EXPERIMENT NO.

OBJECT

To study and sketch the model of C.I. Engine (4-Stroke Diesel).

EQUIPMENTS

Model of 4-stroke diesel engine (cut section)

CONSTRUCTIONAL DETAIL

4-Stroke diesel engine consists of following main parts.

1. Cylinder 13. Cam shaft

2. Cylinder head 14. Governor

3. Piston 15. Fuel injection pump

4. Connecting rod 16. Injector

5. Crank shaft

6. Crank

7. Flywheel

8. Big and small end bearing

9. Crank case

10. Piston rings

11. Intake valve

12. Outlet valve

WORKING PRINCIPAL

The diesel engine is also known as compression ignition engine or constant pressure
engine. In 4-stroke diesel engine, one cycle is completed in two revolution of crank
shaft and four strokes of the piston. This type of engine is called four stroke engine.
A, 4-stroke diesel engine has suction, compression, expansion and exhaust strokes
for each operating cycle.

SUCTION STROKE

This stroke begins just before the piston reaches to top dead center during its upward
movement in cylinder. The suction stroke begins at about 10-20o before TDC. At
this time inlet valve begins to open. AS the inlet valve opens piston goes past TDC
and begins to move downward in cylinder, due to that low pressure is created in
cylinder and air enters into the cylinder. The intake process ends when piston reaches
at about 25o-40o after BDC.

COMPRESSION STROKE

In this stroke 'piston moves from B.D.C. to T.D.C. and compressed the air, because
of compression temperature and pressure will be increased, at this time, both valves
will be closed and fuel will be injected in atomized form. Due to which at the end of
this stroke ignition takes place.

EXPANSION STROKE OR POWER STROKE

After ignition burnt gases inside the cylinder expands and exerts the pressure on
piston due to that piston again moves from T.D.C. to B.D.C. and power produced on
crank shaft and flywheel gets movement by this stroke.
EXHAUST STROKE

Exhaust stroke occurs as the piston moves from BDC to TDC. The exhaust valve
begins to open before the end of power stroke that is before BDC, as the piston
moves up in cylinder, the combustion product are pushed out through the exhaust
valve.

The cycle is completed, now the engine is ready to such the fresh air again.

PARTS OF DIESEL ENGINE

GOVERNOR

A governor is used to adjust the power output from an engine in conformity with the
external load and accordingly make the engine operate at constant speed.

FUEL INJUECTION IN A C.I. ENGINE

In a diesel engine correct quantity of fuel is injected into the engine cylinder at the
end of the compression stroke by a fuel injector. The required high pressure is build
by the fuel injection pump.

VALVE OPERATING MECFHANISM

The valve and valve operating mechanism of an I.C. engine admit at the right
moment, fresh charge into the engine cylinders and exhaust the products of
combustion into the atmosphere. There are two valves located at the cylinder head.
1. Inlet valve, 2. Outlet valve, these valves are opened and closed at the proper
timings with the help of camshaft.

APPLICATIONS
4-stroke diesel engines are widely used in transportation as bus, trucks, railway
engines etc.
RESULT
The study and sketch of 4-stroke diesel engine is done.
DISCUSSION

Working of 4-Stroke Diesel Engine

 EXPERIMENT NO. 2

OBJECT

To study and sketch he model of S.I. Engine (4-Stroke Petrol)

EQUIPMENTS

Model of 4-stroke petrol engine (cut section)

CONSTRUCTIONAL DETAIL

4-stroke petrol engine consists of following main parts

1. Cylinder 13. Cam shaft

2. Cylinder head 14. Governor

3. Piston 15. Fuel pump

4. Connecting rod 16. Spark plug

5. Crank shaft 17. Carburetor

6. Crank 18. Valve operating mechanism

7. Flywheel (Tappet, push rod, rocker, valve spring)

8. Big and small end bearing

9. Crank case 19. Piston rings

10. Piston rings

11. Intake valve

12. Outlet valve

WORKING PRINCIPAL

The petrol engine is also known as spark ignition engine or constant volume engine.
In 4-stroke petrol engine, one cycle is completed in two revolution of crank shaft
and four strokes of the piston. This type of engine is called four stroke engine. A 4-
stroke petrol engine has suction compression, expansion and exhaust strokes for each
operating cycle.

SUCTION STROKE

This stroke begins just before the piston reaches to top dead centre during its upward
movement in cylinder. The suction stroke begins at about 100-200 before TDC. At
this time inlet valve begins to open. As the inlet valve opens, piston goes past TDC
and begins to move downward in cylinder, due to that low pressure is created in
cylinder and air fuel mixture enters into the cylinder, suction, compression,
expansion and exhaust strokes for each operating cycle.

COMPRESSION STROKE

In this stroke piston moves from B.D.C. to T.D.C. and compressed the air fuel
mixture, because of compression temperature and pressure will be increased, at this
time, both valves will be closed and ignition takes place with the help of spark plug.

EXPANSION STROKE OR POWER STROKE

After ignition burnt gases inside the cylinder expands and exerts the pressure on
piston due to that piston again moves from T.D.C. to B.D.C. and power produced on
crank shaft and flywheel gets movement by this stroke.

EXHAUST STROKE

Exhaust stroke occurs as the piston moves from BDC to TDC. The exhaust valve
begins to open before the end of power stroke that is before BDC, as the piston
moves up in cylinder, the combustion product are pushed out through the exhaust
valve.

The cycle is completed, now the engine is ready to such the fresh air fuel mixture
again.

