Teaching English As a

Foreign Language
Lecturer by
Erlik Widiyani Styati.S.Pd,. M.Pd.

TEACHING METHOD

Created by :
Name : Rani Sugiarti (09321.321)
Class : PBI IV D

DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH TEACHING

THE FACULTY OF LETTERS AND ARTS EDUCATION
IKIP PGRI MADIUN
2011
 CHAPTER ONE

TEACHING LISTENING
Definition
Listening is an invisible mental process, making it difficult to describe. Listeners must
discriminate between sounds, understand vocabulary and grammatical structures, interpret
stress and intention, retain and interpret this within the immediate as well as the larger socio-
cultural context of the utterance ( Wipf, 1984 ).
( Rost, 2002 ) defines listening, in its broadest sense, as a process of receiving what
the speaker actually says (receptive orientation), constructing and representing meaning
(constructive orientation), negotiating meaning with the speaker and responding
(collaborative orientation), and creating meaning through involvement, imagination and
empathy (transformative orientation). Listening is a complex, active process of interpretation
in which listeners match what they hear with what they already know.

A. COMMUNICATIVE APPROACH

The communicative approach is relative new, as most of the teachers and prescribed
texts separate the instruction of listening and speaking. Usually when listening and
speaking are separated, specific skills are identified in each area and a sequence of these
skills is established. No particular attention is given to the situation, or context, in which
a specific skill is to be used, as the focus is on teaching listening and speaking and not on
communication. We can develop listening skill by conducting the entire lesson in that
language only. We may make use of Audio-Visual aids such as tape-recorder,
gramophone etc. we may make the students to listen to Radio lessons to develop the
skill. Moreover we may develop the listening skill by ear-training exercises, by
articulation exercises, by mimicry exercises or by exercises in fluency. We may develop
the speaking skill by giving picture lessons, by saying and doing exercises, by arranging
oral composition, by developing the ideas on the topic within their range, by reproducing
telling or completing a story, by dramatization, by arranging talks and discussions, by
asking questions. But special attention is not given to the situation or context, in which a
specific skill, listening or speaking, is to be used. When specific attention is given on a
situation or a context and develop these skills we follow communicative approach.
Procedures of Communicative Approach
Communicative activities that can be implemented in the class. One controlled
communicative activities and the other, free communicative activities. Controlled
communicative activities include situations creation, guessing games, information gap
exercises, exchange of personal information etc and free communicative activities
include pair work and group work, Eliciting, Role play etc. To follow communicative
approach in the class, one should use workouts. Workouts are language learning and
language using activities, which enhance the learner’s overall acquisition process,
providing by the teacher with variety of ways through which to make this process
engaging and rewarding. Samples of such workouts are presented here under different
categories.

 Operations/ Transformations enable learners to focus on semantico-grammatical

features, which are necessary when aiming at accuracy in language use. All learners
require such predictable and controlled workouts at times. For example element of
language are added, deleted, substituted, recorded, or combined; alternative language
elements are presented so that learners must make a choice.

 Warm-ups/Relaxes are motivational workouts, which add an element of enjoyment

and personal involvement. They can be used at various points during the session,
especially when a relief of tension or a change of pace is called for. For example,
games, songs, physical activities, puzzles.

 Information-Centered Tasks enable learners to use the language naturally while being
fully engrossed in fact gathering activities. For example, share-and-tell in the
classroom, gathering information outside the classroom, treasure hunts outside the
classroom, interviews with peer and others.

 Theatre Games encompass all activity types, which simulate reality within the
classroom situation. These workouts are especially important since they enable the
language session to broaden its context beyond the four walks of the classroom. For
example, improvisation (creating a scene based on a given setting or situation); role
playing (assuming the role of someone else, or playing oneself in a typical situation);
play enacting; story telling.
  Mediations/interventions are workouts, which enable learners to experience bridging
information gaps while using the target language. For example, interacting with
another or others based on incomplete information; interacting with others to change
their opinions; talking one’s way out of difficult situation.

