MUHAMMAD ANEES ID: 8436

Question no 1
Discuss harbour classification based on protection and utility needs.
Answer

classification of habour depending upon the protection needed

Harbor:
A harbor can be characterized as a protected territory of the ocean where vessels
could be propelled, manufactured or taken for fix; or could look for asylum in time of
tempest; or accommodate stacking and emptying of payload and travelers.

1.Natural Harbour or natural Roadstead:

Regular arrangements managing safe release offices for ships on ocean coasts, as springs
and bowls, are called characteristic harbours.
With the quick advancement of naval forces connected either in trade or war,
improved settlement and offices for fixes, capacity of freight and associated luxuries
must be given in common harbours.
The size and draft of present day vessels have required the works improvement for
regular harbours.
The elements, for example, neighbourhood topographical highlights, development of
populace, advancement of the region, and so forth have made the common harbours
enormous and alluring. Bombay and Kendal are, instances of regular harbours.
Natural roadstead:
 A deep navigable channel with a protective natural bank or shoal to seaward is a good
example of a natural roadstead.
 A confined area naturally enclosed by islands as in a creek if available is known as a
circumscribed natural roadstead.
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2.Semi-natural Harbour:
This type of harbour is protected on sides by headlands protection and it requires man-made
protection only at the entrance. Vishakhapatnam is a semi-natural harbour.

3. Artificial Harbour:

Where such characteristic offices are not accessible, nations having a seaboard needed to
make or develop such asylums utilizing building ability and techniques, and such harbours
are called counterfeit or man-made harbours.

Madras is a fake harbour.

Thus, a maritime vessel could get cover during awful climate inside a tract or region of water
near the shore, giving a decent hold to mooring, ensured by characteristic or fake harbour
dividers against the rage of tempests.

CLASSIFICATION OF HARBOUR DEPENDING UPON THE UTILITY

(1) Harbours of Refuge

 Every single oceanic forte little or tremendous require cover in an emergency
 Present day enormous vessels will require a huge amount of breathing space for turning
and moving
 Ought to give agreeable settlement
Requirements.
 Ready openness from the high oceans
 Safe and advantageous mooring against the ocean.
 Facilities for getting supplies and fixes
(2) Commercial Harbours:
It is a harbour in which docks are provided with necessary
facilities for loading and unloading of cargo.
Requirements
 Spacious settlement of commercial marine
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 Ample quays space and offices for shipping, stacking and emptying load

 Storage sheds for freight

 Good and fast fix offices to stay away from delay

 More protected conditions as stacking and emptying should be possible with
advantage in more quiet waters.
(3) Fishery Harbours:
A fishing harbor is a port for landing and circulating fish. These are assigned to give better
landing and berthing offices to fishing make and give fundamental offices to remote ocean
fishing.
(4) Military Harbour
Should accommodate the naval vessels.
 They serve as supply depots also.
Bombay and Cochin harbor have naval bases.
(5) Marina Harbours
Marina is a harbor giving offices to fuel, food, showers, phones and so on for little vessel
proprietors having transitory or changeless billets
Classification
 Large marinas – have 200 or more berths.
  Small marinas – have less than 100 berths.
Facilities Provided
 Resort Facilities
 Yacht Club 
 Sport, Fishing Facilities 
 Marina Pubs
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Question 02 (CLO-1, PLO-1,

Discuss atleast ten types of rail failures, their causes and remedial measures.

Rails Failure Types

 Crushed Head: (Head gets crushed and metal flows on the head of rail)
 Head gets crushed, metal flows on the head of rail
 Defects in manufacture, flat spots on wheels, slipping of wheels, week support at the
rail end etc.
 Skidding causes flat spots, loose fish bolts cause week support at ends

Causes: Manufacturing defects, slipping of wheels, weak spot at the rail end etc.

 Transverse Fissure (a cross wire crack starts inside head and spread gradually)
 Fissure or hole in the head
 In the form of a cross wire crack starts inside head and spreads gradually
 Poor manufacture, excessive straining
 Very dangerous, rail breaks without any sign often

Causes: Poor manufacturing and excessive straining

 Split Head (Head is split in to two pieces)

 Head is split into 2 parts
 If the surface of crack appears smooth and dark, it is called as piped rail
 Formed due to cavity during manufacture, or shrinkage of metal
 Horizontal fissure
 A fissure developed keeps on increasing
 Outcome of worn fish plates or insufficient ballast

Causes: Formed due to shrinkage of metal and cavity in rail during manufacturing

 Horizontal Fissure (a fissure or crack develop in horizontal direction and keep on

increasing)

Causes: Worn fish plates or insufficient ballast

 Wear –

The parallel wear happens basically on the measure face due to high wheel flange power (rail
is situated on the high side of a bend). Vertical wear happens on the running surface because
of the wheel/rail connection and rail granulating designs.
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 Plastic flow:

The plastic flow, or mechanical misshaping of the rail head, can happen on
high or low rail and is related with bends that convey high hub loads. Plastic flow results
from wheel/rail contact pressure that surpasses the material quality of the rail steel.