DESCRIPTION OF THE PARTS

CYLINDER

Cylinder is a circular shaped container within which piston travels in reciprocating

motion. Cylinder provides a cylindrical close space to allow movement to the piston,
to admit and ignite the charge. Cylinders of a multi-cylinder engine are cast as a
single block. The block is cast in one piece from grey cast iron or iron alloyed with
other metals such as nickel or chromium. Some blocks are cast from Al. in case of
water cooled engines it contains water jackets between outer and inner wall of the
cylinder. In case of air cooled engines cooling fins are provided on the external
surface of the cylinder.

CYLINDER HEAD

The part mounted on the cylinder is called cylinder head. It contains inlet and outlet
valve seats and has a threaded hole to accommodate the spark plug in S.I. engines
and fuel injector in C.I. engines. It is cast in one piece from alloyed iron. It provides
the protection to the valves and piston by enclosing them.

PISTON

The gas force produced during power stroke acts on the piston. Piston reciprocates
within the cylinder, and transmits the force exerted by expanding gases to crankshaft
via connecting rod. It is designed as a metal cup. Pistons of engines are made of
alloy steel aluminum alloy. The oil drain holes are provided for circulation of
lubricating oil. A T slot is made to accommodate for thermal expansion of piston.

PISTON RINGS

Piston rings are provided to seal the space between the piston and cylinder wall on
the upper part of the piston. These rings are called compression rings. In the lower
part of the piston grooves are provided to install the oil rings. These oil rings scrapes
off excess lubricating oil from the cylinder wall during the downward movement of
the piston. Piston rings are usually alloy C.I. various coatings are used on
compression rings. Soft substances like phosphate, graphite and iron oxide which
rapidly are used to coat the rings.

CONNECTING ROD

Connecting rod transforms reciprocating motion of the piston into rotary motion of
crank shaft. The material used for connecting rod ranges from plain carbon steel to
high grade nickel alloys. The latter are used in heavy duty engines or where low
weight is of importance. The connecting rod is drop forged and then machined and
heat treated.

CRANKSHAFT

The crankshaft together with the connecting rod converts the power delivered to the
piston by the burning gases from an up and down motion to a rotary motion. The
crankshaft of an engine acts the power output shaft and also called engine shaft. The
crankshaft is usually a one piece forging made of heat treated alloy steel and
machined in lathes and furnished by grinding to provide suitable journals for the
connecting rod and main bearing.
CAMSHAFT

Camshaft consists of a number of cams on it. Each cam is meant to operate a valve
at present timing. It controls the opening and closing of the inlet and outlet valves.
It gets the movement from crankshaft through timing gears.

TIMING GEARS

Timing gears are a pair of gears of which one is mounted on crankshaft and the other
at camshaft. The gear mounted on camshaft is 2 times larger in dia. than the other
mounted on crankshaft. It means that the cam shaft has to rotate ½ the speed of
crankshaft. It is because a valve has to open and close once in every two revolution
of crankshaft.

FLYWHEEL

It is mounted on crankshaft. It controls the fluctuation of speed. It absorbs excess

energy during power stroke and provides it to the piston in other strokes.

SPARK PLUG

It is mounted on cylinder head and at the end of the compression stroke when the
temperature and pressure increases, it provides a spark to ignite the compressed
charge.

FUEL SYSTEM IN S.I. ENGINE

In the fuel flow system fuel filter are always provided to filter foreign particles. The
fuel system of a car uses a fuel pump to lift fuel from the tank and supply the same
to the carburetor. Carburetor supplies air fuel mixture of appropriate strength and
quantity to the engine cylinder according to the load requirement. Some modern cars
have fuel injection system instead of carburetor which is called MPFI system.
VALVE OPERATING MECHANISM

The valve and valve operating mechanism of an I.C. engine admit at the right
moment, fresh charge into the engine cylinders and exhaust the products of
combustion into the atmosphere. There are two valves located at the cylinder head.
1. Inlet valve, 2. Outlet valve, these valves are opened and closed at the proper
timings with the help of camshaft.

APPLICATIONS

4-stroke petrol engines are widely used in transportation as cars, motor cycles.

RESULT

The study and sketch of 4-stroke petrol engine is done.

DISCUSSION
Working of 4-Stroke Petrol Engine
 EXPERIMENT NO. 3

OBJECT:

To study and sketch the model of S.I. Engine (2-stroke petrol).

EQUIPMENT

Model of 2-stroke petrol engine (cut section)

CONSTRUCTIONAL DETAIL

1. Cylinder 2. Cylinder head

3. Piston 4. Piston ring

5. Connecting rod 6. Crank

7. Crank shaft 8. Flywheel

9. Ports 10. Spark plug

11. Carburetor

WORKING PRINCIPAL

In this engine one cycle is completed in one revolution of crank shaft and two stroke
of the piston. This type of engine is called two stroke engine.

A 2-stroke petrol engine works on Otto-cycle or constant volume cycle. In this cycle
the suction, compression, expansion and exhaust takes place during two strokes of
the piston. It means that there is one working stroke after every revolution of crank
shaft. A two stroke engine ahs ports instead of valves. In every movement of the
piston from BDC to TDC or TDC to BDC there is two processes takes place
simultaneously.

SUCTION STROKE & COMPRESSION STROKE

In this stroke piston moves from B.D.C. to T.D.C. and compressed the charge and
due to compression temperature and pressure of the charge increases and ignition
takes place by spark plug. During this process piston uncovers the inlet port and
fresh charge enters into the crank case.