 Group Dynamics and Experiential Tasks are group activities which create opportunity
for sharing personal feelings and emotions among learners. For example, small groups
or pairs solve problems or discuss issues, which center on topics of personal concern,
sharing of self and feelings rather than general subject matter topics external to self.

 Problem-Solving Tasks involve learners in making decisions about issues while using
the target language, enabling them to focus on the features of the activity rather than
on language usage. In this type of activity, learners are involved in a ‘whole-task’
process. For example, small group discussions around topical, political or local issues;
posing a concrete problem about which the group must come to a consensus, make
recommendations, and arrive a policy statement.

 While similarly ‘whole-task’ focused, workouts which involve transferring and

reconstruction information emphasize cognitive uses of language. For example,
following a language stimulus, often a regarding passage: transferring information
from text to a graphic display such as a chart; filling in forms; providing language to
complete visual display such as a cartoon or photograph; making judgement about
people’s motivates and intentions; putting sentence elements in sequence (the strip
story.

B. COMMUNITY LANGUAGE LEARNING (CLL)

The Community Language Learning is the method which are use by the teachers to
consider their students as ‘whole persons’. Whole persons means that teachers consider
not only their students intellect, but also have some understanding of the relationship
among students feelings, physical reactions, instinctive protective reactions, and desire to
learn. The teachers who use this method want their students to learn how to use the target
language communicatively. They focuses not only on the language but also on the being
supportive of learners in their learning process. In the class, the teachers become
counselor. It is doesn’t mean the teachers trained their students in psychology. In this
method, the teachers use tape-recording student conversation, transcription, reflection on
 experience, reflective listening, human computer, and small group tasks to see our
‘whole persons’. With use tape-recorded, they can learn about conversation easily. The
teacher give them some ‘chunks’ on the transcript, they must repeat it with her. In this
method, the teachers use small groups to help the students can get more practice with the
target language and allow them to get to know each other better.

Procedures of Community Language Learning

Community Language Learning It was developed in the 60s by Charles Curran as a
principled attempt to democratise the relationships between learners and teachers in the
classroom. The basic procedure is as follows:
 Seat the learners in a circle around a tape recorder. The teacher is outside the
circle.
 Each learner in turn tells you what they want to say. Each learner in turn tells you
what they want to say. You reformulate/translate into authentic English, then the
learner tapes it.
 Build up a manageable chunk of conversation, stop, play the tape back and listen.
 Write the conversation on the board. The learners ask you questions about the
language, and you explain briefly. If necessary, write up a translation too. If they
want to copy things down, they can at this point.
 Ask the learners to have a short conversation, using the language you've got on
the board. Then start the next round of taping.
 The language which emerges from the procedure can be the focus for further
practice activities and tasks.

C. COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING (CLT)

Communicative language teaching makes use of real-life situations that necessitate
communication. The teacher sets up a situation that students are likely to encounter in
real life. Unlike the audiolingual method of language teaching, which relies on repetition
and drills, the communicative approach can leave students in suspense as to the outcome
of a class exercise, which will vary according to their reactions and responses. The real-
life simulations change from day to day. Students' motivation to learn comes from their
desire to communicate in meaningful ways about meaningful topics.
 Margie S. Berns, an expert in the field of communicative language teaching, writes
in explaining Firth's view that "language is interaction; it is interpersonal activity and has
a clear relationship with society. In this light, language study has to look at the use
(function) of language in context, both its linguistic context (what is uttered before and
after a given piece of discourse) and its social, or situational, context (who is speaking,
what their social roles are, why they have come together to speak)" (Berns, 1984, p. 5).

