The Role of Prior Learning and

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I
MASTERS THESIS io- iu,»oo
OLSEN, Larry Dee, 1950-

THE ROLE OF PRIOR LEARNING AND DIRECT
REINFORCEMENT IN OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING
AND VICARIOUS REINFORCEMENT.
Western Michigan U n iv e rs ity , M .A ., 1977

Psychology, experimental
University Microfilms International, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48106
Reproduced with permission o f the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
T H E R O L E O F P R I O R L E A R N I N G AND D I R E C T
R E I N F O R C E M E N T IN O B S E R V A T I O N A L L E A R N I N G
A ND V I C A R I O U S R E I N F O R C E M E N T
by
L a r r y D. O l s e n
A Thesis
S u b m i t t e d to t h e
F a c u l t y of T h e G r a d u a t e C o l l e g e
in p a r ti a l fu lfillm en t
of t h e
D e g r e e of M a s t e r of A r t s
W e s te rn M ichigan U n iv e rsity
K alam azo o , M ichigan
D e c e m b e r 1977
THE GRADUATE COLLEGE
WESTERN MICHIGAN UNIVERSITY
KALAMAZOO, MICHIGAN
Date........ 3 e £ te r n £ e r . 2 3 x. 1.531
WE HEREBY RECOMMEND THAT THE THESIS SUBMITTED BY
.........................Larry„.D.... 01 s_en............ .......................................................................
ENTITLED The R o le s o f P r i o r L e a r n i n g a nd D ir e c t R e i n f o r o e -
.jxsjQt..Aii..^s.exmtLQnal..Lsaml2]&..aM..YAj?ari3iis...fieinLo£ceroe.nt....
BE ACCEPTED AS PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS
FOR THE DEGREE O F ............................ ....................................................................
ajor Thesis Advisor
Thesis Committee Member
Thesis Committee Member
APPROVED:
Date
Dean of the College
D ate Z
Dean of The Graduate College
A C K N O W L E D G M E N TS
I w o u l d l i k e t o e x p r e s s m y a p p r e c i a t i o n to s e v e r a l p e o p l e f o r
t h e i r a i d i n t h e p r e p a r a t i o n of t h i s t h e s i s .
F i r s t of a l l , I w o u l d l i k e to t h a n k m y f r i e n d a n d a d v i s o r ,
P a u l W ien ir, f o r h is p a tie n c e and g u id a n ce. Subhash Sonnad and
G e r a l d M a r k l e a l s o m a d e s i g n i f i c a n t c o n t r i b u t i o n s to t h e c o m p l e t i o n
of t h i s t h e s i s .
A d d i t i o n a l l y , I w o u l d l i k e to t h a n k t h e f a c u l t y a n d s t u d e n t s of
t h e D e p a r t m e n t of S o c i o l o g y . D is c u s s io n s w ith th e s e co lleag u e s
a i d e d m e i n t h e f o r m u l a t i o n of m y i d e a s .
I o w e a s p e c i a l d e b t of g r a t i t u d e to I n g r i d E r i c k s o n , w h o
s e r v e d as the m o d e l in this e x p e r i m e n t .
F in a l ly , I w ould lik e to thank m y w ife f o r h e r e n d l e s s p a t i e n c e ,
en c o u ra g e m e n t, and help.
W h i l e a l l of t h e a b o v e m e n t i o n e d p e o p l e h a v e s i g n i f i c a n t l y
c o n t r i b u t e d to t h i s t h e s i s , i t s c o n t e n t i s t h e s o l e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y of
the a u t h o r.
L a r r y D. O l s e n
TA BLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER PAGE
I S t a t e m e n t of P r o b l e m ..................................................... 1
II B a n d u r a ' s S o c i a l L e a r n i n g T h e o r y ............................ 3
A t t e n t i o n a l P r o c e s s e s ............................................... 4
R e t e n t i o n P r o c e s s e s ..................................................... 4
M o t o r R e p r o d u c t i o n P r o c e s s e s .......................... 6
M o t i v a t i o n a l P r o c e s s e s .......................................... 6
R e c i p r o c a l D e t e r m i n i s m .......................................... 8
III C o n t r o v e r s i a l I s s u e s ........................................................... 10
D e m o n s t r a t i n g t h e O c c u r r e n c e of
O b s e r v a t i o n a l L e a r n i n g ..................................... 10
T h e F u n c t i o n of R e s p o n s e
Consequences .......................................................... 12
E x p l a n a t i o n of V i c a r i o u s
R e i n f o r c e m e n t P h e n o m e n o n .......................... 25
E x p l a n a t i o n of S e l f - C o n t r o l of
B ehavior .................................................................... 32
T h e R o l e of C o g n i t i v e P r o c e s s e s i n t h e
C o n t r o l of H u m a n B e h a v i o r .......................... 34
T h e I s s u e of D e t e r m i n i s m ..................................... 43
S u m m a r y ............................................................................... 47
IV An A lte rn a tiv e T h eo ry fo r O b serv atio n al

L e a r n i n g : C o n d i t i o n a l R e s p o n d i n g ..................... 48
A F u n c t i o n a l R e s p o n s e C l a s s of
" M a t c h e d " B e h a v i o r s .......................................... 50
iii
T a b le of C o n t e n t s - - C o n tin u e d
CHAPTER PAGE
C onditional Responding: S tim ulus

C o n t r o l of a F u n c t i o n a l R e s p o n s e
C lass .............................................................................. 51
T h e R o l e of E x t r i n s i c C o n s e q u e n c e s in
t h e D e v e l o p m e n t a n d M a i n t e n a n c e of
t h e F u n c t i o n a l R e s p o n s e C l a s s ..................... 52
V R e s e a r c h S t r a t e g i e s ............................................................... 54
H y p o t h e s e s ......................................................................... 67
VI M e t h o d ......................................................................................... 70
Subjects .............................................................................. 70
E x p e r i m e n t a l S e t t i n g .................................................... 70
M o d e l e d T a s k ................................................................... 71
S e l e c t i o n of S t i m u l u s I t e m s ...................................... 74
Procedure ......................................................................... 76
VII R e s u l t s ......................................................................................... 81
VIII D i s c u s s i o n .................................................................................... 86
S u g g e s t i o n s f o r F u r t h e r R e s e a r c h ....................... 90
T a b l e a n d F i g u r e s ................................................................................................... 93
R e f e r e n c e s ................................................................................................................. 100
iv
CHAPTER I
S t a t e m e n t of P r o b l e m
I n r e c e n t y e a r s , t h e r e s u l t s of a p l e t h o r a of s t u d i e s s u b s u m e d
u n d er such titles as o b se rv a tio n a l le a rn in g , im itatio n , identification,
a n d v i c a r i o u s l e a r n i n g h a v e l e d m a n y r e s e a r c h e r s to q u e s t i o n th e
i m p o r t a n c e of d i r e c t l y e x p e r i e n c e d c o n s e q u e n c e s i n t h e s o c i a l i z a t i o n
of c h i l d r e n . A lthough e x t r i n s i c c o n s e q u e n c e s h a v e b e e n s t r e s s e d as
i m p o r t a n t f o r o n e m o d e of s o c i a l i z a t i o n ( o p e r a n t c o n d i t i o n i n g ) , a
s e c o n d m o d e (o b s e r v a ti o n a l le a rn in g ) h a s b een p r o p o s e d w hich is not
d e p e n d e n t upon r e i n f o r c e r s and p u n i s h e r s fo r it s e ffe c tiv e n e s s .
A r o n f r e e d (1 9 6 9 a) , f o r e x a m p l e , states:
T h e f i r s t c h a n n e l of s o c i a l i z a t i o n i s t h e s h a p i n g of b e h a v
io r through p o sitiv e and a v e r s iv e o utcom es which a r e
c o n t i n g e n t on t h e c h i l d ' s o v e r t a c t s . T h e s e c o n d c h a n n e l
of s o c i a l i z a t i o n i s o b s e r v a t i o n a l l e a r n i n g w h i c h d o e s n o t
r e q u i r e o u t c o m e s of a c h i l d ' s o v e r t l y e m i t t e d b e h a v i o r .
(p. 264)
S i m i l a r i t y , H i l g a r d a n d B o w e r (1966) a n d J o h n , C h e s l e r ,
B artlett, a n d V i c t o r (1968) h a v e a r g u e d t h a t o b s e r v a t i o n a l l e a r n i n g
c o n tra d ic ts o p e ra n t conditioning th e o ry b e c a u se it does not r e q u i r e
o v e rt responding or d ir e c t re in fo rc e m e n t.
M a n y of t h e c r i t i c i s m s of a n o p e r a n t c o n d i t i o n i n g e x p l a n a t i o n
of l e a r n i n g b y o b s e r v a t i o n h a v e b e e n b a s e d p r i m a r i l y on t h e w o r k of
2
B a n d u ra and h is c o lle a g u e s. In h i s n u m e r o u s w o r k s d e t a i l i n g S o c i a l
L e a r n i n g T h e o r y , B a n d u r a ( 1 96 2 , 1969a, 19 69 b, 1970, 1 97 1 a, 1971b,
1971c, 1977) p r o p o s e s t h a t t h e p h e n o m e n o n of o b s e r v a t i o n a l l e a r n i n g
c a n n o t b e a c c o u n t e d f o r u s i n g t h e c o n c e p t i o n s of i n s t r u m e n t a l c o n d i
tioning. B a n d u r a c o n t e n d s t h a t t h e a b i l i t y of h u m a n s t o a c q u i r e n o v e l
b e h a v i o r p a t t e r n s b y o b s e r v a t i o n i s a p r e p o t e n t c a p a c i t y of t h e h u m a n
o r g a n i s m w hich is d is ti n c tl y d i f f e r e n t f r o m its c a p a c it y to l e a r n by
d ire c t experience; i . e . , it is innate. In S o c i a l L e a r n i n g T h e o r y , h e
states:
E x c e p t fo r e le m e n ta r y re fle x e s , people a r e not equipped

w i t h i n b o r n r e p e r t o i r e s of b e h a v i o r . T h e y m u s t l e a r n
t h e m . N e w r e s p o n s e p a t t e r n s c a n b e a c q u i r e d e i t h e r by
d i r e c t e x p e r ie n c e s o r by o b s e rv a tio n [e m p h a s is added].
