Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Airport Engineering PDF
Airport Engineering PDF
Airport Engineering
Aviation is the design, development, production, operation, and use of aircraft.
Role of Air transportation:
Improves accessibility to otherwise inaccessible areas
Provides continuous connectivity over land and water (no change of equipment)
Saves productive time, spent on journey
Increase the demand of specialized technical skill workforce.
Adds to the foreign reserve through tourism
Speed: Modern jet can travel at 1000 km/h
Promotion of trade and commerce
Military use
Relief and rescue operations
Aerial photography
Agricultural spraying
Safe mode of transport.
Disadvantages of air transport
Heavy funds are required, not only initially but also during operation.
Operations are highly dependent up on weather conditions.
It needs highly sophisticated machinery:
Adds to the outward flow of foreign reserve
Noise pollution
Safety provisions are not adequate
Specific demarcation of flight paths and territories is essential.
High energy consumption
Air Transport in Nepal
1949: The date heralded the formal beginning of aviation in Nepal with the landing of a 4 seated lone
powered vintage beach-craft Bonanza aircraft of Indian ambassador Mr. Sarjit Singh Mahathia at
Gauchar.
1950: The first Charter flight By Himalayan Aviation Dakota FromGoucher to Kolkata.
1955: King Mahendra inaugurated Gauchar Airport and renamed it as Tribhuwan Airport.
1957: Grassy runway transformed into a concrete one.
1957: Department of civil Aviation Founded.
1958: Royal Nepal Airlines started scheduled service domestically and externally.
1959: RNAC fully owned by HMG/N as a public undertaking.
1960: Nepal Attained ICAO membership.
1964: Tribhuvan Airport renamed as Tribhuvan International Airport.
1967: The 3750 feet long runway extended to 6600 feet.
1967: Landing of the German Airlines Lufthansa Boeing 707.
1968: Thai International starts its scheduled jet air services.
1972: Nepalese jet aircraft Boeing 727/100 makes debut landing at TIA. ATC services taken over by
Nepalese personnel from Indian Technicians.
1975: TIA runway extended to 10000 feet from the previous 6600 feet.
1975: CATC established.
1976: FIC (Flight information Center) established.
1977: Nepal imprinted in the World Aeronautical.
1989: Completion of international Terminal Building and first Concorde landing.
1990: New International terminal Building Of TIA inaugurated by king Birendra.
1992: Adoption of Liberal Aviation Policy and emergence of private sector in domestic air transport. 1993: National
Civil Aviation Policy Promulgated.
1995: Domestic terminal Building of TIA and Apron expanded at TIA.
1998: COSCAP-SA project established. Inauguration of RADAR System at TIA by Rt. Hon. P.M. Girija Prasad Koirala.
2002: Expansion of the International Terminal Building at TIA and the construction of a new air cargo complex.
2003: Rara airport (Mugu), Kangeldandasirport (Solukhumbu) and Thamkharka airport (Khotang) brought in
Operation.
2004: Domestic operation by jet aircraft commenced.
2005: International Flight by two private operator began.
2006: A new comprehensive Aviation Policy introduced. GMG Airlines of Bangladesh, Korean Air and Air Arabia
started air service to Nepal.
2007: Site identified for a new second international airport. Etihad, Dragon Air, Orient Thai and Hong Kong Express
commenced their service to Nepal.
2009: RCAG station established in Nepalgunj to augment coverage of VHF communications in Air Traffic Control.
2010: An agreement of SDR 44388000 signed between Nepal Government and CAAN for capacity Enhancement
project of TIA under ADB loan.
2011: Tumlingtar and Simikot runways paved. Installation of new DVOR/DME at KTM and BIR.
2012: Introduction of RNP AR procedures at TIA effected from June. AMHS commissioned CAA received TRAINAIR
PLUS Associate Membership from ICAO.
2013: Installation of CNS & ATM Equipment at TIA to enhance ATC Capacity. Up gradation of DVOR/DME and RMM
at Nepalgunj, Bhairahawa, Simara and Maintenance Hut.