Procedures of Communicative Language Teaching

In a communicative classroom for beginners, the teacher might begin by passing out
cards, each with a different name printed on it. The teacher then proceeds to model an
exchange of introductions in the target language: "Guten Tag. Wieheissen Sie?" Reply:
"Icheisse Wolfie," for example. Using a combination of the target language and gestures,
the teacher conveys the task at hand, and gets the students to introduce themselves and
ask their classmates for information. They are responding in German to a question in
German. They do not know the answers beforehand, as they are each holding cards with
their new identities written on them; hence, there is an authentic exchange of
information.
Later during the class, as a reinforcement listening exercise, the students might hear
a recorded exchange between two German freshmen meeting each other for the first time
at the gymnasium doors. Then the teacher might explain, in English, the differences
among German greetings in various social situations. Finally, the teacher will explain
some of the grammar points and structures used.
The following exercise is taken from a 1987 workshop on communicative foreign
language teaching, given for Delaware language teachers by Karen Willetts and Lynn
Thompson of the Center for Applied Linguistics. The exercise, called "Eavesdropping,"
is aimed at advanced students. "Instructions to students" Listen to a conversation
somewhere in a public place and be prepared to answer, in the target language, some
general questions about what was said.
1. Who was talking?
2. About how old were they?
3. Where were they when you eavesdropped?
4. What were they talking about?
5. What did they say?
6. Did they become aware that you were listening to them?
 The exercise puts students in a real-world listening situation where they must report
information overheard. Most likely they have an opinion of the topic, and a class
discussion could follow, in the target language, about their experiences and viewpoints.

Communicative exercises such as this motivate the students by treating topics of their
choice, at an appropriately challenging level. Another exercise taken from the same
source is for beginning students of Spanish. (The announcement can be read by the
teacher or played on tape.) Then ask students to circle the letter of the most appropriate
answer on their copy, which consists of the following multiple-choice options:
- taxi service
- a hotel
- can airport
- a restaurant
(Source: Adapted from Ontario Assessment Instrument Pool, 1980, Item No. 13019)
Gunter Gerngross, an English teacher in Austria, gives an example of how he makes his
lessons more communicative. He cites a widely used textbook that shows English children
having a pet show. "Even when learners act out this scene creatively and enthusiastically,
they do not reach the depth of involvement that is almost tangible when they act out a short
text that presents a family conflict revolving round the question of whether the children
should be allowed to have a pet or not" (Gerngross & Puchta, 1984, p. 92). He continues to
say that the communicative approach "puts great emphasis on listening, which implies an
active will to try to understand others. [This is] one of the hardest tasks to achieve because
the children are used to listening to the teacher but not to their peers. There are no quick, set
recipes. That the teacher be a patient listener is the basic requirement" (p. 98).
The observation by Gerngross on the role of the teacher as one of listener rather than
speaker brings up several points to be discussed in the next portion of this digest.
 CHAPTER TWO

TEACHING SPEAKING
Definition
The goal of teaching speaking skills is communicative efficiency. Learners should be
able to make themselves understood, using their current proficiency to the fullest. They
should try to avoid confusion in the message due to faulty pronunciation, grammar, or
vocabulary, and to observe the social and cultural rules that apply in each communication
situation.
To help students develop communicative efficiency in speaking, instructors can use a
balanced activities approach that combines language input, structured output, and
communicative output.
Language input comes in the form of teacher talk, listening activities, reading
passages, and the language heard and read outside of class. It gives learners the material they
need to begin producing language themselves.

