a circle and a triangle,
whose optical path differences with reference to the reference mirror are 40cm and 45 cm, respectively. In

(a) (b) (c)

Fig.3 (a) Single-mode operation without current modulation. (b) Synthetic multimode operation with a
coherence peak adjusted at the left mirror indicated by a circle. (c) Synthetic multimode operation with a
coherence peak adjusted at the right mirror indicated by a triangle.
(Z.-Y. He, N. Mukohzaka, and K. Hotate, IEEE Photon. Technol. Lett., Vol.9, 1997. Courtesy of K. Hotate)
the absence of the injection-current modulation, the light source remains to have a single mode spectrum that
produces high contrast fringes on both mirror surfaces as shown in Fig.3 (a). Figures 3 (b) and (c) show the
fringes for the case of synthetic multimode operation, where a coherence peak is adjusted at the left mirror
for (b) and at the right mirror for (c). Note that the sectioning plane defined by the high coherence peak can
be scanned in the depth direction without recourse to mechanical movement of mirrors for optical path
compensation, which has been necessary in conventional law-coherence optical tomography.

4. Spatial Coherence Tomography and Profilometry

The Hotate method presented a new concept of coherence synthesis in which a temporal coherence function
was controlled by time modulation of the source spectrum. It was a significant first step toward a measuring
system that is completely free from mechanically moving components. However, the problem of dispersion
remains unsolved because the use of multiple spectral components is essential to the synthesis of temporal
coherence function, and also because the range of spectral scan must be extended if higher depth resolution is
required.

4.1 Synthesis of Spatial Coherence Function

Virtual Reference Mirror M’R
Rosen and Takeda [6] proposed an
alternative new principle of optical
tomography and profilometry that is Quasi-
Quasi-monochromatic Object Mirror MO Localized Fringes
Spatially Incoherent
based on spatial, rather than Source Beam
temporal, coherence. Instead of a L1 Splitter
point source with a broad spectrum, MR
S
an extended source with a narrow
spectrum was used in this technique. Reference
f Mirror
A desired longitudinal coherence
function was synthesized by L2

controlling the spatial structure of

an extended quasi-monochromatic Focus
Focuson
onFringes
Fringes
SpatialFrequency
Spatial Frequency CCD Localized
spatially-incoherence light source. Localizedon
onObject
Object
⇒ Angular
⇒ AngularSpectrum
Spectrum
Besides solving dispersion
problems, the proposed technique
enables a system without Fig.4 Schematic illustration of spatial coherence control system.
mechanical movement for changing the optical path difference.
A schematic diagram of the proposed system is illustrated in Fig. 4. A Michelson interferometer is
illuminated by an extended quasi-monochromatic spatially incoherent light source S, which is located in the
front focal plane of lens L1. Light emitted from point source S is collimated by lens L1 and split into two
beams by prism beam splitter P. The interference fringes generated on the CCD image sensor are the result of
combination of images of the two optical field distributions, i.e., the optical field distributions at object
mirror MO and reference mirror MR. The surface of object mirror MO is exactly focused by lens L2 and
imaged onto a CCD image sensor. It can be shown [8] that the fringe intensity detected by the CCD sensor is
given by
  4π 
I ( x, y ) = B 1 + µ  d ( x, y ), α x , α y  cos  d ( x, y ) + φ   , (2)
 λ 
where B = ∫∫ I S ( xS , yS )dxS dyS , and d ( x, y ) and (α x , α y ) are the distance and the tilt angle between
object mirror MO and virtual reference mirror M’R, respectively. The function µ  d ( x, y ), α x , α y  is a
 
longitudinal complex degree of coherence defined by

2π d ( x, y )
∫∫ I S ( xS , yS ) exp{− j
λf 2
[( xS − f α x ) 2 + ( yS − f α y ) 2 ]}dxS dyS
µ[d ( x, y ), α x , α y ] = , (3)
∫∫ S S S S S
I ( x , y )dx dy
where I S ( xS , yS ) is the intensity of the spatially incoherent light source at point S ( xS , yS ) , f is focal
length of lens L1, and λ is wavelength of the quasi-monochromatic light. Equation (3) can be regarded as a
generalized van Cittert-Zernike theorem that relates the longitudinal (rather than lateral) spatial coherence
function to the intensity distribution of the quasi-monochromatic spatially incoherent light source. Whereas
the lateral spatial coherence function is given by the Fourier transform of a source intensity distribution in the
conventional van Cittert-Zernike theorem, the longitudinal coherence function is given by the Fresnel
transform of the source intensity distribution.

Zone plate on GG plane

MO
GG
Laser C L’p Lp L1 PS MR

P SF Original zone plate

SLM displayed on monitor
L2

PC CCD

Fig.5 Experimental setup.