2014: Commencement of Installation of Terminal Monopulse Secondary Surveillance Radar (T-MSSR) at TIA and
enroute MSSR at Bhattedanda under Japanese Grant AID.
2015: Gautam Buddha International Airport foundation stone laid down by Rt. Hon’ PM Sushil Korala. New Domestic
Terminal Building Constructed at TIA. Total 23 Airports including TIA are paved.
2016: Pokhara Regional/Intl’ Airport Construction Foundation Stone Laid down by Rt. Hon’ PM K.P. Oli (2016 April
13).
International Civil Aviation organization
ICAO
Established in 1944 as a result of Chicago convention Headquarter is in
Montreal, Canada.
It is made up of an assembly, a council of limited membership with various
subordinate bodies and a secretariat.
Assembly composed of representatives from all contracting states, is the
sovereign body of ICAO
The council the governing body which is elected by the assembly for a three
year term is composed of 36 states.
ICAO aims and objectives are to develop the principles and techniques of
international air navigation and to foster the planning and development of
international air transport so as to
◦ Insure the safe and orderly growth of international civil aviation throughout the world.
◦ Encourage the arts of aircraft design and operation for peaceful purposes
◦ Encourage the development of airways, airports, and air navigation facilities for
international civil aviation
◦ Meet the needs of the peoples of the world for safe, regular, efficient and economical air
transport.
Federal Aviation Agency-FAA
The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) of the United States is a
national authority with powers to regulate all aspects of civil aviation. These
include the construction and operation of airports, air traffic management, the
certification of personnel and aircraft, and the protection of U.S. assets during the
launch or re-entry of commercial space vehicles.
The FAA's roles include:
Regulating U.S. commercial space transportation
Regulating air navigation facilities' geometric and flight inspection standards
Encouraging and developing civil aeronautics, including new aviation technology
Issuing, suspending, or revoking pilot certificates.
Regulating civil aviation to promote transportation safety in the United States,
especially through local offices called Flight Standards District Offices.
Developing and operating a system of air traffic control and navigation for
both civil and military aircraft
Researching and developing the National Airspace System and civil aeronautics
Developing and carrying out programs to control aircraft noise and other
environmental effects of civil aviation
Civil Aviation Authority of Nepal
CAAN
The Civil Aviation Authority of Nepal CAAN, ( नेपाल नागरिक उड्डयन
प्राधिकिण) is an independent Nepali government body since 1998, is
headquartered in Kathmandu.
The CAAN began in 1957 as an agency under what was the Ministry of
Work, Communications and Transport. On 31 December 1998, as a result of
the Civil Aviation Act of 1996, the CAAN was established as an independent
regulatory body. It is the board which issues new pilot licenses, renews
licenses and convert the licenses through various tests.
Now It lies under Ministry of Culture, Tourism and Civil Aviation.
Major tasks of CAAN
Issuance of Airworthiness Certificate and License, Rating and Certificate to
aviation personnel
Safety Oversight of Aviation Service Provider Organizations
Issuance of Technical Regulations like Civil Aviation Requirements, Directives,
Manuals, Advisory Circulars etc.
Certification of Aerodromes
Construction, Operations and Management of aerodromes
Provide Air Navigation Services except Aviation Meteorology
Advise Government of Nepal on Civil Aviation Matters
5.1 Classification of Airport
There are different classifications by the related organizations such as ICAO, FAA etc.
1. Based on take-off and landing
Conventional take-off and landing airport (runway length > 1500 m.
Reduced take-off and landing airport (runway length 1000 to 1500m)
Short take-off and landing airport (runway length 500 to 1000m)
Vertical take-off and landing airport (operational area 25 to 50 sq. m.)
2. Based on the Geometric design (ICAO)
It employs aerodrome reference code, it consists of length of runway available
Classified using code number 1 through 4
◦ Aircraft wing span and outer main gear wheel span
Classified using letters A through E
◦ ICAO classification based on wing span and outer main gear wheel span
3. Based on function:
Civil aviation airports
Domestic airports
International airports
Combination of international and domestic
4. Military aviation airports
5.2 Aircraft types
Ornithoptor
Gyroplane
Turbo prop
Ram jet
Turbo fan
d. CLASSIFICATION BASED ON NUMBER
OF ENGINES
This varies depending on the mission requirements of
the particular aircraft.
e. CLASSIFICATION BASED ON NUMBER
OF WINGS
Monoplanes
Biplanes etc.