( B a n d u r a , 1977, p. 16)
T h e p u r p o s e of t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y i s t o e x a m i n e , b o t h t h e o r e t i
c a l l y a n d e m p i r i c a l l y , t h e p o s s i b i l i t y a s s u g g e s t e d by G e w i r t z ( 1 96 1,
1968, 1969b, 1 971) t h a t t h e p h e n o m e n o n o f o b s e r v a t i o n a l a n d v i c a r i o u s
l e a r n i n g m a y b e m o r e p a r s i m o n i o u s l y o r d e r e d b y t h e p r e c e p t s of
in s tr u m e n ta l (operant) conditioning. T hat is, o b serv a tio n a l and
v i c a r i o u s l e a r n i n g m a y b e e x p l a i n e d by p r e s e n t l y e x i s t i n g p r i n c i p l e s
of o p e r a n t ( i n s t r u m e n t a l ) c o n d i t i o n i n g . No new p r in c ip le s o r new
th e o ry n eed be em ployed. S p e c i f i c a l l y , I w i l l a t t e m p t to d e m o n s t r a t e
th a t w hen o b s e r v a tio n a l le a rn in g is c o n s id e r e d h i s t o r i c a l l y it can be
s h o w n t h a t i t i s a n o u t c o m e of p r i o r l e a r n i n g r a t h e r t h a n a n i n n a t e
learning p ro c e ss.
C H A P T E R II
B a n d u ra 's Social L earning T heory
B a n d u r a 's S ocial L e a rn in g T h e o ry is a s tim u lu s contiguity
t h e o r y w h e r e t h e " l o c u s of r e s p o n s e i n t e g r a t i o n " o c c u r s a t t h e c o g n i
tive level by r e p r e s e n t a tio n a l m e d ia tio n . S pecifically , w hen an
o b s e r v e r - l e a r n e r i s e x p o s e d t o a m o d e l d i s p l a y i n g a s e q u e n c e of
n ovel r e s p o n s e s , the o b s e r v e r - l e a r n e r s y m b o li c a l l y r e p r e s e n t s the
s e q u e n c e of m o d e l e d r e s p o n s e s . This is at the cognitive level.
This sy m b olic r e p r e s e n t a tio n is s tre n g th e n e d by its te m p o r a l co n ti
guity with the m o d e l e d ev e n ts. A t s o m e l a t e r t i m e , in th e p r e s e n c e
of a p p r o p r i a t e s i t u a t i o n a l s t i m u l i , t h e s y m b o l i c a l l y e n c o d e d
seq u en ce will m e d ia te the o v e r t p e r f o r m a n c e . T h u s t h e c o n t r o l of
b e h a v i o r r e s t s , not w ith e n v i r o n m e n ta l d e t e r m i n a n t s , b u t w ith in the
individual at the co gnitive le v e l. T h i s i s n o t to s a y t h a t e n v i r o n
m e n t a l f a c t o r s h a v e no a f f e c t on b e h a v i o r . E xtrinsic consequences
a r e s e e n a s s ig n if i c a n tl y effec tin g w h e t h e r o r not a p e r s o n will
c h o o s e to p e r f o r m s o m e t h in g w h ic h h a s b e e n l e a r n e d by o b s e r v a t i o n .
B a n d u r a t h e o r i z e s th a t l e a r n in g by o b s e r v a ti o n is g o v e r n e d by
four sequentially o rd e re d p r o c e s s e s . H e s c h e m a tic a lly outlines this
s e q u e n c e a s i n F i g u r e 1.
In se rt F ig u re 1 about h e re
4
A ttentional P r o c e s s e s
A v a r i e d a r r a y of s t i m u l i i m p i n g e u p o n a n i n d i v i d u a l i n a n y
m odeling situation. F a c t o r s w h i c h d e l i m i t t h i s b o m b a r d m e n t of
s tim u la tio n a r e r e f e r r e d to a s a tte n tio n a l p r o c e s s e s . Any f a c to r
w h i c h a c t s t o s e l e c t w h i c h s t i m u l i w i l l b e r e t a i n e d a s p a r t of t h e
learn ed re sp o n se a r e co n sid ere d attentional p ro c e s s e s . T h e se can
range fr o m situational d e te rm in a n ts, such as the " d is tin c tiv e n e s s"
of m o d e l i n g s t i m u l i , t o c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e l e a r n e r s u c h a s
" a ro u s a l level. "
Retention P r o c e s s e s
A fter th e r e le v a n t r e s p o n s e co m p o n en ts h av e been se le c te d
f r o m the m o d e lin g situ a tio n , t h e y a r e i n t e g r a t e d i n t o the b e h a v i o r a l
r e p e r t o i r e s a t the co g n itiv e le v e l. It is a t th is point, B a n d u r a c o n
tends, th a t the r e s p o n s e is a c tu a lly " l e a r n e d . " W hen a p e r s o n view s
a m o d e l e d b e h a v i o r , h e / s h e s y m b o l i c a l l y r e p r e s e n t s the e v e n t s . The
te m p o r a l r e la tio n s h ip b e tw e e n the m o d e le d e v e n ts and this sy m b o lic
r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of t h e m s t r e n g t h e n s t h e s y m b o l i c r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s .
T h i s o c c u r s b e c a u s e of t h e c o n t i g u o u s a s s o c i a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e e v e n t s
a s i n a s t i m u l u s - s t i m u l u s (S -S ) c o n c e p t i o n of l e a r n i n g .
T h e s y m b o l i c r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of e v e n t s c a n b e e i t h e r i m a g i n a l
or verbal. B a n d u r a (1 9 7 7 ) d e s c r i b e s t h e f i r s t of t h e s e a s f o l l o w s :
5
S o m e b e h a v io r is r e ta in e d in i m a g e r y . S e n s o r y s t i m u l a
t i o n a c t i v a t e s s e n s a t i o n s t h a t g i v e r i s e to p e r c e p t i o n s of
t h e e x t e r n a l e v e n t s . A s a r e s u l t of r e p e a t e d e x p o s u r e ,
m odeling stim uli, eventually p ro d u ce enduring, r e t r i e v
a b l e i m a g e s of m o d e l e d p e r f o r m a n c e s , (p. 25)
T h e s e c o n d r e p r e s e n t a t i o n a l s y s t e m o c c u r s on t h e b a s i s of
v e r b a l coding. T h e m o r e e f f i c i e n t of t h e t w o s y s t e m s , v e r b a l
r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s i n v o l v e t h e c o g n i t i v e c o d i n g of t h e l e a r n i n g s i t u a t i o n
into an ab b re v ia te d v e r b a l d e scrip tio n .
A p p a r e n t l y , the two s e p a r a t e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n a l s y s t e m s a r e
n e c e s s a r y , f i r s t of a l l t o e x p l a i n t h e o c c u r a n c e of l e a r n i n g by p r e
v e r b a l a n d n o n - v e r b a l i n d i v i d u a l s , a n d s e c o n d l y to a c c o u n t f o r t h e
e f f i c i e n c y of o b s e r v a t i o n a l l e a r n i n g . A p e rso n cannot sym bolically
r e p r e s e n t e v e n t s t h r o u g h v e r b a l c o d i n g if h e d o e s n o t c o m m a n d
v e r b a l s k i l l s , t h u s t h e n e c e s s i t y of i m a g i n a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s . But
if i t w e r e n e c e s s a r y to r e p r e s e n t e v e r y t h i n g l e a r n e d b y o b s e r v a t i o n
in i m a g i n a l f o r m , it w ould be e x t r e m e l y c u m b e r s o m e and doubtful
w h e th e r such a re p r e s e n ta tio n a l s y s te m could be efficient.
Once the m o d eled events have b een sy m b o lically r e p re s e n te d ,
they can be r e ta in e d in m e m o r y and r e t r i e v e d a t s o m e l a t e r point in
t i m e t o g u i d e o v e r t p e r f o r m a n c e s of b e h a v i o r . A s B a n d u r a (1977)
explains: "On la te r occasions, im ag es (cen trally a ro u s e d p e r c e p
t i o n s ) c a n b e s u m m o n e d up of e v e n t s t h a t a r e p h y s i c a l l y a b s e n t "
(p. 25). »
6
M otor R eproduction P r o c e s s e s
O nce a new r e s p o n s e h a s b e e n in c o rp o r a te d a t the cognitive
level, s e v e r a l f a c t o r s g o v e r n t h e p e r s o n ' s a c c u r a t e t r a n s l a t i o n of
the l e a r n e d r e s p o n s e into o v e rt actio n . F i r s t , th e p h y s i c a l c a p a b i l
i t i e s n e c e s s a r y f o r a c c u r a t e a p p r o x i m a t i o n s of t h e m o d e l e d b e h a v
i o r m u s t e x is t in the p e r s o n . A p e r s o n lacking vocal ch o rd s cannot
p e r f o r m an o p e ra tic solo. Secondly, the b e h a v io r a l co m ponents
w h i c h a r e u s e d i n t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of t h e n e w r e s p o n s e m u s t b e
a v a i l a b l e in the p e r s o n ' s b e h a v i o r a l r e p e r t o i r e . If t h e s e t w o c o n d i
t i o n s e x i s t , t h e m o t o r r e p r o d u c t i o n of t h e r e s p o n s e c a n a t l e a s t b e
attem pted. E r r o r l e s s p e r f o r m a n c e of t h e r e s p o n s e m a y n o t o c c u r
on t h e f i r s t t r i a l b u t r e f i n e m e n t s c a n b e m a d e i n t h e r e s p o n s e w i t h
repetition. T h e s e r e f i n e m e n t s c a n b e m a d e o n t h e b a s i s of f e e d b a c k
fro m external sources or self-observation.
M otivational P r o c e s s e s
E v e n if a p e r s o n h a s a t t e n d e d to a p p r o p r i a t e m o d e l i n g s t i m u l i ,
in te g r a te d the r e s p o n s e through sy m b o lic r e p r e s e n t a tio n , and p o s
s e s s e s the p h y s ic a l c a p a b ilitie s and n e c e s s a r y c o m p o n e n t r e s p o n s e s
fo r m o t o r re p ro d u c tio n , h e s till m a y not p e r f o r m a r e s p o n s e
acq u ired observationally. P e r f o r m a n c e of t h e r e s p o n s e m a y b e
enhanced or inhibited by m o tiv a tio n a l fa c to r s . A nticipated
7
c o n s e q u e n c e s f o r t h e p e r f o r m a n c e of a l e a r n e d r e s p o n s e r e g u l a t e ,
to a g r e a t e x t e n t , w h e t h e r o r n o t t h e r e s p o n s e w i l l b e o v e r t l y
expressed. T h e p e r f o r m a n c e of b e h a v i o r c a n b e m o t i v a t e d t h r o u g h
t h e u s e of i n c e n t i v e s . In cen tiv es f o r p e r f o r m a n c e can be d e riv e d
p r im a r ily fro m th re e different s o u rc e s . T h e f i r s t of t h e s e i s e x t e r
nal reinforcem ent. When a p e r s o n an ticip a tes that h e can s e c u r e a
valued re w ard , p e r f o r m a n c e is facilitated . C o n v e rse ly , when an
a v e r s i v e outcom e is ex p ec ted , p e r f o r m a n c e is inhibited.