A. THE AUDIO-LINGUAL METHOD

The Audio-Lingual Method is foreign language teaching method, based on
behaviors theory, that emphasize the development of oral skill through habit formation,
fostered via repetition and reinforcement.
The Audio-Lingual Method was developed in the United States during World War
II. Developed to build communicative competence in translators through very intensive
language courses focusing on aural/oral skills. This in combination with some new ideas
about language learning coming from the disciplines of descriptive linguistics and
behavioral psychology went on to become what is known as the Audiolingual Method
(ALM). The overall goal of the Audio-lingual Method was to create communicative
competence in learners. However, it was thought that the most effective way to do this
was for students to "over learn" the language being studied through extensive repetition
and a variety of elaborate drills.  The idea was to project the linguistic patterns of the
language (based on the studies of structural linguists) into the minds of the learners in a
way that made responses automatic and "habitual".  To this end it was held that the
language "habits" of the first language would constantly interfere, and the only way to
overcome this is problem was to facilitate the learning of a new set of "habits"
appropriate linguistically to the language being studied.
Here is a summary of the key features of the Audio-lingual Method, taken from
Brown (1994:57) and adapted from Prator and Celce-Murcia (1979).
- New material is presented in dialog form.
- There is dependence on mimicry, memorization of set phrases, and over-learning.
- Structures are sequenced by means of contrastive analysis and taught one at a time.
- Structural patterns are taught using repetitive drills.
- There is little or no grammatical explanation.  Grammar is taught by inductive
analogy rather than deductive explanation.
- Vocabulary is strictly limited and learned in context.
- There is much use of tapes, language labs, and visual aids.
- Great importance is attached to pronunciation.
- Very little use of the mother tongue by teachers is permitted.
- Successful responses are immediately reinforced.
- There is great effort to get students to produce error-free utterances.
- There is a tendency to manipulate language and disregard content.

Larsen-Freeman, in her book Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching

(1986:45-47) provides some common/typical techniques closely associated with the
Audio-lingual Method.
- Dialog Memorization
- Backward Build-up (Expansion Drill)
- Repetitions Drill
- Chain Drill
- Single-slot Substitution Drill
- Multiple-slot Substitution Drill
- Transformation Drill
- Question-and-answer Drill
- Use of Minimal Pairs
- Complete the Dialog
 - Grammar Games

Procedures of Audio-Lingual Method

Since audio-lingual is primarily an oral approach to language teaching, it is not
surprising that the process of teaching involves extensive oral instruction. The focus of
instruction is on immediate and accurate speech, there is little provision for grammatical
explanation or talking about the language. As far as possible, the target language is used
as the medium of instruction, and translation or use of the native language is discouraged.
(Brooks 1964: 1,42).

 Students first hear a model dialogue (either read by the teacher or on tape). They
repeat each line of the dialogue, individually. The teacher pays attention
pronounnciation, intonation, and fluency. Corrections of mistakes of pronounciation
or grammar are direct and immediate. Corrections of mistakes of pronunciation or
grammar are direct and immediate.
 The dialogue is adapted to the students’ interest on situation. This is acted out by the
students.
 Certain key structure from the dialogue are selected and used as the basis for pattern
drills of different kinds. These are first practice in chorus and then individually.
Some grammatical explanation may be offered at this point, but this is kept to an.
Absolute minimum.
 The students may refer to their textbook, and follow up reading, writing, or
vocabulary level, writing is purely imitiativ and consist of little more than copying
out sentence that have been practiced. As proviciency increases, students may write
out variations of structural items they have practiced or write short competision on
given topics with the help of framing questions, which will guide their use of the
language.
 Follow-up activities may take place in the language laboratory, where further
dialogue and drill work is carried out.

B. SILENT WAY
The Silent Way is a language teaching method created by Caleb Gattegno that
makes extensive use of silence as a teaching technique. It is not usually considered a
mainstream method in language education. It was first introduced in Gattegno's book
Teaching Foreign Languages in Schools: The Silent Way in 1972.
The method emphasises the autonomy of the learner; the teacher's role is to monitor
the students' efforts, and the students are encouraged to have an active role in learning
the language. Pronunciation is seen as fundamental; beginning students start their study
with pronunciation, and much time is spent practicing it each lesson. The Silent Way
uses a structural syllabus, and structures are constantly reviewed and recycled. The
choice of vocabulary is important, with functional and versatile words seen as the best.

