NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORT

MEU 07108

ENGINEERING MEASUREMENTS AND

INSTRUMENTATION
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 INTRODUCTION
 MEASUREMENT: Is the process of assigning a number to a
parameter/feature.
 Feature/parameter can be:
o Displacement
o Velocity
o Acceleration
o Force
o Torque
o Flow
o Pressure
o Temperature
o Level etc.
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 INTRODUCTION…
 Also measurement can be defined as the act or result of
quantitative comparison between a predefined standard and
an unknown quantity to be measured.
 INSTRUMENTATION: Is defined as the art and science of
measurement and control of the process variables within a
production or manufacturing area.
 ENGINEERING: Is process of utilizing knowledge and
principles to design, build and analyze objects. It can be
divided into several branches such as Electrical, Mechanical,
Automobile, Chemical etc.
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 DEVICE USED FOR MEASUREMENT
 MEASURING INSTRUMENT/MEASURING SYSTEM:
Is defined as the device for determining the value or
magnitude of a quantity or variable.
 The quantity to be measured is referred as Measurand.

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 BASIC FUNCTIONAL ELEMENTS OF
MEASURING INSTRUMENT
 Transducer
 Transformer
 Power amplifier
 Signal converter
 Modulator
 Demodulator etc.

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 FUNCTIONAL ELEMENTS OF AN
INSTRUMENT

Variable Variable
Measurand Primary sensing
conversion manipulation
element
element element

Data
Data transmission
presentation Observer
element
element
Data storage
and playback
element
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 FUNCTIONAL ELEMENTS OF AN
INSTRUMENT
 PRIMARY SENSING ELEMENT: An element of an
instrument which makes first, the contact with the
quantity to be measured.
 VARIABLE CONVERSION ELEMENT: Is an element
used to convert signal/variable from one form to
another.
 VARIABLE MANIPULATION ELEMENT: It
manipulates the signal preserving the original nature of
the signal.

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 FUNCTIONAL ELEMENTS OF AN
INSTRUMENT
 DATA TRANSMISSION ELEMENT: Is used to transmit
the data from one stage to another if the elements of the
system are physically separated.
 DATA PRESENTATION ELEMENT: The transmitted
data may be used by the system, finally for monitoring,
controlling or analysis purpose. Thus the person handling
the instrument to get the information in proper form,
according to the purpose for which it is intended. This
function is done by the data presentation element.

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 PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF
AN INSTRUMENT
 Performance characteristics of an instrument are mainly
divided into two categories:
o Static characteristics
o Dynamic characteristics

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 STATIC AND DYNAMIC
CHARACTERISTICS DEFINITIONS
 Static characteristics are set of criteria defined for the
instruments, which are used to measure the quantities
which are slowly varying with time or mostly constant
i.e do not vary with time.
 Dynamic characteristics are set of criteria defined for the
instruments, which are used to measure the quantities
which are rapidly varying with time.
 The various performance characteristics are obtained in
one form or another by a process called calibration.

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 CALIBRATION
 Calibration is the process of making an adjustment or
marking a scale so that the readings of an instrument
agree with the accepted and the certified standard.

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 STATIC CHARACTERISTICS
 The various static characteristics are:
o Accuracy
o Precision
o Error
o Sensitivity
o Resolution
o Threshold
o Linearity
o Zero drift
o Reproducibility
12 o Stability
 ACCURACY
 It is the degree of closeness with which the instrument
reading approaches the true value of the quantity to be
measured.

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 PRECISION
 It is the measure of consistency or repeatability of
measurement.
 The precision can be mathematically expressed as:

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 Example:
The table shows the set of 5 measurements recorded in a
laboratory. Calculate the precision of the 3rd
measurement.

[96.4%]
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 ERROR
 Is the algebraic difference between the indicated value
and the true value of the quantity to be measured.
 Mathematically it can be expressed as:

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 ERROR…
 In this expression, the error denoted as “e” is also called
absolute error.
 Generally instead of specifying absolute error, the
relative or percentage error is specified.
 Mathematically, the relative error can be expressed as:

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 ERROR…
 The percentage relative error is expressed as:

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 ERROR…
 From the relative percentage error, the accuracy can be
mathematically expressed as:

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 ERROR…
 The error can also be expressed as a percentage of full
scale reading as:

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 Example:
The expected value of the voltage to be measured is 150
V. However, the measurement gives value of 149 V.
Calculate:
i. Absolute error
ii. Percentage error
iii. Relative accuracy
iv. Percentage accuracy
v. Error expressed as percentage of full scale reading, if
the scale range is 0-200 V.

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[+1V, 0.66%, 0.9933, 99.33%, 0.5%]
 SENSITIVITY
 Sensitivity denotes the smallest change in the measured
variable to which the instrument responds.
 It is defined as the ratio of the changes in the output of
an instrument to a change in the value of the quantity to
be measured.
 Mathematically it is expressed as,

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 SENSITIVITY…
 The sensitivity is always expressed by the manufacturers
as the ratio of the magnitude of quantity being measured
to the magnitude of response.
 This definition is the reciprocal of the sensitivity. It is
called inverse sensitivity or deflection factor.