Present day aircrafts have a Monoplane configuration
j. SPECIAL AIRCRAFT
Helicopter
Ornithopter or Flapping wing aircraft
Flying Wing Aircraft
Stealth Aircraft
Components of Aircraft
A. Engine
1. Piston engine: It is powered by gasoline fed reciprocating
engine and is driven by propeller or airscrew. Engine rotates a
shaft with a considerable amount of torque. Propeller is
mounted on the shaft to absorb the torque. Rotating propeller
attains its rated speed, huge masses of air is hurled rearwards
thereby pulling the aircraft forward and creating lift on the wing.
They are suitable to operate at low altitudes and moderate
speed. They have cooling problem also.
2. Jet engine: advantages of jet engine
a. they are free from vibration
b. Simplicity of operation (no transmission or conversion
mechanism is required)
c. No radiators required
d. No spark plugs are required
e. No carburetors
f. Less consumption of lubricants
Turbo Jet, Turbo Prop, Ram Jet
3. Rocket engine
B. Fuselage:
It is main body of the aircraft and provides space for the
power plant, fuel, cockpit, passenger, cargo etc.
C. Wings:
Wings are required to support the machine in the air,
when the engine has given forward speed.
D. Three Controls:
There are three axes about which an aircraft in space may move to control
these movements an aircraft is provided with three principal controls:
i) Elevator: elevator consists of two flaps capable of moving up and down
through an angle of 50-60 degree. They are hinged to a fixed horizontal surface
at the extreme rear end of fuselage. It controls the pitch of the aircraft.
ii) Rudder: It consists of a flap hinged to a vertical line provided at the tail end of
fuselage. It is utilized for turning (or yawing) movement of the aircraft. It works
just a boat is steered in water.
iii) Aileron: it is hinged flap in the trailing edge of the wing. It is for rolling
movement control.
E. Tricycle under-carriage:
Tricycle undercarriage if for supporting the aircraft while it is in contact
with the ground. Functions:
To absorb landing shocks
To enable the aircraft to maneuver on the ground
Types:
Single wheel assembly
Dual wheel assembly
Dual wheel assembly in Tandem
Aircraft Characteristics:
1. Engine type and propulsion
2. Size of aircraft
3. Minimum turning radius
4. Minimum circling radius
5. Speed of aircraft
6. Capacity of the aircraft
7. Aircraft weight & wheel configuration
8. Jet Blast
9. Fuel spillage
10. Noise
5.3 Predicting Air Travel demand
Prediction or Forecasting air travel demand are used to:
a) assist States in facilitating the orderly development of civil
aviation and to assist all levels of government in the planning of
airspace and airport infrastructure such as air traffic control,
terminal facilities, access roads, runways, taxiways and aprons;
b) assist airlines in the long-term planning of equipment and
route structures; and
c) assist aircraft manufacturers in planning future types of
aircraft (in terms of size and range) and when to develop them.
Forecasting methods in general can be divided into three broad
categories:
quantitative or mathematical,
qualitative or judgmental, and
decision analysis,
It is necessary for the planning of future air traffic
requirements. Based on the estimate various
component parts of the airport are planned. Following
items of air traffic are needed to estimate:
Annual passenger volume
Annual volume of air traffic
Peak day or peak hour volume of passenger or air
cargo
Air cargo
Air Mail
General aviation
Alternative Forecasting Technique
Methods of forecasting:
a. Demand based on historical trend
These methods are based on the trends established the past growth rate of passenger handled, cargo handled, aircraft
landing and takeoff.
Tn = T0 (1+ r)ˆn
◦ Tn – Traffic in the nth year
◦ To – Traffic in the base year
◦ n – Number of year
◦ r – Annual growth rate of traffic expressed in decimals
b. Demand forecast based on econometric models
These methods relate air traffic to various economic and social factors, based on the study of the past data on these
factors. Economic and factors such as GNP, Per capita income, population, industrial production etc. can be used as the
explanatory variables. A multiple linear regression model can be incorporated for future forecast.
