Construction and Building Materials 24 (2010) 758–765

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

Effect of partial replacement of sand with dry oyster shell on the long-term
performance of concrete
Eun-Ik Yang a, Myung-Yu Kim a, Hae-Geun Park b, Seong-Tae Yi c,*
a
Department of Civil Engineering, Kangnung-Wonju National University, 123, Chibyon-dong, Kangnung-si, Kangwon-do 210-702, South Korea
b
Civil Engineering and Technology Team, SAMSUNG Corporation Co., Ltd., 1321-20, Seocho-dong, Seocho-gu, Seoul-si 137-070, South Korea
c
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Inha Technical College, 253, Yong Hyun-dong, Nam-Ku, Inchon-si 402-752, South Korea

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: To evaluate the practical application of crushed oyster shells (OS) as construction materials, an experi-
Received 9 April 2009 mental study was performed based on equal materials proportion and the partial replacement of satu-
Received in revised form 17 September rated-surface-dry (SSD) sand with dry oyster shell. More specifically, the long-term mechanical
2009
properties and durability of concrete with OS partially substituted for fine aggregate were investigated.
Accepted 26 October 2009
Available online 24 November 2009
Test results indicate that long-term strength of concrete with 10% OS replacement is almost identical to
that of normal concrete. However, the long-term strength of concrete with 20% OS replacement is appre-
ciably lower than that of normal concrete. Therefore, higher OS substitution has the possibility of nega-
Keywords:
Oyster shell
tively influencing the concrete long-term strength increment. Elastic modulus of concrete with OS
Substitution ratio replacement decreases as the substitution mixture ratio increases. Specifically, the modulus is reduced
Long-term performance by approximately 10–15% when OS are used for 20% of the fine aggregate.
Durability The drying shrinkage strain increases as the substitution ratio (SR) of OS is increased. In addition, the
existing model code for drying shrinkage and creep does not coincide with the test results of the present
study. A prediction equation for drying shrinkage has been developed. The utilization of OS as a fine
aggregate in concrete has a positive effect on freezing and thawing resistance and water permeability
is also considerably improved. However, OS has no apparent effect on carbonation and chemical attack
of concrete.
Finally, it is noted that the strength, elastic modulus, drying shrinkage, freezing and thawing resistance,
and permeability are significantly affected by increased OS substitution, particularly for long-term per-
formance, while other properties such as creep and carbonation, as well as chemical attack test results,
were not substantially affected.
Ó 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Oyster farming in the southern sea and a portion of western sea
of South Korea has become a major income source of the local fish-
ermen and provides a steady supply source to meet the domestic
oyster demand. However, large quantity of oyster shells (OS),
which is an industrial waste, result in the vicinity of an oyster con-
tainer freight station because the shells are discarded during pro-
cessing. Approximately 3.0  105 tons per year of OS occurs in
the vicinity of Geoje and Tongyeong cities in South Korea [1–3].
Currently, although a limited amount of OS is reused for OS seed
collection breeding and fertilizer etc., the extent of reuse is re-
stricted due to problems of limits on reuse volumes, security of
the container freight station at the time of handling, and soil solid-
ification and economic problems associated with spreading of OS
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +82 32 870 2237; fax: +82 32 870 2510.
E-mail address: yist@inhatc.ac.kr (S.-T. Yi).
on farmland. Accordingly, most OS are not reused but are illegally
discarded in the surrounding area.
In attempt to find uses for OS in large quantities, several studies
[1,3] of substitution of OS for fine aggregate in concrete have been
performed. The authors whose aims of this study are focused not
only on an engineering aspect of OS concrete but also on a
matter-of-fact use of the OS as fine aggregate, have agreed that
OS should show various possibilities for application. Presently,
however, most studies [1–4] have been performed for early ages.
Generally speaking, the concrete properties are changed with
age. In other words, with increasing age, the development of con-
crete strength and/or the deterioration of concrete durability are
occurred. Accordingly, to predict the long-term properties of con-
crete from short-term characteristics is not reasonable. Therefore,
for application in actual structures, studies on long-term mechan-
ical characteristics and durability of concrete with OS substitution
are necessary.
In some countries, sand dredged from sea bottom is used in
concrete without any process (for example without sieving) and