The consequences which o th e r people r e c e iv e fo r p e r f o r m a n c e
of t h e r e s p o n s e c a n a l s o s e r v e i n c e n t i v e m o t i v a t i o n a l f u n c t i o n s .
T h is is the p r o c e s s la b e l e d v i c a r i o u s r e i n f o r c e m e n t . V icarious
re in fo rc e m e n t d e riv e s its m otiv atio n capabilities p r im a r ily fro m
the in fo rm a tio n it p ro v id e s about conditions existing in the e n v iro n
m ent. O b s e r v a t i o n of a m o d e l ' s c o n s e q u e n c e s t r a n s m i t s i n f o r m a
t i o n to t h e o b s e r v e r a b o u t t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of f a v o r a b l e c o n s e q u e n c e s
f o r t h e p e r f o r m a n c e of s i m i l a r b e h a v i o r .
A t h i r d s o u r c e of i n c e n t i v e s w h i c h c a n r e g u l a t e p e r f o r m a n c e
of t h e l e a r n e d r e s p o n s e i s s e l f - r e i n f o r c e m e n t . People set standards
f o r t h e i r p e r f o r m a n c e s a n d c r i t i c a l l y e v a l u a t e t h e i r p e r f o r m a n c e s on
t h e b a s i s of t h e s e c r i t e r i a . I f a p e r s o n ' s p e r f o r m a n c e f a l l s s h o r t of
a s t a n d a r d , h i s ow n e v a l u a t i v e r e a c t i o n s c a n s e r v e to p u n i s h s u c h a
response. S i m i l a r l y , if h is p e r f o r m a n c e m e e t s o r e x c e e d s the s e lf -
d e te r m in e d goal, he can p ro d u c e s e l f - r e w a r d s fo r h is b eh av io r.
T hus, w h e th e r o r not a p e r s o n exhibits a r e s p o n s e o b s e rv e d
in a m o d e lin g s itu a tio n d e p e n d s f i r s t upon w h e th e r the r e l e v a n t
a c tiv itie s w e r e a tte n d e d to, seco n d , w h e th e r the in f o rm a tio n w as
a c c u r a te l y coded sy m b o lic a lly , th ird , w h e th e r the p e r s o n p o s s e s s e s
the p h y sic a l and b e h a v io ra l cap a b ilitie s n e c e s s a r y f o r a c c u r a te
r e p r o d u c t i o n s , a n d l a s t l y , w h e t h e r s u f f i c i e n t i n c e n t i v e s e x i s t to
m o tiv a te the p e r s o n to p e r f o r m the b e h a v io r.
R eciprocal D eterm inism
B a n d u r a c o n c e p t u a l i z e s s o c i a l l e a r n i n g a s a " p r o c e s s of
reciprocal determ inism . " B e h a v i o r i s s e e n n o t a s t h e o u t c o m e of
e i th e r e n v iro n m e n ta l o r p e r s o n a l in flu en ces, but as a continuous
p r o c e s s in w h ic h b e h a v i o r , e n v i r o n m e n t a l f a c t o r s a n d p e r s o n a l
f a c to rs all in te r a c t and re g u la te each other. A s B a n d u r a (1971c)
states:
In the s o c ia l l e a r n i n g v ie w , m a n is n e i t h e r d r i v e n by
in n e r f o r c e s n o r bu ffete d h e l p l e s s l y by e n v i ro n m e n ta l
in f lu e n c e s . R a t h e r , p s y c h o l o g i c a l fu n c tio n in g is b e s t
u n d e r s t o o d i n t e r m s of a c o n t i n u o u s r e c i p r o c a l i n t e r
action b etw ee n b eh a v io r and its controlling conditions.
(p. 2)
T h e b a s i c p r e m i s e of r e c i p r o c a l d e t e r m i n i s m i s t h a t t h e s e p a
r a t i o n of d e t e r m i n a n t s of s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n i s a n a r t i f i c a l a n d a r b i
tr a r y separation. I f t h e a n a l y s i s of a s e q u e n c e of s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n
b e g in s w ith the p e r s o n , it a p p e a r s th a t e v en ts o c c u r r i n g w ith in the
9
p e r s o n a r e th e d e t e r m i n a n t s of th e b e h a v i o r w h ic h s e r v e s to p r o
duce a change in the e n v iro n m e n t. If t h e a n a l y s i s b e g i n s w i t h e n v i
r o n m e n t a l e v e n ts, it a p p e a r s th a t th e s e ev en ts a r e the c o n tro llin g
f a c t o r s w hich p r o d u c e ch a n g e s in b e h a v io r. S ocial le arn in g theory
co n ce p tu alizes so cial in te ra c tio n , not as an u n id ire c tio n a l p r o c e s s ,
b u t a s a p r o c e s s i n w h i c h e a c h of t h e t h r e e f a c t o r s d e t e r m i n e s th e
o p e r a t i o n of t h e o t h e r . C h a n g i n g e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n s (E) r e g u
l a t e c h a n g e s i n b e h a v i o r (B), c h a n g e s i n b e h a v i o r p r o d u c e c h a n g e s
in th e e n v i r o n m e n t , and both c o n t r i b u t e to c h a n g e s in p e r s o n a l
d e t e r m i n a n t s of p s y c h o l o g i c a l f u n c t i o n i n g ( P ) . T h i s d i f f e r e n c e in
c o n c e p tu a l iz a tio n b e t w e e n u n i d i r e c ti o n a l t h e o r i e s and r e c i p r o c a l
d e t e r m i n i s m is r e p r e s e n t e d s c h e m a tic a lly as follow s:
B = f( E) E = f(B) B < ------ >E

_ _ _ _ —
E nvironm ental Personal R eciprocal

D eterm inism D eterm in ism D eterm in ism
(Bandura, 197 7, p p . 2 0 3 - 2 0 4 )
T h u s , a s B a n d u r a (1977) s t a t e s :
It is not d e t e r m i n i s m th a t is in dispute, but w h e th e r

d e t e r m i n i s m should be t r e a t e d as a o n e -w a y o r a tw o-
w a y p r o c e s s . Due to t h e i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e of b e h a v i o r
and e n v iro n m en ta l conditions, d e te r m in is m does not
im p ly the f a ta lis ti c v ie w th a t in d iv id u als a r e only paw ns
of e x t e r n a l i n f l u e n c e s , (p. 206)
C H A P T E R III
C ontroversial Issues
In t h e c o u r s e of h i s w r i t i n g s , B a n d u r a i d e n t i f i e s s e v e r a l
' ' m a j o r p o in ts of d is p u te " b e t w e e n s o c i a l l e a r n i n g t h e o r y and i n s t r u
m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n i n g c o n c e p t i o n s of o b s e r v a t i o n a l l e a r n i n g . These
w ill be d i s c u s s e d in the following sectio n .
D e m o n s tr a t in g the O c c u r r e n c e
of O b s e r v a t i o n a l L e a r n i n g
A s B a n d u r a (1 97 1b ) p o i n t s o u t, l e a r n i n g h a s t r a d i t i o n a l l y b e e n
c o n c e i v e d of a s o c c u r r i n g i n t w o d i f f e r e n t w a y s . I n t h e f i r s t of t h e s e ,
te rm e d stim u lu s control, a p e r s o n 's p e rfo rm a n c e s a r e brought under
t h e c o n t r o l of a s t i m u l u s w h i c h p r e v i o u s l y d id n o t o c c a s i o n r e s p o n d
ing. T h e s e c o n d f o r m of l e a r n i n g , r e s p o n s e l e a r n i n g , i n v o l v e s t h e
c o m b i n i n g of e l e m e n t a r y b e h a v i o r a l c o m p o n e n t s i n t o n e w p a t t e r n s of
responding. E i t h e r f o r m of l e a r n i n g c a n t a k e p l a c e o b s e r v a t i o n a l l y .
It m u s t be d e m o n s tra te d , h o w ev er, that w hat w as p re s u m a b ly
l e a r n e d on t h e b a s i s of o b s e r v a t i o n d i d n o t a l r e a d y e x i s t i n t h e p e r
so n 's r e p e r to ir e . A s B a n d u r a (1 9 71 b) s t a t e s :
R e s p o n s e n o v e l t y i s d e f i n e d i n t e r m s of e m p i r i c a l
c r i t e r i a r a th e r than a p r i o r i estim a tio n s. Any beh av
i o r t h a t h a s a n e x t r e m e l y l o w o r z e r o p r o b a b i l i t y of
o c c u r r e n c e given a p p r o p r ia te s tim u lu s conditions
q u a l i f i e s a s a n o v e l r e s p o n s e , (p. 30)
10
11
T h u s, it m u s t be e s ta b lis h e d e m p ir ic a lly th a t the ev en ts,
p r e s u m a b l y t o b e l e a r n e d b y o b s e r v a t i o n , h a v e a n e x t r e m e l y lo w
p r o b a b i l i t y of o c c u r r e n c e , n o t f o r t h e r e s e a r c h e r i n v e s t i g a t i n g t h e
p h e n o m e n o n , but f o r th e p e r s o n to w h o m the o b s e r v a t i o n a l le a r n i n g
h a s been attrib u ted .
G e w i r t z (1 9 7 1 b ) a l s o s t r e s s e s t h e p o i n t t h a t e m p i r i c a l a s s e s s
m e n t o f a n o b s e r v e r - l e a r n e r ’s b e h a v i o r a l r e p e r t o i r e i s e s s e n t i a l
b e f o r e t h e a c q u i s i t i o n of a n a p p a r e n t l y u n i q u e r e s p o n s e c a n b e
a t t r i b u t e d to o b s e r v a t i o n a l le a r n i n g . He c i t e s two e x a m p l e s w hich
w o u l d g i v e t h e a p p e a r a n c e of l e a r n i n g b y o b s e r v a t i o n if t h e p e r s o n ' s
h i s t o r y of r e i n f o r c e m e n t w e r e n o t a d e q u a t e l y a s s e s s e d .