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 SENSITIVITY…
Example:
A particular ammeter requires a change of 2A in its coil
to produce a change in deflection of the pointer by 5mm.
Determine its sensitivity and deflection factor.
[ 2.5mm/A , 0.4A/mm ]

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 RESOLUTION
 It is the smallest increment of quantity being measured
which can be detected with certainty by an instrument.
It is the smallest measurable input change.

Example:
A 30cm scale has 30 uniform divisions. 1/20th of a scale
division can be estimated with a fair degree of certainty.
Determine the resolution of the scale in mm.[ 0.5mm]

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 THRESHOLD
 If the input quantity is slowly varied from zero onwards,
the output does not change until some minimum value
of the input is exceeded. This minimum value of the
input is called Threshold.

NOTE:
 The resolution is the smallest measurable input change
while threshold is the smallest measurable input.

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 LINEARITY
 It is defined as the ability to reproduce the input
characteristics symmetrically and linearly.
 The linearity property indicates the straight line nature
of the calibration curve.

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 ZERO DRIFT
 The drift is the gradual shift of an instrument indication,
over an extended period during which the value of input
variable does not change.
 Zero drift is defined as the deviation in the instrument
output with time, from its zero value, when the variable
to be measured is constant.

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 REPRODUCIBILITY
 Is the degree of closeness with which a given value may
be repeatedly measured.
 The perfect reproducibility indicates no drift in the
instrument.

NOTE:
 Repeatability is defined as the variation of scale reading
and is random in nature.
 Both reproducibility and the repeatability are a measure
of the closeness with which a given input may be
29 measured again and again
 STABILITY
 Is the ability of an instrument to retain its performance
throughout its specified operating life and the storage
life.

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 DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS
 The various dynamic characteristics are:
o Speed of response
o Fidelity
o Lag
o Dynamic error

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 SPEED OF RESPONSE
 It is the rapidity with which the system responds to the
changes in the quantity to be measured.

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 FIDELITY
 It is defined as the degree to which an instrument
indicates the changes in the measured variable without
dynamic error

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 LAG
 Is the retardation or delay in the response of a system
 The lags are of two types:
o Retardation lag
o Time delay

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 DYNAMIC ERROR
 Is the difference between the true value of the variable to
be measured, changing with time and the value indicated
by the measurement system, assuming zero static error.

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 INSTRUMENT CLASSIFICATION
 There are many ways by which the instruments can be
classified. Broadly the instruments are classified as:
o Active/Passive instruments
o Null/Deflection type instruments
o Monitoring/Control instruments
o Analog/Digital instruments
o Absolute/Secondary instruments

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 ACTIVE/PASSIVE INSTRUMENTS
 Active instruments: Are the instruments in which the
quantity to be measured just activates the magnitude of
some external power input source which inturn
produces the measurement. Eg. Liquid level indicator as
shown in the figure below:

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 ACTIVE/PASSIVE INSTRUMENTS…
 Passive instruments: Are the instruments in which the
output is produced entirely by the quantity being
measured. Eg. Pressure gauge as shown in the following
figure:

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 ACTIVE/PASSIVE INSTRUMENTS…
 The differences between passive and active instruments:

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 NULL/DEFLECTION TYPE
INSTRUMENTS
 Null type instruments: Are the instruments in which a
zero or null indication leads to the determination of the
magnitude of the measured quantity. Eg. D.C
Potentiometer as shown in the following figure:

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 NULL/DEFLECTION TYPE
INSTRUMENTS…
 A null type instruments requires:
o The effect produced by measured quantity
o The opposite effect the value of which is known
o The null detector (galvanometer)

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 NULL/DEFLECTION TYPE
INSTRUMENTS…
 Deflection type instruments: Are the instruments in
which the quantity to be measured produces some effect
due to which pointer deflects. Eg. Permanent magnet
moving coil ammeter as shown in the following figure:

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 NULL/DEFLECTION TYPE
INSTRUMENTS…
 The differences between null type and deflection type
instruments:

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 MONITORING/CONTROL
INSTRUMENTS
 Monitoring instruments: Are the instruments which are
used to monitor the process, indicating the value or
condition of parameter under study.
 All the deflection type instruments and all the null type
instruments, thermometers and pressure transducers are
the examples of the monitoring instruments.

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 MONITORING/CONTROL
INSTRUMENTS…
 Control instruments: Are the instruments which are
used in automatic control systems. Generally such
instruments have an electrical output.
 The following figure shows the use of control instrument
in a simple control system.

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 ANALOG/DIGITAL INSTRUMENTS
 Analog instruments: Are the instruments which gives the
output which varies in continuous fashion as the quantity
being measured changes, taking infinite number of values
in any given range.
 The voltmeter, ammeter which are deflection type
instruments are the good examples of analog
instruments.
 Digital instruments: Are the instruments which gives the
output which varies in discrete steps and thus take only
finite different values in the given range.

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 ABSOLUTE/SECONDARY
INSTRUMENTS
 Absolute instruments: Are the instruments which gives
the magnitude of the quantity to be measured interms of
physical constants of the instruments. Eg. Tangent
galvanometer.
 Secondary instruments: Are the instruments in which the
reading shown by the instrument gives directly the
measurement of the quantity to be measured. Eg.
ammeters, voltmeters, thermometers.

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