0950-0618/$ - see front matter Ó 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2009.10.032
 E.-I. Yang et al. / Construction and Building Materials 24 (2010) 758–765 759

Nomenclature

Ad admixture RD relative dynamic elastic modulus at the N cycle

C cement S fine aggregate
Ec chord modulus of elasticity S/a fine aggregate/(fine aggregate + coarse aggregate)
fc0 compressive strength of concrete W water
G coarse aggregate W1 dried weight
Gmax maximum aggregate size W2 permeated weight
N cycle number when the freezing and thawing test is fin- W/C water–cement ratio of the concrete
ished

as a result, concrete can contain high amounts seashells. The pur-
pose of this study is to experimentally evaluate the possibility of
putting OS into practical use as a construction material by quanti-
tatively evaluating the effect of substitution of crushed OS on long-
term mechanical characteristics and durability of concrete. This
manuscript is prepared using study results performed as a contin-
uation of previous research [1].
2. Experimental program
2.1. Material properties
used. The concrete mixture proportions selected with mixture type for all test spec-
imens are listed in Table 1. In this table, the values (70 and 130 kg/m3) in parenthe-
ses are the substitution amount of dry OS.
The water–cement ratio in Table 1 is a value required to ensure durability of
marine concrete [5–7]. The expected average concrete compressive strength fc0 is
28 MPa. Substitution ratio (SR) of OS was determined considering chloride ion
amounts contained in OS to satisfy the requirements (0.3 kg/m3) of Korea Concrete
Institute (KCI) [6] and Architectural Institute of Korea (AIK) Codes [8]. More specif-
ically, SR was limited to 10% based on the test results of the chloride ions brought
from OS composition. However, to consider the extreme case of 0.6 kg/m3 for chlo-
ride ion content, which surpasses the code rules, SR of 20% was also selected for a
comparison test. In Table 1, NN0, OS10, and OS20 represent SR of 0%, 10%, and 20%,
correspondingly.

Ordinary Portland cement (ASTM Type I) was used in all mixtures. Crushed
gravel was used as the coarse aggregate and the maximum aggregate size, Gmax,
is 25 mm. Specific gravity and absorption ratio of the coarse aggregate were 2.75
and 0.57%, respectively. Specific gravity, absorption ratio, and Fineness Modulus
(FM) of the fine aggregate were 2.58, 1.64%, and 2.98, correspondingly. OS mixed
in concrete is reduced to powder to pass a 5-mm sieve using a jaw crusher after
dehydration in a dryer at 110 ± 10 °C for 24 h. The shape of crushed OS is more flaky
and elongated compared to the more ‘cubical’ shape of the sand. Grading character-
istics of OS were discussed with Fineness Modulus (FM) in the previous paper by
Yang et al. [1]. The method of mixing OS under dry conditions is selected to simu-
late expected practical in fields.
Specific gravity, absorption ratio, and Fineness Modulus (FM) of crushed OS
were 2.48, 2.9%, and 2.8, correspondingly. To compensate for less/poor workability
by the substitution of OS, air entraining admixture (AEA), water-reducing admix-
ture (WRA), high-range water-reducing admixture (HWRA) or various combina-
tions were used. However, the additional water was not added to give the water–
cement ratio (W/C) specified when saturated-surface-dry (SSD) sand was replaced
by dry OS. Investigation on SSD of OS will be performed in a future study. A vibrator
was also used to improve consolidation of concrete.
2.2. Mixture proportioning and test variables
In this study to experimentally investigate variances of concrete characteristics
with OS substitution amounts, slump and air content volume were 100 ± 15 mm
and 5.5 ± 1.0%, respectively. To obtain the air content volume, an admixture was
2.3. Main test items and test procedure
To investigate long-term mechanical properties and durability as a function of
SR, experiments in this study are divided into two groups. For evaluation of long-
term properties, compressive strength, elastic modulus, drying shrinkage, and creep
tests were conducted. For evaluation of durability, freezing and thawing, carbon-
ation, chemical attack, and permeability tests were performed. Test variables and
measured properties are listed in Tables 2 and 3.
For compressive strength and elastic modulus tests, a cylinder (100 mm diam-
eter  200 mm height) was prepared based on ASTM C 39 [9]. Specimens were re-
moved from the mold after 24 h and were wet-cured in a water chamber at
23 ± 2 °C until the testing date. The compressive strength test with age was per-
formed, after finishing smoothly by grinding each loading surface of the specimen.
The compressive load was supplied by a universal testing machine (UTM, Closed-
Loop Servo-Hydraulic Testing Machine) with a capacity of 2000 kN.
For elastic modulus tests, the concrete strain gage was attached to opposite side
surfaces of cylindrical specimen at mid-height (measuring distance = 60 mm) and
the strain value from the attached strain gages was obtained. The load was mea-
sured using the load cell of UTM. The elastic modulus was calculated from the
stress–strain relationship obtained at each step. The modulus of elasticity [10], Ec,
outlined in ASTM C 469 [11], was used and calculated at 40% of the ultimate load.
For drying shrinkage tests, all specimens had 100 mm  100 mm square sec-
tions and all were 400 mm in height. Measuring points were located 250 mm apart
on both side surfaces of the specimen and length variances at the expected ages
were measured using a demec (demountable mechanical) gage (minimum sca-