F i r s t , the o b s e r v e r co u ld h a v e l e a r n e d the r e s p o n s e in i tia lly
u n d e r th e s a m e s i t u a t i o n a l d e t e r m i n a n t s t h a t now c o n t r o l th e m o d e l ' s
responding. The r e s p o n s e m a y h a v e a l r e a d y b e e n in the o b s e r v e r ' s
repertoire. T h u s, t h e r e is only the a p p e a r a n c e t h a t the r e s p o n s e
w as learn ed observationally. T h i s i s t h e e q u i v a l e n t of M i l l e r a n d
D o l l a r d ' s (194 1) " s a m e - b e h a v i o r " p a r a d i g m a s o p p o s e d t o t h e i r
" m a t c h e d - b e h a v i o r " p a r a d i g m in w hich the o b s e r v e r ' s r e s p o n s e is
f u n c ti o n a ll y r e l a t e d to th e m o d e l ' s r e s p o n s e .
In th e s e c o n d e x a m p l e , stim u li in the m odeling context m a y
h a v e a c q u i r e d s t i m u l u s c o n t r o l of t h e o b s e r v e r ' s r e s p o n d i n g i n o t h e r
b u t not v e r y d if f e r e n t c o n te x ts . T h e s e s a m e s t i m u l i m a y n ow
r a p i d l y c o m e to c o n t r o l the o b s e r v e r ' s r e s p o n s e s in the m o d e lin g
12
situation.
T h e r e f o r e , b e f o r e t h e o c c u r r e n c e of a r e s p o n s e c a n be
a t t r i b u t e d to o b s e r v a t i o n a l l e a r n i n g , it m u s t b e e m p i r i c a l l y d e m o n
s t r a t e d that: (a) T h e r e s p o n s e w a s n o t a l r e a d y i n t h e o b s e r v e r ' s
b e h a v i o r a l r e p e r t o i r e (i. e. , i t i s a n o v e l r e s p o n s e ) , a n d (b) t h e
m o d e l ' s r e s p o n s e s a r e t h e c o n t r o l l i n g s t i m u l i f o r (i. e. , a r e f u n c
t i o n a l l y r e l a t e d to) t h e r e s p o n s e s o f t h e o b s e r v e r - l e a r n e r .
T h e F u n c t i o n of R e s p o n s e C o n s e q u e n c e s
A c c o r d i n g to s o c i a l l e a r n i n g t h e o r y , c o n s e q u e n c e s d e l i v e r e d
c o n t i n g e n t l y to a p e r s o n d e r i v e t h e i r a b i l i t y to r e g u l a t e b e h a v i o r
p r i m a r i l y b y t h e i n f o r m a t i o n w h i c h t h e y c o n v e y a b o u t t h e n a t u r e of
e x te rn a l conditions. Thus re sp o n se consequences a r e depicted as
p r o d u c i n g c h a n g e s i n b e h a v i o r t h r o u g h t h e i n t e r v e n i n g p r o c e s s of
cognition. B a n d u r a (1977) p o r t r a y s t h e i n s t r u m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n i n g
c o n c e p t i o n of r e i n f o r c e m e n t a s " a m e c h a n i s t i c p r o c e s s i n w h i c h
r e s p o n s e s a r e s h a p e d a u t o m a t i c a l l y a n d u n c o n s c i o u s l y by t h e i r
i m m e d i a t e c o n s e q u e n c e s " (p. 17). This is an e rro n e o u s s ta te m e n t.
O p e r a n t c o n d i t i o n e r s do n o t p r o p o s e a n y " m e c h a n i s m " w h i c h " a u t o
m a t i c a l l y s t r e n g h t e n s " a r e s p o n s e which it fo llo w s. W hat is said is
th at co n seq u en ces d e liv e re d contingent upon a r e s p o n s e a l te r the
p r o b a b i l i t y ( e i t h e r i n c r e a s e o r d e c r e a s e ) of f u t u r e o c c u r r e n c e s of
that response. The e x a c t m e c h a n i s m w hich is r e s p o n s ib le for this
effect is not specified.
I n s t r u m e n t a l c o n d itio n e rs contend th a t cognitive m e c h a n i s m s
w h i c h a r e p o s t u l a t e d to a c c o u n t f o r r e i n f o r c e m e n t e f f e c t s ( s u c h a s
B a n d u ra 's re p re s e n ta tio n a l m ediation) a r e in a c c e s s ib le for e m p ir i
cal in v e stig a tio n and m a y be u n n e c e s s a r y . If a c o n c e p t a d d s n o t h i n g
t o t h e e x p l a n a t o r y o r p r e d i c t i v e p o w e r of a t h e o r y i t b e c o m e s a n
u n n e c e ssa ry construct.
E n v i r o n m e n t a l e v e n t s w h i c h o c c u r p r e v i o u s to a r e s p o n s e
w h ic h is c o n s i s t e n t l y r e i n f o r c e d do e v e n tu a lly c o m e to s e t th e o c c a
sion fo r th a t r e s p o n s e . T h e se a r e w hat in s tr u m e n ta l conditions
r e f e r to a s d i s c r i m i n a t i v e s tim u li. Thus B a n d u ra's "in fo rm ativ e
f u n c t i o n " of r e i n f o r c e m e n t a p p e a r s t o b e n o t h i n g m o r e t h a n t h e
p r o c e s s of s t i m u l u s c o n t r o l . B a n d u r a ' s p r o c e s s of " r e p r e s e n t a
tio n a l m e d ia tio n , " w hich is i n a c c e s s i b l e f o r e m p i r i c a l i n v e s t i g a
t i o n s , a d d s n o t h i n g i n t h e w a y of e x p l a n a t o r y o r p r e d i c t i v e p o w e r
b e y o n d t h a t of t h e i n s t r u m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n e r ' s p r o c e s s of s t i m u l u s
control.
A s e c o n d f u n c t i o n of r e s p o n s e c o n s e q u e n c e s , a c c o r d i n g to
s o c i a l l e a r n i n g t h e o r y , i s to m o t i v a t e b e h a v i o r . P e o p l e l e a r n to
anticipate consequences for their b ehavior. E x p e c t a t i o n s of d e s i r e d
o u t c o m e s t h u s s e r v e to m o t i v a t e p e r s o n s t o a c t i n o r d e r to a t t a i n
these rew ard s. Again, B a n d u ra p r o p o s e s that cognitive p r o c e s s e s
a r e n e c e s s a r y to e x p la in how th is o c c u r s . B a n d u r a r e a s o n s that,
14
since the c o n seq u e n c es fo r actio n m a y be te m p o ra lly d ista n t f r o m
t h e p e r f o r m a n c e of " f o r e s i g h t f u l " b e h a v i o r s , p e o p l e m u s t c o g n i t i v e l y
r e p r e s e n t th e p o s s i b l e o u t c o m e s to b e i m p e l l e d to a c t.
The point a t w hich B a n d u ra b egins h is a n aly sis is w h at le a d s
h i m to t h i s c o n c l u s i o n a b o u t " f o r e s i g h t f u l " b e h a v i o r . Investigation
of t h e e v e n t s p r e c e d i n g t h e o c c u r r e n c e of a " f o r e s i g h t f u l " a c t w o u l d
s h o w t h a t t h e " c o g n i t i v e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n " of f u t u r e e v e n t s , s o n e c e s
s a r y a c c o r d in g to s o c ia l l e a r n in g th e o r y , again adds no i n c r e a s e in
ex p lan ato ry o r p re d ic tiv e p o w er o v er the in s tr u m e n ta l conception.
W h e n a p e r s o n ' s p r e v i o u s h i s t o r y of r e i n f o r c e m e n t i s a d e q u a t e l y
a s s e s s e d , it can be shown th a t " a n tic ip ito ry " b eh a v io r is a n o th e r
i n s t a n c e of s t i m u l u s c o n t r o l : a n o u t c o m e of p r i o r l e a r n i n g . A gain
a f t e r r e s p o n s e s a r e r e p e a t e d l y r e i n f o r c e d i n t h e p r e s e n c e of c o n
s i s t e n t l y a s s o c i a t e d e n v i r o n m e n t a l s t i m u l i , t h e s e s t i m u l i c o m e to
s e t th e o c c a s io n s u n d e r w h ich the r e s p o n s e is lik e ly to be r e in f o r c e d .
Thus, if the a n te c e d e n t d i s c r i m i n a t i v e stim u li w hich o c c a s io n an
" a n t i c i p a t o r y " r e s p o n s e a r e i d e n t i f i e d , t h e n e e d to p r o p o s e s y m b o l i c
r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f f u t u r e e v e n t s to e x p l a i n a n t i c i p a t o r y b e h a v i o r
b e c o m e s questionable.
A s a n i l l u s t r a t i o n of the a r g u m e n t above, c o n s i d e r th e f o llo w
ing s i t u a t i o n : We e n t e r a r o o m in w hich a r a t is p e r f o r m i n g a ta s k
in a lig h te d S k in n e r- b o x . The ra t p r e s s e s a lever and a concave
t r o u g h c o n t a i n i n g a s m a l l a m o u n t of w a t e r i s p r e s e n t e d . The ra t
15
i m m e d ia te ly p r o c e e d s to d rin k f r o m the tro u g h . It a p p e a r s th a t the
r a t i s p r e s s i n g t h e l e v e r b e c a u s e h e " a n t i c i p a t e s " t h a t i f h e d o e s so
i t w i l l p r o c u r e f o r h i m a d r i n k of w a t e r . E ven a social learning
t h e o r i s t w o u l d n o t b e so b o l d a s t o p r o p o s e t h a t t h e r a t m u s t h a v e
s y m b o l i c a l l y r e p r e s e n t e d t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s of h i s a c t i o n s a n d w a s
t h u s " m o t i v a t e d " t o p r e s s t h e b a r b y t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of r e c e i v i n g
w ater. H e w o u l d i n s t e a d p o i n t to t h e f a c t t h a t b a r p r e s s i n g h a d
p r e v i o u s l y b e e n c o n t i n g e n t l y r e i n f o r c e d w i t h t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n of
w ater.