Prosedures of The Silent Way

In the Silent Way students are seen as bringing a vast amount of experience. The
teacher capitalizes on this knowledge when introducing new material, always building
from the known to the unknown. The students begin their study of the language by
studying its sound system. The sounds are associated to different colors using a sound-
color chart that is specific to the language being learned. The teacher first introduces
sounds that are already present in the students' native language, and then progresses to
sounds that are new to them. These sound-color associations are later used to help the
students with spelling, reading, and pronunciation.
The teacher will typically introduce one new language structure at a time, and old
structures are continuously reviewed and recycled. These structures are chosen for their
propositional meaning, not for their communicative value. The teacher will set up
learning situations for the students which focus their attention on each new structure.
Evaluation in the Silent Way is carried out primarily by observation. The teacher
may never give a formal test, but he is constantly assessing students by observing their
actions. This allows him to respond straight away to any problems the students might
have. The teacher may also gain feedback through students' errors; errors are seen as
natural and necessary for learning, and can be a useful guide as to what structures need
more practice. Finally, the teacher may gain feedback by asking the students at the end of
the lesson.When evaluating the students, teachers expect them to learn at different rates,
and students are not penalized for learning more slowly than their classmates. Teachers
look for steady progress in the language, not perfection. Just as the name implies, silence
is a key tool of the teacher in the Silent Way.
A Silent Way classroom also makes extensive use of peer correction. Students are
encouraged to help their classmates when they have trouble with any particular feature of
 the language. This help should be made in a cooperative fashion, not a competitive one.
One of the teacher's tasks is to monitor these interactions, so that they are helpful and do
not interfere with students' learning.
The Silent Way makes use of some specialized teaching materials:
 Sound-Color Chart
 Teacher’s Silence
 Peer Correction
 Rods
 Self-Correction Gestures
 Word Chart
 Fidel Charts
 Structured Feedback

C. THE DIRECT METHOD

The direct method has one very basic rule: No translation is allowed. In fact, the
direct method receives its name from the fact that meaning is to be connected directly
with the target language, without going through the process of translating into the
student’s native language.

Procedures of the Direct Method

1. The students read aloud a passage about United States geography.

2. The teacher points to a part of the map after each sentences is read

3. The teacher uses the target language to ask the student if they have a question. The
students use the taget language to ask their questions.

4. The teacher answers the students question by drawing on the blackboard or giving
example.

5. The teacher ask questions about the map in the target language, to which students
reply in a complete sentence in the target language.

6. Students ask questions about the map

 7. The teacher work with the students on the pronounciation of “ appalachian”

8. The teacher correct a grammar error by asking the students to make a choice

9. The teacher ask questions about the students, students ask each other question

10. The question fill in the blanks with prepotitions practiced in the lesson

11. The teacher dictates a paragraph about United States geography

12. All of the lesson of the week involve United States geography

13. A proverb is used to diccuss how American view punctuality.

D. SUGGESTOPEDIA
Suggestopedia is a teaching method, which focuses on how to deal with the
relationship between mental potential and learning efficacy and it is very appropriate to
use in teaching speaking for young language learners (Xue, 2005). This method was
introduced by a Bulgarian psychologist and educator, George Lazanov in 1975. Maleki
(2005) believed that we are capable of learning much more than we think, provided we
use our brain power and inner capacities. In addition, DePorter (2008) assumed that
human brain could process great quantities of material if given the right condition for
learning in a state of relaxation and claimed that most students use only 5 to 10 percent
of their mental capacity. Lazanov created suggestopedia for learning that capitalized on
relaxed states of mind for maximum retention material. By using this kind of methof,
YLLs can get the memorization 25 times faster rather than conventional methods
(Bowen, 2009).
Suggestopedia is an effective comprehensible input based method with a
combination of desuggestion and suggestion to achieve superlearning. The most
important objective of Suggestopedia is to motivate more of students’ mental potential to
learn and which obtained by suggestion. Desuggestion means unloading the memory
banks, or reserves, of unwanted or blocking memories. Suggestion then means loading
the memory banks with desired and facilitating memories.