Table 1
Mixture proportions of concrete.

Type of mixture W/C S/a Air content (%) Unit weight (kg/m3)
W C S G
NN0 0.45 0.43 4.5 175 389 723 (0)b 1021
OS10 0.45a 0.43 4.6 175 389 651 (70)b 1021
OS20 0.45a 0.40 5.3 175 389 538 (130)b 1075
a
Values unadjusted the reduction of water due to the usage of dried OS.
b
Values in parentheses mean the substitution amount of dried OS.

Table 2
Test variables for long-term mechanical properties.

Variable Measured properties Details

Compressive strength ASTM C 39 7, 14, 28 days; 2, 3, 6, 12 months
Elastic modulus Stress–strain curve 14, 28 days; 6, 12 months
Drying shrinkage Length variance Temperature (23 ± 1 °C), relative humidity (50 ± 3%), and drying start: 7-day age
Creep Length variance Average of three specimens load applying: 14-day age
760 E.-I. Yang et al. / Construction and Building Materials 24 (2010) 758–765

Table 3
Test variables for durability.

Resistance item Content Details

Freezing and thawing ASTM C 666 Dynamic modulus of elasticity, weight, and length variances with age
Carbonation Carbonation depth Carbon dioxide concentration: 10%
Chemical attack Weight reducing rate Sulfuric acid: 5% and hydrochloric acid: 2%
Permeability – Permeated content with SR cases

Table 4
Summary of compression properties.

SR % Compressive strength Elastic modulus (104)

7 days 14 days 28 days 2 months 3 months 6 months 1 year 14 days 28 days 6 months 1 year
0 25.8 29.2 29.3 33.7 33.9 38.8 40.6 3.40 3.35 3.54 3.48
10 25.3 28.7 29.1 31.9 33.9 36.5 39.2 2.98 3.12 3.34 3.14
20 25.0 29.6 29.6 31.2 30.0 34.3 37.2 2.86 2.99 3.27 2.94