AT = A0 + A1X1 + A2X2 +........AnXn
◦ AT – air traffic in terms of passenger, Passenger Km, tones of cargo, ton-km of cargo etc.
◦ A0 – Regression constant
◦ A1, A2, A3… - Regression coefficients
◦ X1, X2, X3 ….. – Independent variables
c. Gravity models
It relates the passenger flow or cargo flow between a pair of cities to the economic activities in the cities or population of
the cities and incorporating an independent factor.
ATij=(PiPj)/dij
◦ Atij – Air traffic between cities I and j
◦ Pi, Pj – population of cities I and j
◦ dij – distance between i and j
◦ n – a constant to be calibrated
5.4 Selection of Airport site
Suitable site for airport depends upon the class of the airport.
Factors to be considered for a suitable airport site are:
1. Consistency with Regional plan
2. Operational capability: airspace considerations, obstructions, weather etc.
3. Airport use: military, civil, etc.
4. Proximity to other airport: minimum spacing between two airports:
◦ Airport for general aviation under VFR 3.2 km
◦ For two piston aircraft VFR: 6.4 km
◦ Piston engine IFR: 25.6 km
◦ Jet engine aircraft: 160 km. (*VFR- Visual Flight Rules)
5. Ground accessibility: normally it should not exceed 30 minute drive form the city. It is desirable to
locate airport adjacent to the highway.
6. Topography: hill top is most suitable
7. Visibility: free from fog, smoke haze etc.
8. Wind: runway orientation should be: landing and takeoff is done by heading into wind. Smoke from
city and industry should not blow over the airport.
9. Noise nuisance: landing and takeoff path should not pas over the residential or industrial areas.
10. Grading, drainage and soil characteristics
11. Future development
12. availabilities of utilities from town
13. economic considerations
5.5 Layout of Airfields and their geometric standards
Airport Layout
Layout of an airport is dependent upon a number of
factors the most important are:
1. Number and orientation of runways
2. Number of taxiways
3. Size and shape of aprons
4. The area and shape of land
5. Topography and site soil conditions
6. Obstacle to air navigation
7. Required proximity of land uses within the airport
boundary
8. Surrounding land uses
9. Timing and scale of phased development of the airport
10. Meteorology
11. Size and scale of airport facilities being planned
Components of Airport Layout
Runway
Terminal Building
Apron
Taxiway
Aircraft Stand
Hanger
Control Tower
Parking
A. Runway
A runway is the area where an aircraft lands or takes off.
It can be grass, or packed dirt, or a hard surface such as asphalt or
concrete.
Runways have special markings on them to help a pilot in the air to tell
that it is a runway (and not a road) and to help them when they are
landing or taking off.
Runway markings are white.
Most runways have numbers on the end. The number is the runway's
compass direction. (For example, runway numbered 36 would be
pointing north or 360 degrees). Some airports have more than one
runway going in the same direction, so they add letters to the end of
the number R for right, C for center, and L for left. The other end of
the runway is pointing in the opposite direction, so it gets a different
number. The runway called 36 would be called 18 (for 180 degrees) if
you were looking at it from the other end.
Runways may have other markings besides the end number on them.
They may have white stripes down the middle of them, and solid white
lines on the edges.
The most important thing for you to remember about a runway is that
it is meant for aircraft use, so you should never drive your vehicle on it,
unless you are authorized to do so.
B.Terminal Buildings
Also known as airport terminal
These buildings are the spaces where passengers board
or alight from flights.
These buildings house all the necessary facilities for
passengers to check-in their luggage, clear the customs
and have lounges to wait before disembarking.
The terminals can house cafes, lounges and bars to serve
as waiting areas for passengers.
Ticket counters, luggage check-in or transfer, security
checks and customs are the basics of all airport
terminals.
Large airports can have more than one terminal that are
connected to one another through link ways such as
walkways, sky-bridges or trams.