A t h i r d f u n c t i o n of r e s p o n s e c o n s e q u e n c e s , w h i c h B a n d u r a
g ru d g in g ly a c c e p ts as a p o s s ib ility , is the a b ility to p ro d u c e c h an g e s
i n b e h a v i o r w i t h o u t a w a r e n e s s (i. e. , p r e s u m a b l y i n t h e a b s e n c e of
s y m b o l i c r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of c o n t i n g e n c i e s ) . I n h i s d i s c u s s i o n of t h e
r o l e of a w a r e n e s s in r e i n f o r c e m e n t e f f e c t s , B a n d u r a ( 1 9 7 1 c , 1977)
f i r s t r e f e r s t o s t u d i e s b y S p i e l b e r g e r a n d D e N i k e (196 6) a n d D u l a n y
(1962, 1968) w h i c h p e r p o r t e d l y d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t a w a r e n e s s of
c o n tin g e n c ie s p r e c e d e d any i n c r e m e n t in r e s p o n s e s w hich w e r e
reinforced. N e x t B a n d u ra c ite s stu d ie s by P o s t m a n and S a s s e n r a t h
(1 96 1) a n d K e n n e d y (1 97 0, 1971) w h i c h d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t s i g n i f i c a n t
i n c r e m e n t s i n c o r r e c t r e s p o n d i n g p r e c e d e d a w a r e n e s s of t h e c o n t i n
g e n c ie s (as m e a s u r e d by s u b je c ts ' v e r b a l r e p o r t s about th em ). It
w as d e m o n s t r a t e d that the c r u c i a l d iffe re n c e b e tw e e n th e s e stu d ie s
w a s t h e l e n g t h of t h e i n t e r v a l s u s e d t o a s s e s s a w a r e n e s s . When
16
r e l a t i v e l y long i n t e r v a l s w e r e u s e d (as in th e s tu d ie s by S p i e l b e r g e r
and D eNike), it a p p e a r e d th a t a w a r e n e s s p re c e d e d le arn in g ; but
w hen a w a r e n e s s w a s a s s e s s e d at s h o r t e r in t e r v a ls , i n c r e m e n t s in
responding p re c e d e d a w a re n e s s .
I n f u r t h e r s u p p o r t of t h e e v i d e n c e t h a t r e i n f o r c e m e n t c a n p r o
d u c e e f f e c t s i n t h e a b s e n c e of a w a r e n e s s , B a n d u r a r e p o r t s s t u d i e s
b y H e f f e r l i n e , B r u n o a n d D a v i d o w i t z (1 970). In t h e s e s tu d ie s th e
r e s p o n s e s to be r e in f o r c e d (u n o b s e r v a b le m u s c u l a r c o n tra c tio n s )
w e r e i m p e r c e p t i b l e w ithout a m p lific a tio n (which the e x p e r i m e n t e r s
u s e d to id e n tify t h e i r o c c u r r e n c e ) . It w as d e m o n s tr a te d that th e s e
i m p e r c e p t i b l e r e s p o n s e s c o u l d b e m a n i p u l a t e d by t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n of
p o s i t i v e r e i n f o r c e r s ( m o n e t a r y r e w a r d ) o r t h e t e r m i n a t i o n of n e g a
tive r e in f o r c e r s (a v e rsiv e stim ulation). S in c e the r e s p o n s e s w e r e
u n o b s e r v a b l e , t h e s u b j e c t s c o u l d n o t h a v e b e e n a w a r e of t h e c o n t i n
g e n t r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n t h e i r b e h a v i o r and the r e i n f o r c e r s .
B a n d u r a is unw illing to a c c e p t t h e s e d a t a as d e m o n s t r a t i n g
that r e in f o r c e m e n t can p ro d u c e in c re m e n t s in responding w ithout
t h e i n t e r v e n i n g p r o c e s s of s y m b o l i c r e p r e s e n t a t i o n . He attributes
t h e o b s e r v e d i n c r e a s e s in r e s p o n d i n g to a p a r t i a l c o r r e l a t i o n
b e tw e e n the r e s p o n s e a c t u a ll y b e in g m e a s u r e d and h y p o t h e s e s g e n
e r a t e d by t h e s u b j e c t s i n t h e s e a r c h to d i s c o v e r t h e c o n t i n g e n c i e s of
the e x p e rim e n t. T h i s a p p e a r s t o b e t h e s o c i a l l e a r n i n g e q u i v a l e n t of
w h a t i n s t r u m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n e r s r e f e r to a s a d v e n t i t i o u s r e i n f o r c e m e n t
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission
17
(Skinner, 1948, 1953). In this c a s e w hat is a d v e n titio u s ly r e i n
fo rc e d is the s u b je c t's h y p o th e se s about the " c o r r e c t " r e s p o n s e .
A lthough th is is not an i m p l a u s i b l e ex p la n a tio n , it is in d e e d
d i f f i c u l t to i m a g i n e w h a t h y p o t h e s e s s u b j e c t s i n t h e H e f f e r l i n e e t a l .
stu d ie s could h a v e g e n e r a t e d w hich w ould h a v e b e e n c o r r e l a t e d with
im perceptible m u sc u la r resp o n ses.
B a n d u r a (1 9 77 ) c o n c l u d e s t h a t t h e c o n t r o v e r s y o v e r t h e r o l e of
a w a r e n e s s in r e i n f o r c e m e n t effects is u n r e s o lv e d and sta te s :
E ven if im p r o v e d m e th o d o lo g ies e s ta b lis h e d that e l e m e n

t a r y r e s p o n s e s c a n b e l e a r n e d w i t h o u t a w a r e n e s s of
w h at is being r e in f o r c e d , th is would not m e a n th a t c o m
p l e x b e h a v i o r c a n b e s i m i l a r l y a c q u i r e d , (p. 21)
B a n d u r a (197 7) c o n t i n u e s w i t h a n i l l u s t r a t i o n of " c o m p l e x "
b e h a v i o r to s u p p o r t t h i s l i n e of r e a s o n i n g .
S u p p o s e s u b j e c t s a r e p r e s e n t e d w i t h w o r d s of v a r y i n g
l e n g t h , a n d t o l d t h a t t h e i r t a s k i s to r e s p o n d b y p r o v i d
in g a c o r r e c t n u m b e r c o r r e s p o n d i n g to e a c h w o r d . L e t
us s e le c t an a r b i t r a r y r u l e th a t g iv e s the " c o r r e c t
n u m b e r " b y s u b t r a c t i n g t h e n u m b e r of l e t t e r s i n a g i v e n
w o r d f r o m 100, d i v i d i n g t h e r e m a i n d e r b y 2, a n d t h e n
m u l t i p l y i n g t h i s r e s u l t b y 5. C o r r e c t r e s p o n s e s a r e
derived fro m a hig h er o rd e r rule requiring a th re e -s te p
t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of t h e e x t e r n a l s t i m u l u s . T o c r e a t e
a c c u r a te r e s p o n s e s one m u s t p e r f o r m s e v e r a l m e n ta l
o p e ra tio n s in a p a r t i . r se q u e n c e . An unthinking
o r g a n i s m i s u n l i k e l y to s h o w a n y g a i n s i n a c c u r a t e p e r
f o r m a n c e h o w e v e r long its r e s p o n s e s a r e r e in f o r c e d .
(p. 21)
O p e r a n t c o n d itio n e rs would p a r a p h r a s e B a n d u r a 's l a s t s e n te n c e
to r e a d : An i n e x p e r i e n c e d o r g a n i s m is u n lik e ly to show any g a i n s in
a c c u r a t e p e r f o r m a n c e h o w e v e r long it s r e s p o n s e s a r e r e i n f o r c e d .
18
T h e i l l u s t r a t i o n q u o t e d a b o v e i s a n e x a m p l e of r e s p o n s e c h a i n
b a s e d on p r i o r l e a r n i n g . A c c u r a t e p e r f o r m a n c e of t h e t a s k r e q u i r e s
t h e p r e r e q u i s i t e m a t h e m a t i c a l s k i l l s of s u b t r a c t i o n , d i v i s i o n , a n d
m ultiplication. A l l o f t h e s e a r e th e o u t c o m e of p r i o r l e a r n i n g i n
volving c o n tin g en t r e s p o n s e co n seq u atio n . B ecause a response
c h a i n i s " c o m p l e x " o r i n v o l v e s a " t h r e e - s t e p t r a n s f o r m a t i o n " of a
d i s c r i m i n a t i v e s tim u lu s , it d o e s not p ro v id e su fficie n t ju s tif ic a tio n
f o r a p r o c e s s s u c h a s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n a l m e d i a t i o n to a c c o u n t f o r
re in fo rc e m e n t effects.
C o n s i d e r t h e c a s e of B a r n a b u s , t h e r a t w i t h a c o l l e g e e d u c a
tion ( P i e r r e l & S h e rm a n , 1963). We o b s e r v e B a r n a b u s b e g i n h i s
" c o m p l e x " t a s k w h e n a l i g h t a p p e a r s on t h e f i r s t f l o o r of h i s f o u r
level e x p e rim e n ta l c h a m b e r. B a r n a b u s i m m e d i a t e l y p r o c e e d s to a
s p i r a l s t a i r c a s e and a s c e n d s to the s e c o n d le v e l w h e r e h e p u s h e s
down a r a i s e d d r a w b r i d g e w h ic h h e c r o s s e s to r e a c h a t h i r d p l a t f o r m .
N e x t , h e c l i m b s a l a d d e r , p u l l s a c a r t o h i m on a n a t t a c h e d c h a i n ,
d r i v e s t h e c a r t h r o u g h a t u n n e l , c l i m b s a f l i g h t of s t a i r s , t r a v e r s e s
th ro u g h a tube, s te p s into an e le v a to r and r a i s e s a flag. The ra is in g
of t h e f l a g a c t i v a t e s t h e e l e v a t o r w h i c h d e s c e n d s to t h e f i r s t l e v e l .
N ext a b u z z e r sounds and B a rn a b u s p r e s s e s a le v e r w hich p r o c u r e s
f o r h i m a p e l l e t of f o o d . This is indeed a com plex s tim u lu s -
r e s p o n s e c h ain , b u t a g a in it i s doubtful w h e t h e r a s o c ia l l e a r n i n g
t h e o r i s t w o u l d f i n d i t n e c e s s a r y to p r o p o s e a n i n t e r v e n i n g c o g n i t i v e
19
p r o c e s s to e x p la in th e p e r f o r m a n c e . I t i s s i m p l y a s e q u e n c e of
r e s p o n s e s w hich a r e p e r f o r m e d in the r e v e r s e o r d e r f r o m which
they w e r e le a rn e d . The ex tern al stim uli serv e as d iscrim in ativ e
s tim u li f o r the r e s p o n s e s w hich they p r e c e d e and a s conditioned
r e i n f o r c e r s f o r the r e s p o n s e s w h ic h th e y follow. The en tire behav
i o r chain is m a in ta in e d by the t e r m i n a l r e in f o r c e r : t h e p e l l e t of
food.