le = 1 m). Specimens for drying shrinkage tests were removed from the mold after
24 h and were wet-cured in a curing water tank for 6 days. After that the specimens
were cured under uniform drying conditions at a temperature of 23 ± 1 °C and RH of
50 ± 3%. Drying started at 7-day age.
For creep tests, the load was applied using a spring-loaded creep frame of
300 kN capacity with a load cell and basic creep tests excluding drying of specimen
were carried out. The room temperature and RH were 20 ± 3 °C and 70 ± 5%, respec-
tively. After grinding the specimens, the load was applied vertically to three iden-
tical cylinders (100 mm diameter  200 mm height) in which the specimens are
aligned in the axial direction and the eccentricity is small. The applied load was
approximately 30% of compressive strength measured during testing and it was ap-
plied at 14-day age.
Freezing and thawing tests were performed according to ASTM C 666 [12]. For
carbonation and chemical attack tests, a cylinder (100 mm diameter  200 mm
height) was used.
For permeability tests, a cylinder (150 mm diameter  40 mm height, Fig. 1a)
was prepared using normal mortar with a flow value based on ASTM C 109 [13].
Specimens were removed from the mold after 48 h and were wet-cured in a moist
room at a temperature of 20 ± 3 °C and RH greater than that of 80% for 19 days. The
input method of permeability tests was selected and the tests were carried out in
seven steps. (1) After curing, a circular area of the top and bottom surfaces located
at approximately 25-mm distance outward from the center line of the specimen are
slightly brushed and skin parts of the outside are removed. (2) After that, the spec-
imen is dried at a temperature of 80 °C until its weight ceases to change. (3) Side
surfaces of the specimen are water-proofed using a paraffin or epoxy resin. (4) After
perfect hardening of the water-proofer, the weight (W1) of the specimen is mea-
sured. (5) Using the water permeability test apparatus shown in Fig. 1b, rubber gas-
kets with 50 mm diameter and 10 mm thickness are located at the center of the top
and bottom surfaces of the specimen. Any gaps are uniformly and tightly fastened.
(6) During 1 h, 1 N/cm2-hydraulic water pressure is applied at the top surface of the
specimen. (7) Finally, after pressurizing is completed, the moisture is removed from
both surfaces and the weight (W2) of the water pressurized specimen is measured.
3. Test results and evaluation
3.1. Long-term mechanical properties
3.1.1. Compressive strength and elastic modulus
Test results for compressive strength and elastic modulus over a
1 year period are shown in Table 4 and Figs. 2–4. All test results
and values calculated from the several codes (i.e., ACI and CEB-
FIP model equations [14,15]) are shown together in Fig. 3. In this
figure, the solid circular data points, the solid line, and the dashed
line represent the experimental data and the results from several
codes (ACI and CEB-FIP model equations), correspondingly.

Fig. 1. Water permeability test specimen and apparatus: (a) test specimen and (b) test apparatus.
 E.-I. Yang et al. / Construction and Building Materials 24 (2010) 758–765 761

45 4.0
Compressive strength (MPa)

SR=0%

Elastic modulus (x 104 MPa)

SR=10%
40 SR=20%
3.5

35
3.0
30

2.5 SR=0%
25 SR=10%
SR=20%
20 2.0
7 14 28 56 91 180 365 14 days 28 days 6 months 1 year
Age (day) Age

Fig. 2. Relationship between compressive strength and age with SR. Fig. 4. Relationship between elastic modulus and age with SR.

From Fig. 2, it is noted that the substitution of OS as a fine From Fig. 3, it can be seen that the values from ACI and CEB-FIP
aggregate shows an insignificant effect on concrete compressive model equations did not accurately reflect the effect of SR. Accord-
strength up to an age of 28 days. However, after 28 days, the effect ingly, it is necessary to propose a new model equation considering
is apparent. Development of compressive strength after 28 days SR to obtain more exact long-term compressive strength of con-
was smaller as SR of OS increases. The increases in strength com- crete partially using OS instead of fine aggregate. In the case of
pared with values at an age of 1 year were approximately 40%, substituting higher OS amounts, the strength decrease at old ages
35%, and 25%, correspondingly, at SR of 0%, 10%, and 20%. However, is due to stress concentration occurring with the relative lower
the compressive strength variances were not proportional to SR. strength of OS present in concrete.
Meanwhile, as shown in Fig. 4, the elastic modulus with the
substitution of OS decreased inversely proportionally to SR. At
20% SR, the elastic modulus decreased approximately 10–15% com-
50 pared with other SR cases. It is because the elastic modulus of OS is
SR=0%
lower than that of fine aggregates.
40 Fig. 5 shows that the stress–strain curves with SR at 28-day age.
From this figure, it is found that the stress–strain curves with SR
30 show a similar trend (i.e., the maximum stress values and the cor-
responding strain values with SR have relatively similar values).
20 Exactly speaking, however, since the strength of OS itself is fixed
and concrete strength is progressively with increasing age, SR of
10 OS has little effect on strength characteristics at early ages. But,
when concrete strength developed considerably at later ages, SR
0 of OS affects the strength of concrete negatively.
50
Compressive strength (MPa)