 Now the problem is to find a nonnegative light source intensity distribution that maximizes modulus of the
complex degree of coherence for a specified condition on the object distance and the tilt angle of the
reference mirror. Let us note that Eq. (3) has the same form as the Fresnel diffraction formula for the field at
point ( f α x , f α y ) on an observation plane located at distance l = f 2 / 2d from the aperture. If regarded as a
diffraction problem, a nonnegative aperture function that can form a strong light concentration at the
observation point is a Fresnel zone plate of the form
1
I S ( xS , yS ) = 1 + cos{−2πγ [( xS − ξ x ) 2 + ( yS − ξ y ) 2 ] + β } , (4)
2
where γ = d / λ f 2 , which makes the focal length of the zone plate equal to l = f 2 / 2d , and the center of the
zone plate is laterally shifted by ξ x = f α x and ξ y = f α x to focus on the point at ( f α x , f α y ) . Besides the
positive focal length l = f 2 / 2d = 1/(2γλ ) corresponding to the first-order diffraction, the Fresnel zone plate
also has a negative focal length −l and a focal length of infinity corresponding, respectively, to the minus
first-order and the zero order diffractions. Just as the Fresnel zone plate forms strong light concentrations at
its focal points located at ±l and infinity, so does a spatially incoherent quasi-monochromatic source of the
form Eq. (4) generate a high coherence peaks at
three positions for which d = ±γλ f 2 and d = 0 .
By changing the parameter γ of the zone plate
with a spatial light modulator (SLM), one can
adjust the peak of the longitudinal spatial
coherence function to a plane of desired depth at
which the object is to be sectioned.

4.2 Experiment

A schematic illustration of experimental setup is

shown in Fig.5. Linearly polarized light from a
15mW He-Ne laser was expanded and collimated
by collimator lens C to illuminate a
liquid-crystal-based SLM, which modulates light
intensity transmitted by analyzer P placed
immediately behind SLM. A computer-generated
Fresnel zone plate pattern was displayed on the
SLM, and was imaged onto a rotating ground Fig.6 Distribution of degree of coherence along optical axis
glass GG by a combination of lenses L’p and Lp obtained by experiment.
through a pinhole SF, which functions as a
spatial filter to smooth out the discrete pixel
structure of SLM. The image of the Fresnel
zone plate on the rotating ground glass
serves as a quasi-monochromatic incoherent
light source. The light from the zone plate
source was collimated by lens L1 and was
introduced into a Michelson interferometer
made of prism beam splitter PS, reference
mirror MR, and object mirror MO, the surface
of which is imaged by lens L2 onto the
sensor plane of CCD camera.

4.2.1 Longitudinal coherence distribution for

a fixed zone plate source

We produced a zone plate source with the

scaling parameter γ = d /(λ f 2 ) for
d=1mm, λ =633nm and f=300mm, and Fig.7. Variation of the degree of coherence with
detected the degree of longitudinal coherence the lateral shift of the zone plate source.
by moving the reference mirror along the optical axis. According to the theory, high coherence peaks will
appear at three positions where the distance between the two mirrors is equal to 1mm, -1mm and 0mm. The
degree of coherence degree obtained by experiment is shown in Fig.6. As predicted from the theoretical
analysis in the previous section, we find three high coherent peaks corresponding to the plus and minus first
peaks at d = ±γλ f 2 , and the zero peak at d = 0 . The distance between the plus/minus first peak and the
zero peak was found to be in agreement with the distance of d=1mm used for designing the zone plate source.
Shown on the top of Fig.6 are fringe pattern observed at the corresponding locations on the longitudinal axis.

4.2.2 Detection of a mirror tilt by shifting the center of zone plate source

From the analysis of the previous section, the inclination between two mirrors can be measured by scanning
the shifting parameters (ξ x , ξ y ) of the zone plate source. In this experiment, we fixed the distance between
the two mirrors to 3mm, and adjusted the scaling parameter γ of the zone plate source so as to bring the
first coherence peak to this mirror distance. Then we gave a lateral displacement to the center of the zone
plate source and observed the change in the degree of coherence. The result of the measurement of the degree
of coherence is shown in Fig.7, where the sequence
number of the zone plate that gives the highest
coherence peak identifies the amount of the inclination
between the two mirrors. Noting that we cannot
determine the sign of the tilt angle from a single fringe
pattern obtained by conventional interferometry, we
performed an experiment to demonstrate a potential
application of the proposed zone plate shift technique.
By fixing the distance between the mirrors to 1.5mm,
we switched between the two particular states of
mirror tilts, where the mirrors have the same
inclination angles but opposite signs in reference to
the optical axis. These two states are not
distinguishable in conventional interferometry. Figure
8 shows the change of the degree of coherence as we Fig.8. Variation of the degree of coherence
moved the center of the zone plate source. Two peaks with the lateral shift of the zone plate source.
are observed for the tilts with opposite signs. As seen The sign of the tilt can be determined from the
in the figure, we can clearly distinguish the signs of position of the peak.
the tilts from the position of the peak of the degree of
coherence.