T h e c o m p o n e n t b e h a v i o r s of a r e s p o n s e c h a i n c a n o c c u r a t a
c o v e r t le v e l (as is the c a s e in B a n d u r a 's illu s tr a tio n ) w ith o u t
invalidating the a g r u m e n ts above. Thus, sim ply b ec a u se a b eh av
i o r a l s e q u e n c e i s c o m p l e x a n d / o r o c c u r s on a c o v e r t l e v e l d o e s n o t
m e a n t h a t t h e p r i n c i p l e s of o p e r a n t c o n d i t i o n i n g a r e i n v a l i d .
B a n d u r a 's p r o p o s e d in f o r m a tio n a l and m o tiv a tio n a l e x p la n a
t i o n s of r e i n f o r c e m e n t e f f e c t s a r e t h e r e s u l t p r i m a r i l y o f h i s
s t u d i e s of o b s e r v a t i o n a l l e a r n i n g . If, a s B a n d u r a p r o p o s e s , l e a r n
in g b y o b s e r v a t i o n (i. e. , f r o m m o d e l s ) i s a p r e p o t e n t c a p a c i t y of
the h u m a n o r g a n i s m , it is e a s y to s e e h ow h e d e r i v e s t h e s e c o n c l u
sions. H o w e v e r , if, a s w i l l b e a r g u e d l a t e r , o b s e r v a t i o n a l l e a r n i n g
i s t h e o u t c o m e of a r o u t i n e , i n s t r u m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n i n g p r o c e s s , o n e
b e g i n s to q u e s t i o n t h e n e c e s s i t y a n d u t i l i t y of c o g n i t i v e c o n s t r u c t s
p r o p o s e d to e x p la in r e i n f o r c e m e n t e f f e c t s . B a n d u r a (1 9 7 1 b ) s c h e
m a t i c a l l y e x p l a i n s t h e r o l e of r e i n f o r c e m e n t i n o b s e r v a t i o n a l l e a r n
in g a s f o l l o w s :
ANTICIPA TED SR e in f > ATTEN TIO N > SM odeling -------
stim uli
\S y m b o l ic Coding /
> < C o g n i t i v e O r g a n i z a t i o n ) --------^ R
/R ehearsal \
(p. 45)
If, a s p r o p o s e d e a r l i e r , a n t i c i p a t i o n of r e i n f o r c e m e n t i s r e
conceptualized as stim ulus control a c q u ire d through p r io r i n s tr u
m e n t a l conditioning, the n e c e s s i t y f o r cognitive c o n s tr u c t s is e l i m
inated. Thus the o b se rv a tio n a l le arn in g s c h e m a above can be r e
d ia g ra m e d as:
SD > R attending > s reinf

responses (m odeling stim uli)
S D —> R m a r c h i n g -----> s r e i n f
r e s p o n s es
The d ia g r a m above r e p r e s e n t s a s tim u lu s - r e s p o n s e chain
a c q u ire d through p r io r rein fo rc em en t. The initial d iscrim in ativ e
s t i m u l u s (SD) s e t s t h e o c c a s i o n f o r a t t e n d i n g - o r i e n t i n g r e s p o n s e s b y
the o b s e r v e r - l e a r n e r . T h i s S R c o u l d p o s s i b l y b e t h e p r e s e n c e of a
potential m odel. T h e a t t e n d i n g r e s p o n s e s of t h e o b s e r v i n g p e r s o n
a r e r e i n f o r c e d b y t h e p e r f o r m a n c e of t h e m o d e l e d b e h a v i o r s a n d
o t h e r e x t e r n a l s t i m u l i r e l e v a n t to th e m o d e l e d ta s k . The behavior
of t h e m o d e l a n d t h e r e l e v a n t s t i m u l i of t h e m o d e l i n g s i t u a t i o n a l s o
s e r v e a s S - ^ ' s s e t t i n g t h e o c c a s i o n f o r r e i n f o r c e m e n t of m a t c h i n g
r e s p o n s e s by the o b s e r v e r . The te rm in a l re in fo rc e r, possibly con
s e q u e n c e s s i m i l a r to t h o s e r e c e i v e d by th e m o d e l , m a i n t a i n s the
e n tire r e s p o n s e chain. T h u s , t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of f u t u r e o c c u r r e n c e s
of i m i t a t i v e b e h a v i o r s i s i n c r e a s e d . As w ith any s t i m u l u s - r e s p o n s e
chain, o b s erv atio n al learn in g chains a r e a c q u ire d through p r io r
le a rn in g using e x trin s ic r e in fo rc e m e n t.
B a n d u r a (1971b, 1971c, 1977) c o n t e n d s t h a t t h e s t a n d a r d
i n s t r u m e n t a l conditioning p a r a d i g m ou tlin ed above cannot explain
m a n y c a s e s of l e a r n i n g b y o b s e r v a t i o n . A s h e d e s c r i b e s it:
It i s d ifficu lt to s e e h o w th is s c h e m e ( i n s t r u m e n t a l c o n
d i t i o n i n g ) a p p l i e s to t h e o b s e r v a t i o n a l l e a r n i n g t h a t t a k e s
p l a c e w i t h o u t o v e r t p e r f o r m a n c e of t h e m o d e l ' s r e s p o n s e s
d u rin g the a c q u is i ti o n p h a s e , w ith o u t r e i n f o r c e r s a d m i n
i s t e r e d to t h e m o d e l o r t o t h e o b s e r v e r a n d i n w h i c h t h e
f i r s t a p p e a r a n c e of t h e a c q u i r e d r e s p o n s e m a y b e d e l a y e d
f o r d a y s , w e e k s o r e v e n m o n t h s . ( B a n d u r a , 1971b,
pp. 10-11)
In th is illu s tr a tio n both the o b s e rv e r's m a tc h in g r e s p o n s e s and
t h e r e i n f o r c e m e n t of t h e m a r e a b s e n t d u r i n g t h e m o d e l i n g s i t u a t i o n
a n d t h e m o d e l ' s a c t i o n s (S-^'s) a r e a b s e n t w h e n t h e r e s p o n s e i s p e r
form ed.
T h e e x a m p l e of d e l a y e d i m i t a t i o n i s n o t a s d a m a g i n g t o i n s t r u
m e n t a l c o n c e p t i o n s of l e a r n i n g a s i t a p p e a r s t o b e . As G ew irtz
(1 9 6 9 b ) p o i n t s out:
. . . all im ita tiv e b e h av io rs o ccu r a fte r the m o d e l's

p e r f o r m a n c e , providing the r e le v a n t cues, h a s t e r m i
n a t e d and often w h ile th e child is n o t looking at the
m o d e l, and in th a t s e n s e they a r e alw ay s p e r f o r m e d in
t h e a b s e n c e of t h e m o d e l , (p. 151)
T h u s t h e l e n g t h of t h e t e m p o r a l d e l a y b e t w e e n t h e m o d e l ' s
p e r f o r m a n c e a n d t h a t of t h e o b s e r v e r i s a m i s l e a d i n g p o i n t .
T e m p o r a l d e l a y s b e t w e e n t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n of a n S-^ a n d t h e p e r
f o r m a n c e of t h e r e s p o n s e w h i c h i t o c c a s i o n s i n m a n y c a s e s m a y
e v e n b e p a r t of t h e r e i n f o r c e m e n t c o n t i n g e n c i e s . This is tru e not
only fo r r e s p o n s e s l e a r n e d by o b s e r v a tio n , but fo r m a n y b e h a v i o r s
l e a r n e d by d i r e c t tuition. A s S k i n n e r (1953) i l l u s t r a t e s :
A r e s p o n s e m a y a l s o be r e i n f o r c e d only if it is d e la y e d
b y a g i v e n i n t e r v a l of t i m e a f t e r p r e s e n t a t i o n of t h e
s tim u lu s . Thus, a pigeon is r e in f o r c e d f o r pecking a
k e y o n l y if i t w a i t s , s a y s i x s e c o n d s a f t e r t h e k e y i s
p r e s e n t e d , (p. 126)
A s i n t h e c a s e of t h e p i g e o n , r e i n f o r c i n g a g e n t s i n t h e n a t u r a l
e n v i r o n m e n t o f t e n r e q u i r e , a s p a r t of b e h a v i o r a l c o n t i n g e n c i e s , t h e
e l a p s e of i n t e r v a l s of t i m e a n d / o r t h e a b s e n c e of a s p e c i f i e d s t i m
ulus. T h i s m a y b e e s p e c i a l l y t r u e of m a n y b e h a v i o r s l e a r n e d
through m odeling. F o r i n s t a n c e , e x h i b i t i o n of i n i t a t i v e b e h a v i o r i n
t h e m o d e l ' s p r e s e n c e m a y l e a d to p u n i s h i n g c o n s e q u e n c e s f o r t h e
o b s e r v e r - l e a r n e r i f t h e s u p p l y of r e i n f o r c e r s i s s u c h t h a t i t w o u l d
re q u ir e co m petition betw een the m o d e l and the le a r n e r for th e ir
acquisition. The point w hich m u s t be s t r e s s e d h e r e , again, is the
r o l e of p r i o r l e a r n i n g . The o b s e rv e r h as le a rn e d through p r io r
e x p e r i e n c e s t o d e l a y t h e p e r f o r m a n c e of m a t c h i n g r e s p o n s e s u n t i l
the m o d e l is a b s e n t.
T h e a b s e n c e of t h e m o d e l d o e s n o t m e a n t h a t t h e r e i s a t o t a l
a b s e n c e of d i s c r i m i n a t i v e s t i m u l i w h e n t h e m a t c h i n g r e s p o n s e s a r e
23
perform ed. O th e r situ a tio n a l d e t e r m in a n ts w hich se t the o c c a sio n
f o r the m o d e l 's r e s p o n s e m a y r a p id l y co m e to c o n tro l the p e r f o r m
a n c e of t h e o b s e r v e r .
B a n d u r a w ould co nten d th a t th e above a n a ly s is d o es not a d e
quately explain how a p e r s o n r e t a i n s the b e h a v io ra l com ponents
o b s e r v e d in the m o d e lin g co n te x t th ro u g h the t e m p o r a l d elay b etw ee n
th e o b s e r v a t i o n and p e r f o r m a n c e of m a tc h in g b e h a v i o r s . This
objection s te m s f r o m B a n d u r a 's m isc o n c e p tio n about how r e in f o r c e
m e n t p ro d u ces its effects. As m entioned e a rlie r, B an d u ra believes
that in stru m e n ta l conditioners h ave p roposed a m e c h a n ism w hereby
r e i n f o r c e r s a u t o m a t i c a l l y s t r e n g t h e n b e h a v i o r s w h ich th e y follow.