SR=10% 3.1.2. Drying shrinkage

40 To evaluate the behavior of drying shrinkage of concrete using
OS as the fine aggregate substitution material, a series of tests were
30 performed during 8 months and the summarized results are shown
in Figs. 6 and 7. In Fig. 6, all test results and values calculated from
20

10 30

0 25
50
SR=20% 20
Stress (MPa)

40
15
30
10
20
Measured value SR=0%
5 SR=10%
10 ACI
CEB-FIP SR=20%

0 0
0 500 1000 150 2000
0 100 200 300 400
Age (day) Strain (x10-6)

Fig. 3. Compressive strength development with SR. Fig. 5. Comparisons of stress–strain relationship with SR.
762 E.-I. Yang et al. / Construction and Building Materials 24 (2010) 758–765

Measured value ACI CEB-FIP BP coefficients R2 were also shown. In this figure, the hollow circular
Proposed Eq. data points, the thick solid line, the thin solid line, the thin dashed
1000 line, and the thick dashed line represent the experimental data and
the results from this study and several codes (ACI, CEB-FIP, and BP
SR=0%
model equations [14–16]), correspondingly.
800
According to Fig. 6, the BP model equation and the proposed
equation show the largest value and the smallest value, respec-
600 tively, and the values from CEB-FIP and ACI model equations are
middle level. The difference between CEB-FIP and ACI model equa-
400 tions is minimal. In the case of the BP model equation, the change
x in predicted values increased rapidly at the initial stage. The com-
y=
200 0 . 0022 x + 0 . 034 parison of the analytical and experimental values indicates that
even though there is a scatter between calculated and measured
R 2 = 0 . 98
0 values the equation proposed in this study shows a good agree-
ment with the experimental data.
1000
Fig. 7 shows the variation of drying shrinkage with increasing
Shrinkage strain (x10-6)

SR=10%
SR of OS. The absolute value of drying shrinkage and the shrinkage
800
rate increased with increasing SR. According to suggested model
equations, when the age was infinite the final shrinkage strain ap-
600 proached 456  106, 487  106, and 581  106, correspond-
ingly, at each SR. The increase in drying shrinkage based on
400 regression analyses was 7% and 28% at SR of 10% and 20%, respec-
x tively, compared with SR of 0%. These changes result from the low-
y=
200 0 . 0021 x + 0 . 027 er rigidity of OS and the effect of size of fine powder.
R2 = 0 . 97
0
3.1.3. Creep
1000
The creep variance of concrete using OS as fine aggregate sub-
SR=20%
stitution material causes additional deformation and stress redis-
800
tribution of structures. Accordingly, evaluation of this item is
also required. A series of creep tests were performed and the sum-
600 marized results are shown in Figs. 8 and 9. Applied loading was
70 kN corresponding to approximately 30% of compressive
400 x strength. In Fig. 8, all test results and values calculated from several
y= codes (i.e., ACI, CEB-FIP, and BP model equations [14–16]) were
200 0 .0017 x + 0 .027 shown together. In this figure, the hollow circular data points,
R 2 = 0 .98 the solid line, the thin dashed line, and the thick dashed line rep-
0 resent the experimental data, and the results from several codes
0 100 200 300 400 (ACI, CEB-FIP, and BP model equations [14–16]), correspondingly.
Age (day) In this test, originally, creep data were measured during
8 months. However, a mistake occurred in measurements after
Fig. 6. Shrinkage strain–age curve with SR.
1 month. Thus, only data up to 1 month was used in the analyses.
According to Fig. 8, the value from the CEB-FIP model equation is
the smallest and the BP model equation shows the largest value.
600 The ACI model equation shows that the variance of expected values
with increasing SR of OS was larger. This is because the change of
500 mixture with SR is somewhat reflected in the ACI model equation.
-6
Shrinkage strain x10