EXPANSION & EXHAUST STROKE

After ignition burnt gases inside the cylinder expands due to that piston again moves
from T.D.C. to B.D.C. and power produced on crank shaft and during this process
piston uncovers the outlet port and burnt gases exist from out let port.

PARTS OF 2-STROKE PETROL ENGINE

PORTS
Ports are used in 2-stroke engines. Ports are out in the cylinder body to allow the
flow of charge into the cylinder. There are three ports in two stroke engine.

1. Inlet port

2. Outlet port

3. Transfer port

The opening and closing of these ports are controlled by the up and down
movement of the piston in the cylinder.

SPARK PLUG

It is mounted on cylinder head and at the end of the compression stroke when the
temperature and pressure increases, it provides a spark to ignite the compressed
charge.

CARBURETTOR

It is used to prepare the air fuel mixture and then send the correct quantity of this
mixture into the engine cylinder according to the load requirement.

APPLICATIONS

2-Stroke engines are used in scooters, motorcycles.

RESULT

The study and sketch of 2-stroke petrol engine is done.

DISCUSSION
 EXPERIMENT NO. 4

OBJECT: To study and sketch the model of vapour compression refrigerator.

APPARATUS

Model of Refrigerator.

INTRODUCTION

The term refrigeration in broad sense is used for the process of removing heat from
a substance. It also includes the process of reducing and maintaining the temperature
of body below the general temperature of surroundings. In other words, the
refrigeration means a continued extraction of heat from body, whose temperature is
below the temperature of its surroundings. Thus in a refrigerator, heat ia virtually
being pumped from the lower temperature to a higher temperature. According to
second law thermodynamics, this process can only be performed with the aid of
some external work. It is thus obvious, that supply of power is regularly required to
drive a refrigerator. Theoretically, the refrigerator is a reversed heat engine or a heat
pump which pumps heat from cold body and delivers it to a hot body. The substance,
which works in a heart pump to extract heat from a cold body and to deliver it to a
hot body, is called refrigerant.

A vapour compression refrigeration system is an improved type of air refrigeration

system in which a suitable working substance, termed as refrigeration is used. The
principle of vapour compression refrigeration again and again. Fero-12 and feron-
22 are used as refrigerant for the above cycle. During evaporation the refrigerant
absorbs a large amount of heat from the system, during condensation, the refrigerant
gives out latent heat to the Atmosphere.

WORKING PROCESS

The working process of V.C. Refrigeration system is followed in these sequences:

1. COMPRESSION PROCESS

The compression of vapour takes place from low pressure and low temperature to
high pressure and high temperature in the compressor. The reciprocating
compressors, rotary compressors are generally used in the Refrigerators.

2. CONDENSATION PROCESS

Vapour under high pressure and temperature is delivered to the condenser where its
heat is rejected to the condenser at constant pressure. This is carried out in two
stages. The first stage where the condenser absorbs the heat from the high pressure
vapour and the temperature of the vapour falls to saturation temperature. The second
stage where the vapour finally condensed to a liquid by rejecting latent heat at
constant temperature.

3. THROTTLING PROCESS

The high pressure liquid Refrigerant is expanded irreversibly through an expansion

valve to a lower pressure. During throttling the enthalpy remains constant. Due to
drop in pressure, the liquid starts boiling and the fluid itself provides the latent heat
for this. Thus, there is a fall in temperature of refrigerant.

4. EVAPORATION PROCESS

The extremely wet vapour from the expansion Valve passes through evaporator coil
where the latent heat of system is absorbed by the wet vapour and consequently gets
evaporated. The final stage of the Refrigerant depends upon the quantity of heat
absorb.
MAIN PARTS

A simple vapour compression system of Refrigeration consists of four main parts.

1. Compressor

2. Condenser

3. Expansion Valve

4. Evaporator
 EXPERIMENT NO. 5

OBJECT

To study and sketch the model of water tube boiler (Babcock & Wilcox boiler)

EQUIPMENTS

Model of Babcock & Wilcox Boiler

GENERAL INFORMATION

Boilers are closed pressure vessels in which water is heated to convert it into the
steam. The steam thus generated may be dry and saturated or superheated, and it
supplied at required pressure to the steam engine, steam turbine, and other
equipments for various operations.

CONSTRUCTIONAL FEATURES

1. It is a horizontal externally fired, natural circulation type, water tube boiler.

2. It has multi inclined tubes and natural draft.

3. Its water tubes are inclined upward from down take header to uptake header
at about 5o to 15o.

4. Due to long chimney the draught is natural.

5. These boilers are suitable for thermal power plant.

6. They are widely used in road rollers and railway engines.

7. Steaming rate of this boiler is 40,000 kg/hour.

8. This is a high capacity boiler that produces steam up to pressure 40 bar.

WORKING

Babcock & Wilcox is a water tube boiler. For high pressure or high rates of
evaporation the fire tube boilers are unsuitable, as they become bulky and very
heavy. To avoid this difficulty, instead of passing the product of combustion through
the boiler tubes, water is passed through the tubes and the burnt gases are passed
outside the water tube the placed in an inclined position to produce flow of water
through them due to the variation in density of water.