A gain, w hat the i n s t r u m e n t a l p a r a d i g m sa y s is th a t contingent
d e l i v e r y of r e s p o n s e c o n s e q u e n c e s a l t e r s t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of f u t u r e
o c c u r r e n c e s of r e s p o n d i n g . The m e c h a n is m s re s p o n s ib le for this
p h en o m en o n a r e i n a c c e s s i b l e f o r e m p i r i c a l study. P re-scientific
s p e c u la tio n about the p o s s i b le m e c h a n i s m s r e s p o n s i b l e fo r r e i n
f o r c e m e n t e f f e c t s a r e n o t v e r i f i a b l e by i n d i c i e s i n d e p e n d e n t of t h e
b e h a v i o r s th e y a r e p u r p o r t e d to explain.
R e t e n t i o n of l e a r n i n g i s n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e f u t u r e p e r f o r m a n c e
of a n y b e h a v i o r . A n y o r g a n i s m m u s t b e a b l e to " r e m e m b e r " f r o m
one t r i a l to the n e x t w h a t is being r e i n f o r c e d in o r d e r f o r r e s p o n s e
c o n s e q u e n c e s to a f f e c t b e h a v i o r . This is t r u e not j u s t f o r the h u m a n
o r g a n i s m but fo r all living o r g a n is m s . W h a t is not c l e a r a r e the
24
m e c h a n is m s r e s p o n s ib le fo r this phenom enon. I t i s d o u b t f u l if
s o c ia l le a r n in g t h e o r i s t s w ould b r id g e the gap b e tw e e n p r e s e n t p e r
fo r m a n c e s and r e le v a n t p r i o r e x p e rie n c e in s u b -h u m a n s p e c ie s w ith
cognitive p r o c e s s e s like " sy m b o lic coding. ” This i s s u e w ill be
d e v e l o p e d m o r e f u l l y i n l a t e r s e c t i o n s of t h i s a n a l y s i s .
F i n a l l y , B a n d u r a (19 77 ) c o n c l u d e s t h a t r e i n f o r c e m e n t i s " a
f a c i l i t a t i v e r a t h e r t h a n a n e c e s s a r y c o n d i t i o n " f o r t h e l e a r n i n g of
behavior. A s h e p o i n t s out:
O n e d o e s n o t h a v e t o b e r e i n f o r c e d , f o r e x a m p l e , to
h e a r c o m p e l l i n g s o u n d s o r to l o o k a t c a p t i v a t i n g v i s u a l
d i s p l a y s . W hen a t t e n ti o n i s d r a w n to m o d e l e d a c t i v i t i e s
b y t h e e v e n t s t h e m s e l v e s , t h e a d d i t i o n of p o s i t i v e i n c e n
t i v e s d o e s n o t i n c r e a s e o b s e r v a t i o n a l l e a r n i n g , (pp. 3 7 - 3 8 )
A gain it m u s t be po in ted out th a t B a n d u r a r e a c h e s th is co n c lu sio n
b a s e d on the a s s u m p t i o n th a t o b s e r v a t i o n a l le a r n in g is a p r e p o t e n t
process.
If o b s e r v a t i o n a l l e a r n i n g is r e - c o n c e p t u a l i z e d a s th e o u tc o m e
of p r i o r l e a r n i n g , re in fo rc e m e n t again becom es a n e c e s s a r y condi
tion. It is h ig h ly p r o b a b le th a t " c o m p e llin g sou n d s" and "c a p tiv a tin g
v is u a l d is p la y s " h a v e a c q u i r e d the a b ility to c o m m a n d a tte n tio n
b e c a u s e m a n y t i m e s in th e p a s t th e y h a v e o c c a s i o n e d r e i n f o r c i n g
consequences. T hat is , they a r e d is c r im in a tiv e stim u li. It is not
s u r p r i s i n g t o f i n d t h a t t h e " a d d i t i o n of p o s i t i v e i n c e n t i v e s " d o e s n o t
i n c r e a s e le a rn in g in th e ir p r e s e n c e . A g a i n c o n s i d e r t h e e x a m p l e of
th e r a t w h i c h h a s p r e v i o u s l y l e a r n e d t o p r e s s a b a r i n t h e p r e s e n c e
25
of a l i g h t . O n c e t h e r e s p o n s e i s w e l l l e a r n e d (i. e. , t h e r a t i s
r e s p o n d i n g a t a n a s y m p t o t i c l e v e l ) , t h e p r o v i s i o n of a d d i t i o n a l r e i n
f o r c e r s w i l l n o t f u r t h e r i n c r e a s e t h e r a t e of r e s p o n d i n g .
I n c o n c l u s i o n , i t i s a r g u e d t h a t B a n d u r a ' s m i s c o n c e p t i o n of
i n s t r u m e n t a l conditioning a n d h i s r e p e a t e d f a i l u r e to a d e q u a te l y
a s s e s s t h e r o l e of p r i o r l e a r n i n g h a v e l e d h i m to t h e e r r o n e o u s c o n
c lu sio n th a t r e in f o r c e m e n t is not a n e c e s s a r y condition fo r le a rn in g .
E x p l a n a t i o n of V i c a r i o u s R e i n f o r c e m e n t P h e n o m e n o n
B a n d u ra su g g e sts th a t so cial le a rn in g th e o ry is m o r e c o m p r e
h e n s i v e th a n i n s t r u m e n t a l co n d itio n in g a p p r o a c h e s to l e a r n i n g p a r
t i a l l y b e c a u s e it in c l u d e s v i c a r i o u s r e i n f o r c e m e n t e ffe c ts in a n a l y s i s
of b a s i c l e a r n i n g m e c h a n i s m s . I t w ill b e a r g u e d in the following
s e c ti o n th a t v i c a r i o u s r e i n f o r c e m e n t effects (like o b s e r v a ti o n a l
l e a r n in g ) a r e an o u tc o m e of p r i o r l e a r n in g r a t h e r th a n a b a s i c
learning m ech an ism .
B a n d u r a (1971a) d e f in e s v i c a r i o u s r e i n f o r c e m e n t a s , " a c h a n g e
i n t h e b e h a v i o r of o b s e r v e r s a s a f u n c t i o n of w i t n e s s i n g t h e c o n s e
q u e n c e s a c c o m p a n y i n g t h e p e r f o r m a n c e of o t h e r s " (p. 230).
B a n d u ra e m p h a s iz e s that th e t e r m v ic a rio u s r e in f o r c e m e n t is s i m
p l y d e s c r i p t i v e of r e s p o n s e c h a n g e s a s a f u n c t i o n of o b s e r v e d c o n s e
q u en ces and is not m e a n t to explain th e se b e h a v io ra l ch an g es. How
e v e r, B a n d u r a (1969a, 1 96 9 b , 1 9 7 1 a , 1 9 7 1 b , 1971c) d o e s p r o p o s e
s e v e r a l ex p lan atio n s to a c c o u n t f o r how v i c a r i o u s r e in f o r c e m e n t
p r o d u c e s its effects. T h e f i r s t of t h e s e i s i n t e r m s of a n i n f o r m a
tiv e fu n c tio n s i m i l a r to th a t p r o p o s e d e a r l i e r to e x p la in e x t r i n s i c
re in fo rc e m e n t effects. A c c o r d i n g to B a n d u r a , t h e o b s e r v e d o u t
c o m e s f o r a m o d e l c o n v e y i n f o r m a t i o n to a n o b s e r v e r a b o u t t h e
t y p e s of b e h a v i o r s t h a t a r e l i k e l y to b e r e i n f o r c e d o r p u n i s h e d .
A s I a r g u e d e a r l i e r i n t h e e x a m i n a t i o n of d i r e c t r e i n f o r c e m e n t
e f f e c t s , t h i s " i n f o r m a t i v e f u n c t i o n " of v i c a r i o u s r e i n f o r c e m e n t i s
sim ply stim ulus co n tro l a c q u ire d through p r io r learning. T h at is,
c o n s e q u e n c e s d e l i v e r e d to m o d e l s c o m e to s e r v e a S - ^ ' s s e t t i n g t h e
o c c a s i o n f o r t h e e x t r i n s i c r e i n f o r c e m e n t of m a t c h i n g b e h a v i o r s p e r
f o r m e d b y th e o b s e r v e r . E v id e n c e th a t the " in fo rm a tiv e function"
of v i c a r i o u s r e i n f o r c e m e n t m a y b e t h e e q u i v a l e n t of s t i m u l u s c o n
t r o l is s u g g e s te d by B a n d u r a (1971a) w hen h e s ta te s : "It should also
be noted that s tu d ie s hav e not d e m o n s tr a te d th at v ic a rio u s r e in f o r c e
m e n t a l o n e c a n s u s t a i n e f f o r t f u l b e h a v i o r o v e r a long p e r i o d " (p. 235)
A l t h o u g h B a n d u r a w o u l d u n d o u b t e d l y a r g u e t h a t t h e c e s s a t i o n of
r e s p o n d i n g is due to the f a c t t h a t th e o b s e r v e d c o n s e q u e n c e s h a v e
lo s t t h e i r in f o r m a tio n a l v a lu e , a m o r e p a r s im o n io u s ex p la n a tio n is
th a t a d is c r i m in a t e d o p e ra n t h a s b een extinguished.
T h e s e c o n d e x p l a n a t i o n of v i c a r i o u s r e i n f o r c e m e n t p r o p o s e d
by B a n d u r a is a " s t im u l u s e n h a n c e m e n t effect" (B an d u ra, 19 7 1 a) .
That is, c o n s e q u e n c e s d e l i v e r e d to th e m o d e l m a y h ig h lig h t c r i t i c a l
27
f e a t u r e s of t h e e n v i r o n m e n t w h i c h o c c a s i o n r e i n f o r c e m e n t . If a
m o d e l i s r e i n f o r c e d i n t h e p r e s e n c e of a g i v e n s e t of s i t u a t i o n a l
stim u li and not consequated or punished under different e n v iro n
m e n t a l c o n d itio n s, the c o n s e q u e n c e s d e l i v e r e d to th e m o d e l m a y aid
t h e o b s e r v e r i n d i s c r i m i n a t i n g t h e c r i t i c a l f e a t u r e s of t h e s i t u a t i o n .