Prosedures of Suggestopedia
 Larsen-Freeman, in her book Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching
(1986:84-86) provides some common/typical techniques closely associated with
Suggestopedia.
(1) Classroom Set-up
(2) Peripheral Learning
(3) Positive Suggestion
(4) Visualization
(5) Choose a New Identity
(6) Role-play
(7) First Concert
(8) Second Concert
(9) Primary Activation
(10) Secondary Activation

E. THE TOTAL PHYSICAL RESPONSE METHOD (TPR)

According to Richards J in his book, Approaches and Methods in Language
Teaching, TPR is defined: "A language teaching method built around the coordination of
speech and action; it attempts to teach language through physical (motor) activity".
So the method of TPR (Total Physical Response) is a language learning method that was
prepared in coordination command, speech and motion or action and attempt to teach
language through physical activity (motor). Meanwhile, according to Larsen and Diane
in the Technique and Principles in Language Teaching, TPR or also called "the
comprehension approach" or approach is a method of understanding a foreign language
approach to instruction or command. This method was developed by a professor of
psychology at the University of San Jose California named Prof. Dr. James J. Asher who
has been successful in developing these methods in foreign language learning in
children. He argued that the pronunciation directly to children or students contains a
command, and then the child or student will respond to the physical before they begin to
produce a verbal response or utterance.
TPR method is very easy and light in terms of language use and also contains
elements of the game so that movement can relieve stress on learners because of the
problems encountered in the studies, especially when studying a foreign language, and
can also create a positive mood in the learner which can facilitate learning so that it can
enhance student motivation and achievement in the lesson. Meaning or significance of
the target language learned during the action.
The teacher or instructor has a direct and active role in applying the methods this
TPR. According to Asher "The instructor is the director of a stage play in which the
students are the actors", which means that the teacher (instructor) is a director in the
show the story and in it students as actors or characters. Teachers who decide what will
be learned, anyone who plays and displays the subject matter.
Students in the PLA have the lead role as audience and actors. Students listen attentively
and respond physically to commands given teachers either individually or in groups.

Prosedures of The Total Physical Response (TPR)

In the process of teaching and learning by using TPR method are a lot of activities that
can be done by teachers and students, among others:
 Exercise by using a command (Imperative Drill), is the main activity that teachers
do in the classroom of the TPR method. Exercise is useful for obtaining the
physical movement and activities of students.
 Dialogue or conversation.
 Role Play, can be focused on daily activities such as school, restaurants, markets,
etc..
 Presentations with OHP or LCD
 Reading activities and writing to increase vocabulary and also trained on sentence
structure based on tenses and so on.
  

CHAPTER THREE

TEACHING READING
Definition
Reading is an interactive process that goes on between the reader and the text, resulting
in comprehension. The text presents letters, words, sentences, and paragraphs that encode
meaning. The reader uses knowledge, skills, and strategies to determine what that meaning is.
Traditionally, the purpose of learning to read in a language has been to have access to the
literature written in that language. In language instruction, reading materials have
traditionally been chosen from literary texts that represent "higher" forms of culture.
This approach assumes that students learn to read a language by studying its vocabulary,
grammar, and sentence structure, not by actually reading it. In this approach, lower level
learners read only sentences and paragraphs generated by textbook writers and instructors.
The reading of authentic materials is limited to the works of great authors and reserved for
upper level students who have developed the language skills needed to read them.

A. SKIMMING TECHNIQUE
Skimming is used to quickly identify the main ideas of a text. When you read the
newspaper, you're probably not reading it word-by-word, instead you're scanning the
text. Skimming is done at a speed three to four times faster than normal reading. People
often skim when they have lots of material to read in a limited amount of time. Use
skimming when you want to see if an article may be of interest in your research.
Skimming is another technique whose purpose is to gain a quick overview in order to
identify the main points.  When skimming, you will often skip words, sentences, and
paragraphs.  When you are satisfied you have a general understanding of the author's
main ideas and key points, you put the reading material aside.
Skimming can serve as a substitute for careful reading.  Some useful techniques are
to readher first and last sentences of paragraphs, the introduction, and the summary if one
is provided.  When examples are given, you may want to read a few of them until you
understand the concepts they are meant to illustrate.  When skimming a textbook,
 quickly note the title, subheadings, italicized words, boldface print, and illustrations.
Skimming will not serve as a substitute for careful reading, but it can serve you well
when you have put off until tomorrow what you should have done yesterday!