 Rail defects–

The rail imperfections can create in any rail type or rail welds because of the rail producing
process, repeating stacking, and sway from moving stock, rail wear, and plastic flow.

Remedial Measures:
 Higher quality rail prepares.

 Improvement in the neatness of the rail prepares.

 Use of proper rail support techniques.

 Improvement in the wheel/rail grease method.

 Improvement in the wheel/rail connection attributes.

 Use of appropriate ultrasonic testing systems.

Improvement in the rail field focusing on strategy.

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Question 03 (CLO-1, PLO-1, C-2) (20)

Summerize atleast ten advantages of flate footed rails.

Flat Footed Rails:

The rail segments having their foot moved to level are called level footed or Vignoles rails.
This kind of rail was concocted by Charles Vignola's in 1836. It was at first idea that the level
footed rails could be fixed legitimately to wooden sleepers and would take out seats and keys
required for the B.H.rails. In any case, later on, it was seen that substantial train loads made
the foot of the rail sink into the sleepers and causing the spikes to lose. To evacuate the
imperfection, steel bearing plates were utilized in the middle of level footed rails and the
wooden sleeper. These rails are most usually utilized in India.

MERITS of the Flat Footed Rails:

 F. rails have more strength and stiffness.

 No chairs are required for holding them in position.
 These rails require less number of fastenings.
 The maintenance cost of the track formed with F.F rails is less.

Advantages:

o Chairs: No chairs are required in this form of rails. Foot of rail is directly spiked
to sleepers.
o Economical:
o Stiffness: This form of rail is stiffer both vertically and laterally than the bull-
headed rail of equal weight.
o Kinks: Less liable to develop kinks and provides a uniform and more regular
surface than bull headed rails.
o The flat footed rails are found to be cheaper than the bull- headed rails.
o Load Distribution: The flat footed rail distributes the train load over a great
number of sleepers. This results in greater track stability.
o Longer life than bull headed rails
o Larger Capacity: The carrying capacity of the rail is extremely large.
Moreover, its capacity is elastic which can easily be increased by adding more
wagons.
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o
 Flat footed rails has the following advantages:
o They do not need any chair and can be directly spiked or keyed to the sleepers.
Thus they are economical
o They are much stiffer both vertically and laterally. The lateral stiffness is
important for curves
o They are less liable to develop kinks and maintain a more regular top surface
than bull headed rails
o They are cheaper than bull headed rails
o The loads from wheels of trains are distributed over large area which results in
greater track stability, reduced maintenance and less rail failure
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Question 04 (CLO-1, PLO-1, C-2) (10)

Briefly discuss five indications of rail creep.
Creep is defined as the longitudinal movement of the rails in a track in the direction of
motion of the locomotive. It is common to all railway tracks but varies considerably in
magnitude. In some places, its value is negligible but at some places, its value may be as high
as 15.5 cm per month.
Indications of Creep
1.Closing of progressive extension spaces at rail joints toward creep and opening out of
joints at the point from where creep begins.
2.Joint out of square. One ought not to lead another by increasingly then 60mm.
3. Anchors diving into wooden sleepers or pivoting.
4. Adjustment switch shutting or opening down excessively(see thing 13)
5. Marks on rail flanges and webs made by spike due to scratching as the rails slide.
6. The closing of joints in the direction of creep.
7. Scraping /scratching marks on rail flanges /web due the spike head.
.
Causes of Creep
Following are the main causes of the development of creep:

1. Development of wave motion in the rails by a moving train. due to the load of the
wheel, the portion of the rail under load is depressed slightly. As the wheels move, the
depression also moves with them and previous depressed portion regains their original level.
Thus under the wheel of a train, wave motion is developed. This wave motion tends the rail to
move forward.
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2. Force acting at the time of starting, accelerating, slowing down or stopping the train causes
creep. as shown in the figure during the starting operation, the wheel pushes the rail
backward, while during the stopping operation the rails are pushed forward.

3. Creep may also develop due to unequal expansion and contraction of rails due to variations
in temperature.

4. Percussion Theory– According to this theory creep is developed due to the impact of
wheels at the rail end head of joints. The horizontal component p of reaction R tends to creep
and the vertical component tends to bend the rail end vertically i.e. to better the rail end. Thus
as and when wheels leave the trailing rail and strike the facing rail end at each joint, it pushes
the rail forward resulting in creep.
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In addition to the above main reasons for the development of creep, following minor causes
also help in the development of creep in rails:

1. Good quality sleepers are not used.

2. rail not tightly or properly fixed with sleepers.
3. Inadequate consolidation of formation of the track.
4. Insufficient drainage arrangement.
5. track is not maintained properly.
6. Gauge maintained either too tight or too slack.
7. Rail joints are not properly maintained.
8. The uneven spacing of sleepers.
9. Defective packing.
10. Insufficient ballast etc.
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Question 05 (CLO-1, PLO-1, C-2) (15)

Discuss the need for construction of a new railway line.
The constructions of a replacement railway track are often divided into three stages.
Earth Work
Plate Laying
Laying of Ballast

Earth Work

The formation could also be in an embankment or a cutting depending upon the

overall topography of the world.
A formation in an embankment is generally preferred from the purpose of view of
excellent drainage.
The height of embankment above highest water within the area should be a
minimum of 60cm.