In other model equations, however, the influence of SR is not

considered.
400
The predicted values of concrete creep with OS substitution are
different with the selected model equations and it is also difficult
300
to adequately evaluate the effect. According to this study, ACI mod-
el equation shows good agreement with the experimental data. To
200 obtain more accurate results, a modification of existing model
SR=0% equations is required considering creep characteristics of concrete
100 SR=10% with OS substitution. Fig. 9 shows the comparison of creep charac-
SR=20% teristics with SR. Creep at 0% seems larger than 10% even at early
0 ages. However, the difference decreased with increasing age in
0 50 100 150 200 250
the test range. A clear effect of SR on creep is not apparent.
Age (day)
To more exactly verify and quantify the creep characteristics of
Fig. 7. Influence of SR on shrinkage strain. concrete with OS, long-term experiments are required and addi-
tional comparison analyses should be performed. Strains up to
age 1 month with SR were summarized in Table 5. Instantaneous
several codes (i.e., ACI, CEB-FIP, and BP model equations [14–16]) elastic strain increased with increasing SR and, accordingly, total
are shown together. The equations included in these figures are strain showed similar patterns. However, creep strain did not show
model equations obtained from regression analyses. Correlation an apparent trend.
 E.-I. Yang et al. / Construction and Building Materials 24 (2010) 758–765 763

400 Table 5
Summary of each strain with SR (at 1 month) (unit; 106).
SR=0%
SR (%) Instantaneous elastic strain Creep strain Total strain
300
0 267 183 450
10 305 159 464
20 318 181 499
200

100 was 8.91 MPa. From the results, it is noted that the relative vari-
ance between the applied and calculated stresses is not significant.
0
400 3.2. Durability characteristics
SR=10%
Creep strain (x10-6)

3.2.1. Freezing and thawing

300
Experiments to compare freezing and thawing resistance with
the SR of OS were performed. Results for up to 300 cycles are sum-
200 marized in Fig. 10. According to this figure, even though the num-
ber of freezing and thawing cycles increases, the variance rates of
the dynamic elastic modulus and weight of concrete substituted
100
with OS showed smaller and more satisfactory values, respectively,
than those of unsubstituted concrete. For variance rates of length,
0 the difference was not significant since the unsubstituted concrete
itself showed good resistance. It is considered, however, that OS
400 yields improved performance on the freezing and thawing resis-
SR=20% tance of concrete. It is because the fine grain of OS filled the en-
300

100
200
Measured value
ACI
100 CEB-FIP 90
BP

0
0 100 200 300 400 80
Age (day)
Fig. 8. Creep strain–age curve with SR. Dynamic modulus of elasticity
70
100
200
99
Variance (%)
Creep strain (x10-6)

150
98

100 97

Weight
96
50
SR=0% 101
SR=10%
SR=20%
0 100
0 1 20 30
Age (day)
99
Fig. 9. Influence of SR on creep strain.

SR=0%
98
SR=10%
Generally, the modulus of elasticity at application of load times SR=20% Length
the elastic strain at the time gives the stress. From Tables 4 and 5, it 97
can be seen that the instantaneous elastic strain at 28-day age 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
shows good correlation with the elastic modulus. Namely, the Cycle
stress values for NN0, OS10, and OS20, are 8.95, 9.52, and
9.51 MPa, respectively, where the stress applied from the outside Fig. 10. Resistance to freezing and thawing.
764 E.-I. Yang et al. / Construction and Building Materials 24 (2010) 758–765

trapped air voids scattered in concrete specimen. Accordingly, 100

additional research should be performed to quantitatively evaluate Sulfuric acid
freezing and thawing resistance of concrete including OS.
In each case, durability factors (DF) of concrete with SR were
95
measured as the 82.7, 93.3, and 85.4, correspondingly.
The DF is determined by.