Smaller airports usually have only one terminal that
houses all the required facilities.
C. Aprons
Aircraft aprons are the areas where the aircraft park.
Aprons are also sometimes called ramps.
They vary in size, from areas that may hold five or ten small
planes, to the very large areas that the major airports have.
Unlike the runways or taxiways, vehicles can use aprons.
D.Taxiway
A taxiway is a path on an airport connecting runways with ramps,
hangars, terminals and other facilities.
They mostly have hard surface such as asphalt or concrete,
although smaller airports sometimes use gravel or grass.
E. Aircraft Stand
A portion of an apron designated as a taxiway and
intended to provide access to aircraft stands only.
F. Hangar
A hangar is a closed building structure to hold aircraft.
Hangars are built of metal, wood and concrete.
The word hangar comes from Middle French hanghart
("enclosure near a house"), of Germanic origin, from Frankish
*haimgard ("home-enclosure", "fence around a group of
houses"), from *haim ("home, village, hamlet") and gard ("yard").
Hangars are used for protection from the weather, direct
sunlight, maintenance, repair, manufacture, assembly and storage
of aircraft.
G. Control Tower
A tower at an airfield from which air traffic is
controlled by radio and observed physically and by
radar.
H. Parking
Parking is a specific area of airport at which vehicles park
Geometric Standards
Runway
Runway Orientation:
◦ Because of obvious advantages of landing and taking off into the
wind, runways are oriented in the direction of prevailing wind.
◦ Aircraft may not maneuver safely on a runway when wind contains
large component at right angle to the direction of travel.
◦ The point at which this component (cross wind component)
becomes excessive will depend upon the size and operating
characteristics of the aircraft.
Factors affecting the determination of the siting,
orientation and number of runways:
◦ weather, in particular the runway/aerodrome usability factor, as
determined by wind distribution, and the occurrence of localized
fogs;
◦ topography of the aerodrome site and its surroundings;
◦ type and amount of air traffic to be served, including air traffic
control aspects;
◦ airplane performance considerations; and
◦ environmental considerations, particularly noise.
Airport Refrence code Allowable Crosswind
Component
A-I and B-I 10.5 kt (knot)
A-II and B-II 13.0 kt
A-III, B-III, and C-I through D-III 16.0 kt
A-IV through D-VI 20.0 kt
Holding
bays
By pass
Apron
An apron is a defined area intended to accommodate aircraft for purposes of
loading and unloading passengers, mail or cargo, fuelling and parking or
maintenance. The apron is generally paved but may occasionally be unpaved;
for example, in some instances, a turf parking apron may be adequate for small
aircraft
Types:
1. Passenger apron: The passenger terminal apron is an area designed for
aircraft maneuvering and parking that is adjacent or readily accessible to
passenger terminal facilities. This area is where passengers board the aircraft
from the passenger terminal. In addition to facilitating passenger movement, the
passenger terminal apron is used for aircraft fuelling and maintenance as well as
loading and unloading cargo, mail and baggage. Individual aircraft parking positions
on the passenger terminal apron are referred to as aircraft stands.
2. Cargo terminal apron: Aircraft that carry only freight and mail may be
provided a separate cargo terminal apron adjacent to a cargo terminal building.
The separation of cargo and passenger aircraft is desirable because of the
different types of facilities each requires both on the apron and at the terminal
3. Remote parking apron: In addition to the terminal apron, airports may
require a separate parking apron where aircraft can park for extended periods.
4. Service hanger apron: A service apron is an uncovered area adjacent to an
aircraft hangar on which aircraft maintenance can be performed, while a hangar
apron is an area on which aircraft move into and out of a storage hangar.
5. General aviation aircraft, used for business or personal flying, require
several categories of aprons to support different general aviation activities.
General layout of apron:
The amount of area required for a particular apron layout depends
upon the following factors:
◦ the size and maneuverability characteristics of the aircraft using the
apron;
◦ the volume of traffic using the apron;
◦ clearance requirements;
◦ type of ingress and egress to the aircraft stand;
◦ basic terminal layout or other airport use
◦ aircraft ground activity requirements; and
◦ taxiways and service roads.