The boiler consists of a large number of parallel inclined tubes whose ends are
connected with uptake and down take header. The uptake header is joined with the
boiler drum with a short tube while a long tube is used to connect the down take
header with the boiler drum. There are baffles in the furnace, so instead of moving
forward, the flue gases have to move up then down, and again have to rise up, and
then flow through the super/heater, an economizer, and an air preheated before they
get discharged through the chimney. Due to variation of the density of water, the wet
steam and hot water rise 1 up in the inclined water tubes and flow into the boiler
drum flows back into the water tubes through the down take header. In this way,
water reticulates through the water tubes into the boiler drum.

MAIN PARTS

Fire tube boilers consist the following main parts

1. Boiler shell

2. Fire grate

3. Chimney

4. Baffle

5. Inclined water tubes

6. Dampers

BOILER MOUNTINGS

For the safe operation of boiler, we use some devices called mountings. Some
important mountings are given below:-

1. Feed check valve

2. Safety valve (spring loaded)

3. Stop valve

4. Water level indicator

5. Pressure gauge

6. Blow off cock or Mud hole

BOILER ACCESSORIES

To increase the efficiency of a boiler we use some devices called accessories.

Some important accessories are given below:

1. Super heater

2. Economizer

3. Feed pump

4. Air pre heater

FUNCTION OF THE CHIMNEY

Chimney works on the phenomenon of draught. The main function of the chimney
is to allow the waster gases escape in the atmosphere and allow the fresh air to enter
inside the boiler.
DRAUGHT

Draught means a force which is created due to the small pressure difference in stream
of flue gases, which causes the flow to take place. In boilers it is needed to support
combustion by supplying air and to remove the products of combustion. The draught
may be provided through natural means or artificially providing draught by chimney
is an example of natural means while the artificial draught is provided by mechanical
fans.

MAIN PARTS
BOILER SHELL

It is made up of steel plates bent into cylindrical form and riveted or welded together.
The ends of the shell are closed by means of end plates. A Boiler shell should have
sufficient capacity to contain water and steam.

FIRE GRATE

It is a platform in the combustion chamber upon which fuel coal or wood is burnt.
The grate generally consist of cast iron bars which are sapced apart so that air
(required for combustion) can pass through them. The surface area so the grate, over
which the combustion takes place is called grate.

BAFFLE

These are plates, which are meant to compel hot gases to move in such a way that a
longer contact time is maintained between hot gases and inclined tubes. It thus
provides a better heat transfer.
DAMPER

They are the iron doors which slides up and down in the groove (cut in the sidee
flues) by means of a chain/ropes and pulley arrangement to control the flow of flue
gases.

FIRE TUBES

The hot flue gases produced on combustion of flues pass through a group of tubes
and the water to be heated circulates around it. These tubes are called fire tubes.

FIRE BOX

It is the space in the bottom side of a boiler where the fuel is burnt to produce heat.

STEAM DOME

It is located at the top of the boiler shell and collects the dry steam. It contains the
throttle valve through which it supplies the steam to super heating tubes.

SUPER HEATER TUBES

These are used to super heat the cry and saturated steam obtained from boiler. It
consists a set of tubes called super heater tubes.

BOILER MOUNTINGS

For the safe operation of boiler we use some devices called mountings. Some
important mountings are given below -

1. Feed check valve

2. Safety valve (spring loaded)

3. Stop valve

4. Water level indicator

5. Pressure gauge
6. Fusible Plug

FEED CHECK VALVE

It allows the feed water under pressure to be fed into boiler, when the water level
falls below a certain level.

SAFETY VALVE

It is used to prevent any explosion due to excessive internal pressure of steam. It

allows the steam from the boiler to escape to atmosphere when the pressure in boiler
exceeds the working pressure. Safety valves can be of different types.

- Spring loaded safety valve

- Dead weight safety valve

- Lever and weight safety valve

STOP VALVE

It is used to regulate the rate of flow of steam from boiler to steam engine or steam
turbine.

WATER LEVEL INDICATOR

It is used to indicator the level of the water in the boiler shell. Generally two water
level indicators are fitted at the front end of the boiler for visibility to the operator.

FUSIBLE PLUG

It is used to extinguish the fire in the furnace when the water level falls much below
the normal level. It is a safety device and is fitted over the combustion chamber.

BOILER ACCESSORIES - To increase the efficiency of a boiler we sue some

devices called accessories. Some important accessories are given below:-

1. Super heater
2. Economizer

3. Feed pump

4. Air pre heater

SUPER HEATER

Super heater is used to super heat the dry and saturated steam obtained from the
boiler. Super heater consists of a set of tubes and is installed very close to the furnace
50 as to expose it to hot gases during its flow.

ECONOMISER

It is installed in the passage of flue gases to recover some of tis heat and then to
utilize this heat in heating the feed water.

AIR PREHEATER

It is used to recover the heat from the exit gases by heating the air supplied for the
purpose of combustion of fuel in the furnace. Blowing of preheated air to the furnace
results in higher furnace temperature and accelerates the process of fuel combustion.

FEED PUMP

The pressure inside a steaming boiler is high and the feed water has to be raised in
pressure before its entry to the boiler. Feed pump is a device which raises the
pressure of water and forces it into the boiler.

RESULT

The study and sketch of water tube boiler (Babcock & Wilcox) is done.

DISCUSSION
 EXPERIMENT NO. 6

OBJECT:

To determine the Rockwell hardness No. of metal piece (Mild Steel) using hardness
tester.

APPARATUS

Rockwell hardness tester, specimen of mild steel, ball indenters.