Weight variance (%)

RD  N 90
DF ¼ ð1Þ
M
where RD is the relative dynamic elastic modulus at the N cycle; N is
the cycle number when the freezing and thawing test is finished; 85
and M is 300 (cycle number limit). 100
Hydrochloric acid
3.2.2. Carbonation
To evaluate the effect of SR of OS on carbonation characteristics 95
of concrete, carbonation acceleration tests were performed in a
chamber under the conditions of temperature (30 ± 3 °C), relative
humidity (60 ± 5%), and 10% carbon dioxide. After splitting-tension
90
fracturing the specimen at specified ages, a 1% phenolphthalein– SR=0%
alcohol liquid was sprayed on the fractured specimen surface and SR=10%
the thickness of discolored portion was measured. Data up to SR=20%
5 weeks were measured and the summarized results are shown 85
in Fig. 11. 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
According to the results, the carbonation depth increased with Age (week)
increasing carbonation ages. The depth of carbonation was inde-
Fig. 12. Resistance to chemical attack.
pendently reduced with SR of OS. The effect of SR on carbonation
velocity was insignificant.
3.2.4. Permeability
3.2.3. Chemical attack The pore structure and tightness of concrete has an effect on
For chemical attack experiments of concrete with substitution durability of concrete. In this study, to compare these attributes,
of OS, concrete specimens were deposited in 5% sulfuric acid and permeability tests with SR of OS were performed and the summa-
2% hydrochloric acid, respectively. Then, the weight variance with rized results were shown in Table 6.
age was measured up to 6 weeks. Weight variances with age due to The average permeated content and the permeability ratio were
sulfuric acid attack and hydrochloric acid attack are shown in determined by Eqs. (2) and (3), respectively.
Fig. 12 with SR of OS.
After passing the required age, the specimen surface shows that Average permeated content ðgÞ
the attack of concrete increases gradually with age. However, the ¼ Permeated weight ðW 2 Þ  dried weight ðW 1 Þ ð2Þ
comparison of the specimen surface states indicates that differ-
ences with SR were not apparent. In addition, the attack due to Permeability ratio
the sulfuric acid occurred continuously with age regardless of SR.
Permeated content of comparison specimens ðSR 10% and 20%Þ
However, the attack due to the hydrochloric acid did not show a ¼
Permeated content of the basic specimen ðSR 0%Þ
continuous change with age. After 3-week age, the weight variance
did not continue to increase.  100 ð%Þ ð3Þ
According to Fig. 12, the difference with SR was insignificant.
The comparison of the permeability ratios of mortar with SR indi-
Thus, it is concluded that chemical attack resistance of concrete
cates that the ratio of SR 10% and 20% is approximately 80% less
is independent of SR.
than that of the standard concrete. Therefore, the permeability
resistance is greatly improved. The reason is because of the small
particle size contained in crushed OS even though the shape of
1.0
crushed OS is more flaky and elongated compared to the sand. In
Carbonation depth (cm)

addition, it appears to have little relation with SR of OS and reaction

0.8 with concrete materials.

0.6 4. Discussions and conclusions

In this study, the effect of SR of OS on the long-term perfor-

0.4
mance and durability of concrete was examined based on equal
materials proportion and direct replacement of SSD sand with
SR=0%
0.2 dry OS. Large quantities of OS are distributed globally. However,
SR=10%
SR=20% most OS ends up as industrial waste without being reused. To date,
there is a shortage of natural fine aggregates. To solve these prob-
0.0
1 3 5 lems, OS can serve as a partial replacement of fine aggregate.
Age (week) Namely, concrete substituted with OS had a good engineering
properties and showed high resistance against environmental at-
Fig. 11. Resistance to carbonation. tack. Authors expect that various application possibilities of OS will
 E.-I. Yang et al. / Construction and Building Materials 24 (2010) 758–765 765

Table 6
Permeability characteristics with SR of OS.