5.6 Terminal facilities and their space requirements
Terminal area:
Area other than landing, serves for other activities
includes:
◦ Terminal and operational building for managerial & operational
activities
◦ Vehicle parking area
◦ Aircraft service Hanger
Various facilities provided in airport terminal building:
a. Passenger and baggage handling counter b. Baggage claim section
c. Enquire counter d. Space for handling & processing mail, cargo etc.
e. Public Telephone booth f. Waiting hall for passenger & visitors
g. Toile facilities h. Restaurants & Bars
i. First aid room j. General store & gift store
k. Space for newspapers l. Space for airport staff
m. Weather bureau n. Post office
o. Bank p. Custom control
q. Security & Police r. Passport control
s. Airline office
Functions of the airport passenger terminal
Airport terminal constituents one of the principle elements of infrastructure
cost at the airport. The passenger terminal performs mainly three functions:
a) Change of mode:
few air trips are made direct from origin to destination. By their nature, air
trips are mixed mode trips, with surface access trips linked at either end to the
line haul air trips. These movement patterns are accommodated by passenger
circulation areas.
b) Processing:
the terminal is a convenient point to carry out certain processes associated
with air trip. These may include ticketing and checking in the passengers. This
function of the terminal requires passenger processing space.
c) Change of movement type:
although aircraft move passengers in discrete groups in what is termed "batch
movements", the same passengers access the airport on an almost continuous
basis, arriving and departing in small groups mainly by bus, auto, taxi and etc. the
terminal therefore functions on the departure side as a reservoir that collects
passengers continuously and processes them in batches. On the arrivals side,
the pattern is reverse. To perform this function, the terminal must provide
passenger holding apace.
Facilities required for Passenger terminal
The terminal acts as the transfer point between the land and air side portions of the mixed mode 'air trip' made by
air passenger. The facilities can be categorized as follows:
1. Access including the land side interface
The facilities include curbside loading and unloading, curbside baggage check in, shuttle services to parking lots
another terminal, and loading and unloading area.
2. Passenger processing area:
The area is designated for formalities associated with processing passengers. The usual facilities include airline
ticketing and passenger check-in, baggage check-in, gate check-in, incoming and outgoing customs, immigration
control, health control, security check up, and baggage claim.
3. Passenger holding areas,
A very large portion of the passenger's time at the airport is spent outside the individual processing areas. Non-
processing time, the large portion is spent in holding areas where passenger wait, in some cases with airport
visitors, between periods occupied by passing through the various processing facilities. Following facilities are
required:
Passenger lounges
Passenger service areas: wash rooms, public telephone, post office, information desk, first aid, valet service,
barber beauty parlours etc.
Concessions: bars, restaurants,
Observation desk and visitors lobbies: including VIP facilities
4. Internal circulation and airside interface
Passenger move physically through the terminal system using the internal circulation system which should be simple
to find and follow and easy to negotiate. The airside interface is designed for secure and easy boarding of the
aircraft. Internal circulation is handled by corridors, walkways, people movers, and moving belts, ramps, tramways.
Airside interface requirements include loading facilities such as jetways, stairs, air bridges and mobile launges.
5. Airline and support areas
Although airline terminals are designed primarily for airline passengers, most of whom will be quite
unfamiliar with their surroundings, the design must also cater to the needs of airline, airport, and
support personnel working in terminal area.
Following facilities are required:
1. Airline offices, passenger and baggage processing stations, telecommunications, flight
planning documentation, crew rest facilities, air line station administration, staff and crew toilets, rest
and refreshment areas.
2. Storage for wheel chairs,
3. Airport management offices
4. Governmental office and support area for staff working in customs, immigration, health,
and air passenger and traffic control,
5. Public address system, sign indicators and support areas flight information
6. Maintenance personnel offices and support areas, maintenance equipment storage.
6. Passenger and baggage flow
An adequately designed airport terminal is the work of a designer who understands the various flows
of passengers and baggage at a terminal. The figure below shows the typical flow of passenger and
baggage.