MACHINE SPECIFICATION

Load selector range - 60-250 kgf

Scales provided - B&C

Standard dia. of the ball indenters. - 1.58 mm

Angle of cone indenter - 120o

EXPERIMENTAL SET-UP

The hardness tester is of cast iron body. The basic system is one of weights and
levers. The weights under hydraulic dashpot time control are applied on free end ot
lever, which transmits the pressure on plunger and thereby on the work piece for
determination of hardness value.

THEORY

The term hardness means "Resistance to penetration". The hardness of a material is

its resistance to penetration under a localized pressure. Harness test provide an
accurate, rapid, and economical way of determining the resistance of materials to
deformation.
Measurement of Rockwell hardness no. is a direct reading method. The depth of
penetration of indenter in the material measures hardness of the material. The depth
of penetration is inversely proportional to the hardness. Both ball and diamond cone
indenter are used accordingly to the material, and hardness no. The hardness
measured by ball and cone indenter is represented by HRB and HRC respectively.

PROCEDURE

1. Clean the test piece and place it on the worktable.

2. Turn the capstan wheel to elevate the test piece into contact with indenter
point.

3. Apply the load of 10 kg. which is called minor load so that scale can be
removed.

4. Push back the load application lever to apply the major load.

5. As the pointer comes t6o rest, pull the handle in the reverse direction. The
pointer will now rotate in the reverse direction.

6. Now take the reading

OBSERVATION

Load (For soft material) = 100 kgf

Load (For hard material) = 150 kgf

Dia.of indenter for soft material = 1.58 mm

Cone indenter for hard material = 120o

 S.No. Material used HRB/HRC mean HRB/HRC

RESULT

The Rockwell hardness no. of mild steel is = ________________

PRECAUTION

1. Load selection should be according to indenter type.

2. Do not take more than three revolutions of small pointer while applying
minor load.

3. Major Load should be released gradually.

DISCUSSION
 EXPERIMENT NO. 7

OBJECT:

To determine the impact strength of mild steel by Izod method using impact testing
machine.

APPARATUS

Impact testing machine, mild steel specimen.

Machine Specification

Measuring Range for Izod method - 0 - 164 Joule

Measuring Range for Charpy method - 0 - 300 Joule

Weight of hammer - 85o for Izod method

120o for Charpy method

Least count - 2 Joule

Distance of C.G. of hammer - 0.835 meter

EXPERIMENTAL SET-UP

Machine consists of two units, loading and measuring unit. Loading unit consist of
a hammer, which is to be hung on a certain height and angle according to the method
using to find out the impact strength. Measuring unit consist a measuring scale which
show the ranges of the scale. A vice is also provided to hold the notched specimen.

THEORY

This test consists of determining or measuring the energy absorbed in breaking by

one blow from a swinging hammer under specified conditions. An impact test
signifies toughness of material that is ability of material to absorb account both the
strength and ductility of the material. Several engineering material have to withstand
impact or suddenly applied loads while in services. Impact strength are generally
lower as compared to strengths achieved under slowly applied loads. Therefore the
impact test measures the energy necessary to fracture a standard notch bar by
applying an impulse load.

Izod Test
FORMULA USED

Energy required to break the specimen.

E = WR (Cos α - Cos β)

Where, W = weight of pendulum

R = distance between the center of gravity

of the hammer and the axis of rotation.

β = angle through which the pendulum

falls.

α = angle through which the pendulum

rises.

PROCEDURE

 Hold the specimen firmly in impact testing machine vice in such a way that
the notch faces the hammer, and is 53 mm inside the vice and 22 mm above
from the centre of the notch.
 Bring the striking hammer to its top most striking position, and lock it at that
position.
 Bring scale pointer of the machine to zero. Release the hammer. It will fall
due to gravity and break the specimen through its momentum. Note the pointer
reading which shows the energy absorbed by the specimen before rupture.

OBSERVATION

Size of specimen = 75x10x10

Depth of notch = 2 mm

Angle of notch = 45o

S.No. Energy Distance Weight of Angle of Angle of Energy used
used ( of C.G. of hammer rise (α) fall (β) (theoretically)
Practically hammer ( W) Kg Deg. Deg. Joule
Joule ( R) meter

CALCULATION

Energy required to break the specimen (theoretically)

E = WR (Cos α - Cos β)

RESULT

Energy required to break the specimen practically = Joule

Energy required theoretically = Joule

PRECAUTION
Measure the dimensions of the specimen carefully
Hold the specimen firmly.
Machine should be free from vibrations.

DISCUSSION
 EXPERIMENT NO. 8

OBJECT:

To perform compression test on Brick and determine the ultimate compressive

strength with the help of U.T.M.

APPARATUS

Universal testing machine, Brick specimen, and extensometer attached with

computer system.

MACHINE SPECIFICATION

Max. Capacity - 400 kN

Measuring range - 0-400 kN

Model - UTE-40

EXPERIMENTAL SET-UP

The machine comprises of three main parts.

 Machine frame ( Loading unit)

 Hydraulic system
 Electronic control panel
The machine frame consists of two cross heads and a lower table. Center
crosshead is adjustable by means of geared motors. Compression test carried
out between lower table and middle crosshead. Sensing of the load and
compression is by means of precision pressure transducer of strain gauge type.
Hydraulic system consists of motor pump unit with cylinder and piston.
 Electronic control panel consist of a digital extensometer with a computer
system attached with it.

THEORY

This test consist in straining a test piece by compressive stress, generally to fracture
with a view to determining one or more of the mechanical properties. The
compressive strength of Brittle material is of prime importance to an engineer.
Therefore, ultimate compressive strength has to be finding out.