Procedures of Skimming Technique

There are many strategies that can be used. Some people read the first and last
paragraphs using headings, summarizes and other organizers as they move down the
page or screen. This technique is useful when you're seeking specific information rather
than reading for comprehension. Skimming works well to find dates, names, and places.
It might be used to review graphs, tables, and charts.

Techniques use Skim:

 Read the title.
 Read the introduction or the first paragraph.
 Read the first sentence of every other paragraph.
 Read any headings and sub-headings.
 Notice any pictures, charts, or graphs.
 Notice any italicized or boldface words or phrases.
 Read the summary or last paragraph

B. SCANNING TECHNIQUE
Scanning is a technique you often use when looking up a word in the telephone book
or dictionary. You search for key words or ideas. In most cases, you know what you're
looking for, so you're concentrating on finding a particular answer. Scanning involves
moving your eyes quickly down the page seeking specific words and phrases. Scanning
is also used when you first find a resource to determine whether it will answer your
questions. Once you've scanned the document, you might go back and skim it. Scanning
involves a process of quickly searching reading materials in order to locate specific bits
of information.  When scanning you don't start from the beginning and read to the end. 
Instead, what you do is jump around in the text, trying to find the information you need. 
You probably already scan the TV guide, the phone book, or the dictionary, but it is
possible to improve your scanning skills.  Effective scanning techniques can be useful in
any academic setting.
 Prosedures of Scanning Technique
When scanning, look for the author's use of organizers such as numbers, letters,
steps, or the words, first, second, or next. Look for words that are bold faced, italics, or in
a different font size, style, or color. Sometimes the author will put key ideas in the
margin. Scanning is a reading technique to be used when you want to find specific
information quickly.

Techniques use Scan:

 State the specific information you are looking for.
 Try to anticipate how the answer will appear and what clues you might use to help
you locate the answer. For example, if you were looking for a certain date, you
would quickly read the paragraph looking only for numbers.
 Use headings and any other aids that will help you identify which sections might
contain the information you are looking for.
 Selectively read and skip through sections of the passage

C. THE GRAMMAR TRANSLATION METHOD (GTM)

In ancient times this method is called the "classical method" of the time used in the
classical language learning, such as Latin and Greek. At the beginning of this century,
this method is used to assist students in reading and understanding a foreign language
literature. But it is also expected that it is in studying or understanding the grammar of the
desired target language, students will become more familiar with the language rules in
accordance with the source language and a deeper understanding of this will further help
them in reading and writing according to the source language to be better.
Finally concluded that it is studying a foreign language will help the development of
students in developing intellectual, it can be recognized that the students will never use
the target language, but learning is very much needed mental.

Procedures of The Grammar Translation Method

1. Translation of a Literary Passage
Translating target language to native language
2. Reading Comprehension Questions
Finding information in a passage, making inferences and relating to personal
experience.
3. Antonyms/Synonyms
Finding antonyms and synonyms for words or sets of word.
4. Cognates
Learning spelling/sound patterns that correspond between L1 and the target languag.
5. Deductive Application of Rule
Understanding grammar rules and their exceptions, then applying them to new
examples.
6. Fill-in-the-blanks
Filling in gaps in sentences with new words or items of a particular grammar type.
7. Memorization
Memorizing vocabulary lists, grammatical rules and grammatical paradigms
8. Use Words in Sentences
Students create sentences to illustrate they know the meaning and use of new words.
9. Composition
Students write about a topic using the target language.
 CHAPTER FOUR

TEACHING WRITING
Definition
Writing skills help the learner gain independence , comprehensibility , fluency and
creativity in writing. If learners have mastered these skills, they will be able to write so that
not only they can read what they have written, but other speakers of that language can read
and understand it.
Writing skills are specific abilities which help writers put their thoughts into words in a
meaningful form and to mentally interact with the message.