SR (%) Initial weight (g) Dried weight, W1 (g) Permeated weight, W2 (g) Permeated content (g) Average permeated content (g) Permeability ratio
0 1530.98 1483.50 1486.11 2.61 2.845 1.00
1510.27 1463.40 1466.48 3.08
10 1478.78 1426.00 1426.52 0.52 0.640 0.23
1474.24 1423.20 1423.96 0.76
20 1353.61 1304.90 1305.34 0.44 0.525 0.19
1350.59 1301.80 1302.41 0.61

be studied in future research. The conclusions obtained from this
study can be summarized as follows:
1. The effect of SR of OS on the compressive strength at day-28 age
is minor. When the substitution greater than a limitation was
performed, however, the strength increment was decreased at
long-term ages.
2. The elastic modulus with SR of OS is proportionally decreased
with SR increase. The decrease was approximately 10–15% at
SR of 20%.
3. The drying shrinkage increased with SR of OS increase. And,
existing drying shrinkage and creep model equations do not
consider the effect of increasing OS. Thus, a modification in
these model equations is required.
4. Utilizing OS substituted for fine aggregate did not show nega-
tive influences on freezing and thawing, carbonation, and
chemical attack resistance, and permeability resistance was
improved.
Acknowledgments
This research was accomplished as a part of the project ‘‘Devel-
opment of Intelligent Port and Logistics System for Super-Large
Container Ships,’’ which was sponsored by Ministry of Maritime
and Fishery in Korea. The authors express their appreciation for
the financial support.
References
[2] Yang EI, Yi ST, Kim HM, Shim JS. Long-term performance evaluation of concrete
utilizing oyster shell in lieu of fine aggregate. J Korea Concr Inst
2003;15(2):280–7 [in Korean].
[3] Eo SH, Hwang KH, Kim JG. Application of oyster shells as aggregates for
concrete. J Korea Concr Inst 2002;14(4):540–8 [in Korean].
[4] Falade F. An investigation of Periwinkle shells as coarse aggregate in concrete.
Build Environ 1995;30(4):573–7.
[5] ACI Committee 201. Guide to durable concrete, ACI manual of concrete
practice (ACI 201R-92). American Concrete Institute; 1997. 39 pp.
[6] Korea Concrete Institute. Standard specifications for concrete; 1999. 250 pp [in
Korean].
[7] CEB. Durable concrete structures. Thomas Telford; 1992. 112 pp.
[8] Korea Concrete Institute and Architectural Institute of Korea. Standard for
structural calculations of reinforced concrete structures; 1999. 319 pp [in
Korean].
[9] American Society for Testing and Materials. Standard test method for
compressive strength of cylindrical concrete specimens. ASTM C 39-01,
Philadelphia.
[10] Neville AM. Properties of concrete. John Wiley & Sons; 1997. 844 pp.
[11] American Society for Testing and Materials. Standard test method for static
modulus of elasticity and Poisson’s ratio of concrete in compression. ASTM C
469-94, Philadelphia.
[12] American Society for Testing and Materials. Standard test method for
resistance of concrete to rapid freezing and thawing. ASTM C 666-97,
Philadelphia.
[13] American Society for Testing and Materials. Standard test method for
compressive strength of hydraulic cement mortars (using 2-in. or 50-mm
cube specimens). ASTM C 109-01, Philadelphia.
[14] ACI Committee 209. Prediction of creep, shrinkage, and temperature effects in
concrete structures. ACI manual of concrete practice (ACI 209R-92). American
Concrete Institute; 1997.
[15] CEB-FIP. Model code for concrete structures (MC-90). London: CEB, Thomas
Telford; 1993. 112 pp.
[16] Bazant ZP, Wittmann FH. Creep and shrinkage in concrete structures. John
Wiley & Sons; 1982. 363 pp.

[1] Yang EI, Yi ST, Leem YM. Effect of oyster shell substituted for fine aggregate on
concrete characteristics: part I. Fundamental properties. Cem Concr Res
2005;35(11):2175–82.