FORMULA USED

𝑼𝒍𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅

Ultimate compressive strength =
𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂

PROCEEDURE

1. Measure the area of test specimen.

2. Keep the specimen on lower table and fix the middle crosshead over it.

3. Start the machine and take the readings.

4. Continue applying the load till the specimen breaks and then stop the
machine.

5. Determine the various mechanical properties.

6. Plot stress - strain diagram.

OBSERVATION

Area of thee Brick = ___________mm2

 S.No. Load ( KN) Compression (mm) Stress Strain

CALCULATION

𝑼𝒍𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅

Ultimate compressive strength =
𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂

RESULT

Ultimate compressive strength = _____________kN /mm2

PRECAUTIONS

1. Apply the load gradually.

2. Gripping should be done properly.

DISCUSSION
 EXPERIMENT NO. 9

EXPERIMENT

Determination of different mechanical properties like yeild strength ultimate tnesile

strength, breaking strength, modulus of elasticity, percentage elongation by
universal testing machine.

OBJECT:

 To perform the tensile test of mild steel specimen on UTM.

 To draw the stress strain curve of mild steel and discuss the nature of graph.

APPARATUS

Universal testing machine, mild steel specimen, vernier caliper, and extensometer
attached with computer system.

MACHINE SPECIFICATION

Max. Capacity - 400 kN

Measuring range - 0-400 kN

Model - UTE-40

EXPERIMENTAL SET-UP

The machine comprises of three main parts.

 Machine frame ( Loading unit)

 Hydraulic system
 Electronic control panel
The machine frame consists of two cross heads and a lower table. Center crosshead
is adjustable by means of geared motors. Tension test carried out between center and
upper crosshead. Sensing of the load and elongation is by means of precision
pressure transducer of strain gauge type. Hydraulic system consists of motor pump
unit with cylinder and piston. Electronic control panel consist of a digital
extensometer with a computer system attached with it.

THEORY

This test consist in straining a test piece by tensile stress, generally to fracture with
a view to determining one or more of the mechanical properties. The tensile strength
of mild steel is of prime importance to an engineer. Mild steel is subjected to direct
tension or tension due to bending in some of the components used in the structures.
Determination of the shapes and sizes of these components requires the knowledge
of permissible stresses in the material and the capacity to deform consistent with
specifications for safety. These are obtained from the stress strain curve of the
material.

FORMULA USED
𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝑭/𝑨
Modulus of elasticity = (with in elastic limit) =
𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 ∆𝑰/𝑰𝒐

𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 ∆𝑰
Percentage elongation = x 100 = x100
𝑶𝒓𝒊𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝑰𝒐

𝒚𝒆𝒊𝒍𝒅 𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅 𝑭𝒚
Yeild strength = =
𝑶𝒓𝒊𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒄𝒓𝒐𝒔𝒔 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝑨𝒐

𝑼𝒍𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅 𝑭𝒖
Ultimate tensile strength = =
𝑶𝒓𝒊𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒄𝒓𝒐𝒔𝒔 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝑨𝒐

𝑩𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅 𝑭𝒃
Breaking strength = =
𝑶𝒓𝒊𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒄𝒓𝒐𝒔𝒔 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝑨𝒐
PROCEDURE

1. Measure the diameter of the test piece and gauge length.

2. Insert the test piece in the grips by adjusting the cross heads of the universal
testing m/c.

3. Start the machine and take the readings of load and elongation from
extensometer.

4. Continue applying the load till the specimen breaks and then stop thee
machine.

5. Determine the various mechanical properties.

6. Plot stress - strain diagram.

OBSERVATION

Original diameter of the test specimen = 11.2 mm

Gauge length (Lo) = 56 mm

Change in length after fracture = p

Stage Load ( kN) Elongation (mm)
Elastic Limit

Yield Point

Yield Point to
Ultimate Point

Ultimate to Point
Breaking Point

CALCULATION

𝑭/𝑨
Modulus of elasticity =
∆𝑰/𝑰𝒐

∆𝑰
Percentage elongation = x 100
𝑰𝒐

𝑭𝒚
Yeild strength =
𝑨𝒐
 𝑭𝒖
Ultimate tensile strength =
𝑨𝒐

𝑭𝒃
Breaking strength =
𝑨𝒐

RESULT

Percentage elongation = _________%

Modulus of elasticity = _________kN/mm2

Yield strength = _________kN/mm2

Ultimate strength = _________kN/mm2

Breaking strength = _________kN/mm2

PRECAUTION

1. Apply the load gradually.

2. Gripping should be done properly.

DISCUSSION
 EXPERIMENT NO. 10

OBJECT:

To study and sketch the model of simple steam engine.

EQUIPMENT

Model of simple steam engine.

GENERAL INFORMATION

The steam engine is a reciprocating type prime mover, which utilizes steam as the
working medium to convert heat energy into mechanical energy. Steam engine is a
reciprocating heat engine. It is also known as external combustion engine. This is
also called double acting steam engine since the steam is admitted alternately on
both sides of the piston. Thus it produces twice power.

SIMPLE STEAM ENGINE

CONSTRUCTIONAL FEATURE

1. Cylinder 2. Steam chest

3. Piston 4. Ports

5. Connecting rod 6. D-slide valve

7. Eccentric 8. Flywheel

CYLINDER

Cylinder is a closed cylindrical chamber in which the piston reciprocates under the
action of steam pressure.
PISTON

Piston is a cylindrical part that reciprocates to and from within the cylinder under
the action of steam pressure. It transmits the force to the cross head through the
piston rod.