4.2.3 Three-dimensional shape

measurement by means of longitudinal
spatial coherence scanning

The potential of the proposed technique

is examined by measuring the shape of a
discontinuous three-dimensional object
with a 2 mm step height made by a set of
standard gauge blocks from Mitutoyo
Company. According to the theory, high
degree coherence is realized on each
surface of the step only under the
condition that both scaling parameter
and shifting parameters of the zone plate
source match the distance and the
inclination between the object mirror
and the reference mirror simultaneously.
The schematic illustration of the height Fig.9. Result of step-height measurement.
step and the result of measurement are
shown in Fig.9. The obtained step height was in good agreement with the height given by the standard gauge
blocks, which demonstrates the potential of the proposed principle for the practical application to optical
profilometry and tomography.

5. Relation between Temporal Coherence Synthesis and Spatial Coherence Synthesis

From the viewpoint of space-time analogy, some comments on the relation between the Hotate method of
temporal coherence synthesis and our technique of spatial coherence synthesis may be in order. As
schematically illustrated in the top of Fig.10, temporal coherence synthesis is based on the modulation of the
optical frequency spectrum of a frequency-tunable light source. On the other hand, spatial coherence
synthesis is based on the modulation of the spatial frequency spectrum of light from a spatially incoherent
quasi-monochromatic light source. Because of the Fourier transform operation of the collimator lens L1 in
Fig.4, every point on the quasi-monochromatic spatially incoherent source S corresponds to one (angular)
spatial frequency component. Therefore, changing the intensity distribution of the extended spatially
incoherent source with a SLM can be interpreted as changing the spatial angular frequency spectra of the
light source, as shown in the bottom of Fig.10. Thus the intensity variation of the source in the radial
direction of the Fresnel zone plate corresponds to the comb-shaped spectral density function of the Hotate
method. If the frequency-tunable diode laser were modulated in such a manner that the spectral density
function of Fig. 2 (b) has a shape of a pure sinusoid rather than the comb shape, then the temporal coherence
function synthesized by the Hotate method would have three coherence peaks (rather than the comb shape)
similar to the longitudinal spatial coherence function shown in Fig. 6. The suppression of higher-order
multiple peaks in comb-shaped temporal coherence function would be advantageous because it removes the
ambiguity as to which order of the multiple coherence peaks is generating the observed high contrast fringes,
although the sinusoidal modulation would require more sophisticated control of the injection current to the
tunable laser diode. As we have noted, the spatial coherence function of Eq. (3) (obtained from the
generalized van Cittert-Zernike theorem) is related to the source intensity distribution through the Fresnel
transform rather than the Fourier transform. Therefore its form is not exactly analogous to Wiener-Khinchin
theorem of temporal coherence function. This is because the spatial coherence function of our interest for the
purpose of tomography and profilometry is a longitudinal spatial coherence function that describes the
coherence between two points separated along the direction of light propagation. If synthesis of a lateral

Modulated Optical Frequencyω

exp(iω t ) exp(iω t ) d
A A’
A A’
2d
Temporal Coherence Synthesis ∆φ = ω ∆t = ω = 2mπ
c
Modulated Spatial Frequency k exp(ik ir )
exp(ik ir )
d
θ
A A’

A A’
Spatial Coherence Synthesis ∆φ = k ∆l = k × 2d cos θ = 2mπ
Fig.10 Analogy between temporal coherence synthesis (top) and spatial coherence synthesis
 spatial coherence function were of our interest, Eq. (3) would become the Fourier transform, and the Fresnel
zone plate source intensity distribution would be replaced by a two-dimensional sinusoidal intensity
distribution whose two-dimensional spatial frequency is proportional to the direction and the lateral
separation of the pair of points for which the high spatial coherence function is to be synthesized.

6. Conclusion

We reviewed new principles and experimental demonstration of optical tomography and profilometry using
synthesized coherence functions. Based on space-time analogy in coherence theory, we presented a unified
interpretation of the relation between the techniques based on temporal coherence synthesis and the spatial
coherence synthesis, both of which make possible a system of optical tomography and profilometry that is
free from mechanically moving components. Another important feature of optical metrology based on spatial
coherence synthesis is that it is completely free from the problems of dispersion and inhomogeneous spectral
absorption, which are often encountered in biological applications. For example, if a highly absorbing object
or medium has a low-absorbing spectral window, the use of the quasi-monochromatic source in spatial
coherence synthesis permits one to tune the spectrum to the low-absorbing spectral window.

Acknowledgment

We are grateful to Prof. Kazuo Hotate of The University of Tokyo, who provided us with the reprints of his
papers and granted to use the figures therein for this review.

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