A. BRAINSTORMING METHOD
Brainstorming is an informal way of generating topics to write about, or points to
make about your topic. It can be done at any time during the writing process. You can
brainstorm the topics for a whole paper or just a conclusion or an example. The
important point about brainstorming is that there should be no pressure to be "brilliant."
Students should simply open their minds to whatever pops into them. Think of it as a
kind of free association. When I say "literacy" what pops into your mind? Much of what
the students will come up with will not be useful, but that's okay. Part of brainstorming
will involve a selection process.
Brainstorming is a group creativity technique by which a group tries to find a
solution for a specific problem by gathering a list of ideas spontaneously contributed by
its members. The term was popularized by Alex Faickney Osborn in 1953 through the
book Applied Imagination. In the book, Osborn not only proposed the brainstorming
method but also established effective rules for hosting brainstorming sessions.

Procedures of Brainstorming Method

1) Define the problem:
 Ask for suggestions as to what is the most important problem;
 No criticism (of anyone's suggestion) by anyone is allowed;
 Write all the suggested problems on the board;
  Group together any problems that are similar or related; then
 Rearrange them and list them in priority (most important ones at the top).

2) Generate the Goal:

 Reverse the definition of the problem (it's solution);
 The solution to the problem defined above is the goal;
 Define the goal as the solution to the problem;
 Write the goal on the board; then
 Remind the group that the goal is the one that they selected.

3) Define the Objective:

 Explain the difference between a goal and an objective;

The facilitator should know this: (See SMART an objective is measurable,
finite, and has a completion date).
 Ask the group to suggest objectives;
 Write all the suggested objectives on the board;
 No criticism (of anyone's suggestion) by anyone is allowed;
 Group together any objectives that are similar or related;
 Rearrange them and list them in priority (most important at top); then
 Remind the group that they generated the top objective(s).

4) Identify resources and constraints:

 Ask the group to suggest resources and constraints;

 Write all the suggested resources and constraints on the board;
 No criticism (of anyone's suggestion) by anyone is allowed;
 Group together any resources that are similar or related.Rearrange them and list
them in priority (most important at top).
 Remind the group that they, not you, generated the list;Group together any
constraints that are similar or related.
 Rearrange them and list them in priority (most important at top); then
 Remind the group that they generated the arrangement of the list.
5) Identify a strategy:

 Ask the group to suggest strategies;

 Write all the suggested strategies on the board;No criticism (of anyone's
suggestion) by anyone is allowed;
 Group together any strategies that are similar or related;
 Rearrange them and list them in priority (most important at top);
 Remind the group that they generated the list;
 Choose the strategy that remains at the top of the list.

6) Summarize on the board the group decisions:

 the problem;
 the goal;
 the objectives;
 the resources;
 the constraints; and
 the strategy;

Inform the group that they have produced a Plan of Action. If some one would
write down what was decided in each of the above categories, they would have the
essence of a standard planning document. Let them know that they have produced it
as a team, and that they "own" the plan.
 Referensi

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/brainstrorming
http://hadirukiyah2.blogspot.com/2009/12/grammar-translation-method-gtm.html
http://www.articlesbase.com/education-articles/the-communicative-approach-to-language-
teaching-1244891.html
http://tanpopofight.blogspot.com/2010/05/communicative-language-teaching.html
http://www.42explore.com/skim.htm
larsen-freeman,dience.1982.method:Aroach design,and Procedure. TESOL Quartery 16, 2
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Richards, J. C. and Theodore S. Rodgers. 1986. Approaches and Methods in Language
Teaching: A description and analysis. New york, London: Cambridge University Press.
Rost, M. (2002). Teaching and Researching Listening . London, UK: Longman.
Wipf, J. (1984). Strategies for Teaching Second Language Listening Comprehension. Foreign
Language Annals 17:345-48.