CONNECTING ROD

It is connected to cross head on one end and to the crank on the other. It converts the
reciprocating motion of piston and cross head to rotary motion of crank.

ECCENTRIC

It is mounted on the crank shaft eccentrically, and causes rotation to it. With the
rotation of crankshaft the eccentric rod oscillates and permits to and fro motion to
the D-slide valve.

STEAM CHEST

It is the space to accommodate steam for supply to the cylinder. It consists of steam
inlet and outlet.

PORTS

Ports are the rectangular openings provided in the cylinder to allow inlet and exit of
steam.

D-SLIDE VALVE

It is a control device that affects admittance of steam into the cylinder through the
ports, alternately to act on both sides of the piston in double acting steam engine. It
is fitted in steam chest and slides over the machined surface of cylinder by the action
of valve rod and eccentric rod.
FLYWHEEL

Flywheel minimizes the speed fluctuation of crankshaft to a minimum by absorbing

and releasing the energy as and when required. It is mounted on crankshaft.

TYPES OF STEAM ENGINE

Steam engine in actual use may be of the following types:

1. Single acting or double acting.

2. Simple steam engine or compound steam engine.

3. Condensing type or non condensing type.

4. Horizontal or vertical type.

5. Stationary or mobile type.

WORKING PROCESS

Consider a simple double acting non-condensing D-slide valve type Engine. Let the
piston is at the cover end position of the cylinder and ready for the forward stroke.
Now the valve open the inlet port. The high-pressure steam, from the boiler enters
the cylinder through the steam chest. The pressure of the steam pushes the piston,
thus performing the forward stroke. The motion of the piston moves the crank, shaft,
and eccentric. The delivery valve just uncovered and the used steam from the
previous stroke becomes free and escapes to the exhaust pipe.

Admission of steam continues to occur till the eccentric has moved the valve to close
the inlet port, thus cutting off the steam. The steam now expands and the volume of
steam increases so that the pressure falls. This fall in pressure makes, the steam
performs the work. Before the end of forward stroke, the valve opens the same inlet
port to the exhaust side and steam is released. After releasing the steam, the piston
reverses its motion performing the return stroke. Now delivery port opens and fresh
steam enter the cylinder, which pushes the piston inward to complete the inward
stroke. When the piston nearly reaches its end of the return stroke the valve close the
inlet port to exhaust the steam. Now the cycle is completed and the piston is ready
for the next cycle.

APPLICATION

1. Steam driven hoists in industries.

2. Small locomotives in small and hilly area.

3. Slow running machineries with varying power requirements such as in road

Constructions.

4. For driving pump and compressor.

RESULT

The study and sketch of simple steam engine is done.

DISCUSSION
 EXPERIMENT NO. 11

OBJECT:

To study and sketch the model of Fire tube boiler (Lancashire boiler)

EQUIPMENT

Model of Lancashire boiler

GENERAL INFORMATION

Boilers are closed pressure vessels in which water is heated to convert it into the
steam. The steam thus generated may be dry and saturated or superheated, and is
supplied at required pressure to the steam engine, steam turbine, and other
equipments for various operations.

LANCASHIRE BOILER

CONSTRUCTIONAL FEATURE

1. It is a horizontal, internally fired, natural circulation type, fire tube boiler.

2. It has two large flue tubes to provide larger heating area and the flue diameter
is about 0.4 times to that of the boiler shell.

3. Two grates are mounted at the front ends of the flue tubes.

4. It has two side channels connected to rear end of boiler shell and then to the
chimney via rear passage.

5. There are main flue, bottom flue and side flue.

6. The boiler contains dampers also for controlling the flow flue gases.

7. Steaming rate of this boiler is 8500 kg/hour.

8. It is mainly used in sugar mills and chemical industries.

WORKING

The Lancashire boiler is a horizontal, fire tube type boiler. The boiler consists of a
large cylindrical shell where two fire tubes placed horizontally inside the shell. The
fire tubes are surrounded by water. There are two fire holes on the grate, fire brick
Bridge is situated at the holes. The product of the combustion flows over the fire
brick Bridge and travel through entire length of the fire tubes up to the back of the
boiler. The flue gases then enter the down take chamber, pass downward, and travel
all along the bottom flue to the front of the boiler. They are then split into two
streams and return by the rear end of the boiler. This flue gases flow called side flues.
Then passed through dampers and finally get discharged through chimney into the
atmosphere. The gas flow three times in the entire length of the boiler, which ensures
thick evaporation of a large quantity of water into steam.

MAIN PARTS

1. Boiler shell

2. Fire grate

3. Chimney

4. Baffle

5. Fire tubes

6. Dampers

BOILER MOUNTINGS - For the safe operation of boiler we use some device
called mountings. Some important mountings are given below:-
1. Feed check valve

2. Safety valve (spring loaded)

3. Stop valve

4. Water level indicators

5. Pressure gauge

6. Fusible plug

BOILER ACCESSORIES - To increase the efficiency of a boiler we use some

devices called accessories. Some important accessories are given below:-

1. Super heater

2. Economizer

3. Feed pump

4. Air pre heater

RESULT

The study and sketch of fire tube boiler (Lancashire boiler) is done.
 EXPERIMENT NO. 12

OBJECT:

To study and sketch the model of Fire tube boiler (Locomotive boiler)

EQUIPMENT

Model of Locomotive boiler

GENERAL INFORMATION

Boilers are closed pressure vessels in which water is heated to convert it into the
steam. The steam thus generated may be dry and saturated or superheated, and is
supplied at required pressure to the steam engine, steam turbine, and other
equipments for various operations.