Plate Laying

The operation of laying out of the rails and sleepers over the ready formation  is
understood as plate laying.
The point from where the laying of track starts is understood because the base and
therefore the point upon which the new track is administered are understood because
the rail head.

Methods of plate laying :

Tramline method or side method

Telescopic method
American method
Laying of Ballast
The counterbalance is regularly spread on the railroad lines after the dike has settled
well and at any rate rainstorm have disregarded it.
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Crafted by spread the stabilizer is finished by methods for counterweight trains,

which have uncommon hoppers through which the weight can be consequently
emptied onto the track.
On the other hand, balance is stacked in carts of the train and afterward emptied at
the site into various piles at reasonable stretches along the track.
At that point pressing of counterweight is finished by the labourers by methods for
scoops.

Track Drainage

Track drainage are often defined because the interception, collection and disposal

of water from, upon or under the track. It is accomplished by installing a
correct surface drainage and sub-surface system.

Sources of water in a railway track.

Surface water due to rain, dew, snow.

Seepage water from adjacent area.
Moisture sucked up by capillarity leading to increase of moisture within the sub
grade or embankment.
Hygroscopic water or held water.
Rain water surface.
Track Drainage System:

A good track drainage system shouls ensure that no water percolates into the track at
either the surface or the sub-surface levels.
The efficiency of a contemporary track depends upon the strength and stability of
the formation which successively depends upon the great track drainage.
Track drainage should be handled in two distinctive phases:

Surface Drainage
Sub-surface Drainage
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Surface Drainage:

Surface water because of downpour, day off from adjoining zones ought to be
depleted off appropriately by structuring all around arranged and compelling surface
channels.
For bank and development, great quality soil having all around evaluated particles
and high inward grating ought to be utilized. The dirt ought not grow or contract
with variety in dampness content.
The surface water is first gathered in all around planned side depletes and cross-
channels which is additionally arranged off at the closest stream or characteristic
water course.
Cross waste structures like courses and extensions might be essential for discarding
the surface water.

Sand Piles:

Sand piles sand drains could also be used for the removal of surface water from the
embankment. In this method, holes of 30cm diameter and 1.8-3.0m deep are made
between two rails and on the sides of the rails in the embankment. These holes
are crammed with coarse sand thus forming sand piles.
Functions of sand piles are:
To support the track.
Sand Piles compact the soil and supply mechanical support to the subgrade a bit
like wooden piles.
The drainage of the subgrade also improves, as water rises to the surface through the
sand piles by capillarity and evaporates.
Side drains:

Side drains should be provided along the track cutting and 0 fill locations,
where within the cess level isn't above the bottom level
Side drain must have an adequate gradient and cross section to enable the free flow
of collected water.
All side drains should be given concrete lining.
Objectives of maintenance of railway track:
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The quality of track structure continues lessening because of fast of overwhelming

hub burdens and redundancy of burdens.
The track structure is exposed to other crumbling impacts like downpour water, of
sun and wind. The mileage of rails and moving stock will undoubtedly occur.
The track structure needs to hold up under such a significant number of different
bends, speed and burden especially on bends, focuses and intersections.
Advantage of Good Maintenance’s:

The lifetime of both track also as of wheeled vehicle increases.

The journey becomes easy and comfortable.
Increase in safety.
Saving in operating costs as fuel consumption is a smaller amount.
Higher speed of trains is achieved.
Types of Maintenance

• Daily maintenance
• Periodical maintenance

Daily Maintenance:

Maintenance is completed by the full time staff kept up consistently. The utilization
of support packs, up and down the railroad track, is made. The railroad track is
separated into reasonable sectons5-6km length.

• To check the rail measure.

• To check the joints.

• To check the fittings of sleepers and rails.

Periodical Maintenance

Periodic upkeep is done after a timespan or three years.

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• Levelling of rails
• Track arrangement
• Gauge
• Proper Drainage Track Components
• Points and intersections

Question 06 (CLO-1, PLO-1, C-2) (15)

Discuss the requirements of a good railway track.

Requirements of a Good Railway Track:

A permanent way or track should provide a cushy and safe ride at the

utmost permissible speed with minimum maintenance cost. To achieve these
objectives, a sound permanent way should have the subsequent characteristics.

i. The gauge should be correct and uniform.

ii. The rails should have perfect cross levels. In curves, the outer rail should have  a
correct super elevation to require under consideration the force .

iii. The alignment should be straight and free of kinks. In the case of curves,  a
correct transition should be provided between the straight track and therefore
the curve.

iv. The gradient should be uniform and as gentle as possible. The change of gradient
should be followed by a correct vertical curve to supply a smooth ride.