LOCOMOTIVE BOILER

CONSTRUCTIONAL FEATURE

1. It is a horizontal, internally fired, natural circulation type, fire tube boiler.

2. It has multi tubes and artificial draft.

3. Two grates are mounted at the front ends of the flue tubes.

4. It has two side channels connected to rear end of boiler shell and then to the
chimney via rear passage.

5. There are main flue, bottom flue and side flue.

6. The boiler contains dampers also for controlling the flow flue gases.

7. Steaming rate of this boiler is 8500 kg/hour.

8. It is mainly used in sugar mills and chemical industries.

WORKING

The locomotive boiler is a horizontal, fire tube type boiler. The unit is so designed
that it is capable of the sudden and fluctuating demand of steam and speed. The coal
introduced in the fire box through the fire holes on the grating which slopes
downward towards the front. The hot flue gases rising from the grating are deflected
by firebrick baffle. The damper control the flow of air into the fire box. The hot flue
gases which passing through the fire tube impart there heat energy to surroundings
water and are ultimately goes to smoke box and then discharge to atmosphere
through a short chimney. The steam generated collects in the steam dome. The dome
has to be centrally located so that the static water level changes due to the inclination
of the rail line do not affect the level at dome. The driver from the outside operate
the regulator by turning a lever and dry saturated steam is fed to engine for expanding
and doing work, for getting superheated steam the steam is taken to super heater then
supplied to the engine. The ash by the coal burnt on the grate falls in to the ash pit
from where it can be removed at regular intervals.

MAIN PARTS - Fire tube boilers consist the following main parts.

1. Boiler shell 8. Regulator

2. Fire grate 9. Steam dome

3. Chimney 10. Super heater tubes

4. Baffle 5. Fire tubes

5. Fire tubes

6. Dampers

7. Fire box
BOILER SHELL -

It is made up of steel plates bent into cylindrical form and riveted or welded together.
The ends of the shell are closed by means of end plates. A Boiler shell should have
sufficient capacity to contain water and steam.

FIRE GRATE

It is a platform in the combustion chamber upon which fuel (coal or wood) is burnt.
The grate generally consist of cast iron bars which are spaced apart so that air
(required for combustion) can pass through them. The surface area of the grate, over
which the combustion takes place is called grate.

BAFFLE

These are plates, which are meant to compel hot gases to move in such a way that a
longer contact time is maintained between hot gases and inclined tubes. It thus
provides a better heat transfer.

DAMPER

They are the iron doors which slides up and down in the groove ( cut in the side
flues) by means of a chain /ropes and pulley arrangement to control the flow of flue
gases.

FIRE BOX

It is the space in the bottom side of a boiler where the fuel is burnt to produce heat.

STEAM DOME

It is located at the top of the boiler shell and collects the dry steam. It contains the
throttle valve through which it supplies the steam to super heating tubes.
SUPER HEATER TUBES

These are used to superheat the dry and saturated steam obtained from boiler. It
consist of a set of a tubes called super heater tubes.

BOILER MOUNTINGS - For the safe operation of boiler we use some devices
called mountings. Some important mountings are given below:-

1. Feed check valve

2. Safety valve (spring loaded)

3. Stop valve

4. Water level indicator

5. Pressure gauge

6. Fusible plug

FEED CHECK VALVE

It allows the feed water under pressure to be fed into boiler, when the water level
falls below a certain level.

SAFETY VALVE

It is used to prevent any explosion due to excessive internal pressure of steam. It

allows the steam from the boiler to escape to atmosphere when the pressure in boiler
exceeds the working pressure. Safety valves can be of different types.

- Spring loaded safety valve

- Dead weight safety valve

- Lever and weight safety valve

STOP VALVE

It is used to regulate the rate of flow of steam from boiler to steam engine or steam
turbine.

WATER LEVEL INDICATOR

It is used to indicate the level of the water in the boiler shell. Generally two water
level indicators are fitted at the front end of the boiler for easier visibility to the
operator.

FUSIBLE PLUG

It is used to extinguish the fire in the furnace when the water level falls much below
the normal level. It is a safety device and is fitted over the combustion chamber.

BOILER ACCESSORIES - To increase the efficiency of a boiler we use some

devices called accessories. Some important accessories are given below:-

1. Super heater

2. Economizer

3. Feed pump

4. Air pre heater

SUPER HEATER

Super heater is used to super heat the dry and saturated steam obtained from the
boiler. Super heater consists of a set of tubes and is installed very close to the furnace
so as to expose it to hot gases during its flow.

ECONOMISER

It is installed in the passage of flue gases to recover some of its heat and then to
utilize this heat in heating the feed water.
AIR PREHEATER

It is used to recover the heat from the exit gases by heating the air supplied for the
purpose of combustion of fuel in the furnace. Blowing of reheated air to the furnace
results in higher furnace temperature and accelerates the process of fuel combustion.

FEED PUMP

The pressure inside a steaming boiler is high and the feed water has to be raised in
pressure before its entry to the boiler. Feed pump is a device which raises the
pressure of water and forces it into the boiler.

RESULT

The study and sketch of fire tube boiler (Locomotive boiler) is done.

DISCUSSION