A g a i n , t h i s i s a n e x a m p l e of s t i m u l u s c o n t r o l . U nlike the
p r e v i o u s e x a m p l e s of s t i m u l u s c o n t r o l w h e r e a s i n g l e s t i m u l u s s e t
the o cca sio n fo r r e in f o r c e m e n t, this p a r a d i g m involves w hat o p e ra n t
c o n d i t i o n e r s r e f e r to a s c o n d i t i o n a l r e s p o n d i n g ( L a s h l e y , 1938). As
G e w i r t z (1971b) e x p l a i n s :
In s im p l e d i s c r i m i n a t i o n le a r n in g (involving s im u l ta n e o u s
of s u c c e s s i v e c o m p a r i s o n s ) , t h e p r e s e n c e of a s i n g l e
d i s c r i m i n a t i v e s tim u lu s a ttr ib u te (S^) s e ts the o c c a sio n
f o r r e i n f o r c e m e n t of t h e " c o r r e c t " r e s p o n s e , a n d i t s
a b s e n c e ("S d e l t a " ) s e t s t h e o c c a s i o n f o r n o n r e i n f o r c e
m e n t. In a conditional d is c r i m in a t io n s itu a tio n (like
m a t c h in g - t o - s a m p le ) , h o w e v e r, the r e s p o n s e th a t could
b e r e i n f o r c e d on e a c h t r i a l i s d e f i n e d o n t h e b a s i s of t h e
r e l a t i o n s h i p of t h e a t t r i b u t e s of tw o s e t s of s t i m u l i : t h e
conditional o r s ta n d a rd s tim u lu s, and the d is c r im in a tiv e
c o m p a r is o n s tim u li. The d is c r i m in a t iv e s tim u lu s thus
v a r ie s a c r o s s d is c rim in a tio n tr ia ls , changing re la tiv e
to t h e ( c o n c u r r e n t o r p r e c e d i n g ) c o n d i t i o n a l s t i m u l u s .
(p. 282)
I n t h e c a s e of v i c a r i o u s r e i n f o r c e m e n t i t i s t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n
s itu a tio n a l s t i m u l i and the o b s e r v e d c o n s e q u e n c e s fo r th e m o d e l
w h i c h s e t s t h e o c c a s i o n f o r r e i n f o r c e m e n t of m a t c h i n g r e s p o n s e s b y
the o b s e rv e r.
The th ird p o ssib le explanation that B an d u ra advances for
28
v ic a r io u s r e in f o r c e m e n t is an in c e n tiv e -m o tiv a tio n a l effect. That
is , p e r s o n s who o b s e r v e a m o d e l r e c e i v e f a v o r a b le c o n s e q u e n c e s
a r e " m o t i v a t e d " to p e r f o r m m a t c h i n g b e h a v i o r by t h e " e x p e c t a t i o n "
of s i m i l a r o u t c o m e s . T h is " in c e n tiv e -m o tiv a tio n a l" function was
d i s c u s s e d i n t h e p r e v i o u s s e c t i o n of t h i s a r t i c l e d e a l i n g w i t h th e
c o n tro v e rs y about e x trin s ic r e in fo rc e m e n t effects. In th a t p re v io u s
d i s c u s s i o n it w as p o in ted out th a t the co g n itiv e m e c h a n i s m s p r o p o s e d
by B a n d u r a and im p lie d by the t e r m s "e x p e c ta tio n " and " a n ti c ip a
t i o n " w e r e u n n e c e s s a r y f o r a f u n c t i o n a l a n a l y s i s of b e h a v i o r .
A t th a t ju n c tu r e it w as p r o p o s e d th a t the " i n c e n t i v e - m o t i v a
t i o n a l " f u n c t i o n of r e s p o n s e c o n s e q u e n c e s c o u l d b e m o r e p a r s i m o n i
o u s l y o r d e r e d b y t h e i n s t r u m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n i n g c o n c e p t i o n of s t i m
ulus co n tro l. A gain it i s a r g u e d th a t th e " in c e n tiv e - m o tiv a tio n a l"
f u n c t i o n of v i c a r i o u s r e i n f o r c e m e n t a m o u n t s t o n o t h i n g m o r e t h a n a n
i l l u s t r a t i o n of t h i s p r o c e s s . I n t h e p r e c e d i n g a n a l y s i s of t h e m o t i v a
t i o n a l f u n c t i o n of d i r e c t r e i n f o r c e m e n t , a n y a n t e c e d e n t s t i m u l u s
could h ave a c q u ire d d i s c r i m in a t iv e p r o p e r t i e s . W ith v ic a r io u s
r e i n f o r c e m e n t a sp e c ific a n te c e d e n t s tim u lu s , the co n seq u en c es
d e l i v e r e d to a m o d e l , s e t t h e o c c a s i o n f o r c o n s e q u a t i o n of i n i t a t i v e
behaviors. T h e b a s i c p r o c e s s i n v o l v e d , h o w e v e r , i s s t i l l o n e of
stim ulus control.
T h e f o u r t h e x p l a n a t i o n of v i c a r i o u s r e i n f o r c e m e n t p r o p o s e d b y
B a n d u r a i s t h e v i c a r i o u s c o n d i t i o n i n g of e m o t i o n a l r e s p o n s e s . As
29
B a n d u r a o b s e r v e s , t h e e x h i b i t i o n of e m o t i o n a l r e s p o n s e s by m o d e l s
i n r e s p o n s e to c o n t i n g e n t d e l i v e r y of c o n s e q u e n c e s c a n e l i c i t s i m i l a r
(or d is s im i la r ) r e a c tio n s in p e r s o n s o b s e rv in g th e m o d e le d p e r f o r m
ance. B an d u ra p ro p o ses that th e se em otional reac tio n s are acq u ire d
thro u g h c l a s s i c a l conditioning. In this p r o c e s s , p r e v io u s ly n e u t r a l
s t i m u l i (i. e. , t h o s e t h a t f o r m e r l y e l i c i t e d n o e m o t i o n a l r e a c t i o n s )
c o m e to e l i c i t e m o t i o n a l r e s p o n s e s a f t e r r e p e a t e d p a i r i n g w ith an
u n c o n d i t i o n e d s t i m u l u s (i. e. , a s t i m u l u s w h i c h e l i c i t e d e m o t i o n a l
responses). In v i c a r i o u s e m o tio n a l conditioning the e m o tio n a l
r e a c t i o n s of t h e m o d e l h a v e a c q u i r e d t h e a b i l i t y t o e l i c i t e m o t i o n a l
r e a c t i o n s in o b s e r v e r s th ro u g h t h e i r a s s o c i a t i v e p a i r i n g with
u n c o n d i t i o n e d s t i m u l i ; t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s a c t u a l l y e x p e r i e n c e d on
p r i o r o c c a s i o n s by the o b s e r v e r . H o w e v er, as w ith h is tr e a t m e n t
of i n s t r u m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n i n g , t h i s c l a s s i c a l o r r e s p o n d e n t c o n d i
t i o n i n g of e m o t i o n a l r e s p o n s e s i s s e e n b y B a n d u r a a s o c c u r r i n g
t h r o u g h t h e i n t e r v e n i n g p r o c e s s of c o g n i t i o n . As h e explains:
. . . w hen a stim u lu s is p a i re d w ith a v e r s iv e e x p e r i

e n c e s , the s tim u lu s alo n e p r o d u c e s e m o tio n a l r e s p o n s e s ,
not b e c a u s e it is in v e s te d w ith e m o tio n a l p r o p e r t i e s bu t
b e c a u s e i t t e n d s to e l i c i t e m o t i o n - a r o u s i n g t h o u g h t s . I n
o t h e r w o r d s , t h e e m o t i o n a l r e s p o n s e s a r e to a l a r g e
extent cognitively induced r a th e r than a u to m atically
e v o k e d b y t h e c o n d i t i o n e d s t i m u l i , (p. 246)
As w a s pointed out in th e e a r l i e r d i s c u s s i o n s about i n s t r u
m e n ta l conditioning, t h e r e is a s e n s e in w hich a ll o r g a n is m s m u s t
s o m e h o w c o r r e l a t e p r i o r o c c u r r e n c e s of a n e v e n t w i t h t h e
30
p r o b a b i l i t y of f u t u r e o c c u r r e n c e s of t h a t s a m e e v e n t . This is tru e
n o t o n l y of b e h a v i o r s c o n s i d e r e d o p e r a n t , b u t a l s o r e s p o n d e n t b e h a v
iors. W h a t is s til l u n c l e a r a r e the m e c h a n i s m s th r o u g h w h ic h th is
le arn in g takes place. P r e - s c ie n tif ic speculation about the " co g n i
t i v e " p r o c e s s e s i n v o l v e d a r e of l i m i t e d u t i l i t y f o r t h e o r i e s of l e a r n
i n g , w h e t h e r t h e y a r e b a s e d on i n s t r u m e n t a l o r c l a s s i c a l c o n d i t i o n
in g p r e c e p t s . Thus, B a n d u ra 's "an ticip ato ry se lf-a ro u s a l" seem s
to b e of l i m i t e d v a l u e i n t h e e x p l a n a t i o n of s u p p r e s s i v e o r f a c i l i t a t i v e
e f f e c t s of v i c a r i o u s r e i n f o r c e m e n t .
F r o m a m o re traditionally operant p ersp ectiv e, c la ssic a l con
d i t i o n i n g of p h y s i o l o g i c a l r e s p o n s i v e n e s s ( i . e . , em otional behavior)
can be o b s e rv e d for a lm o s t any stim u lu s w hich h a s a c q u ire d d i s
crim inative p ro p erties. T his does not re d u c e the p r o c e s s involved
to a n y t h i n g o t h e r t h a n s t i m u l u s c o n t r o l . Again B a n d u r a 's e x p la n a
t i o n of v i c a r i o u s r e i n f o r c e m e n t s e e m s t o a d d n o t h i n g to t h e u n d e r
s t a n d i n g of b e h a v i o r b e y o n d t h a t e n t a i l e d i n t h e i n s t r u m e n t a l c o n d i
t i o n i n g p r o c e s s of d i s c r i m i n a t i o n .
The fin a l ex p la n a tio n of v i c a r i o u s r e i n f o r c e m e n t w hich
B a n d u r a p r o p o s e s i s " m o d i f i c a t i o n of m o d e l s t a t u s . " As Bandura
(1971a) o b s e r v e s :
P u n is h m e n t d ev alu es the m o d e l and h is b eh av io r, w h e r e a s

the s a m e m o d e l a s s u m e s em u lativ e q ualities when his
a c tio n s a r e r e w a r d e d . T h e s e c h a n g e s in m o d e l s ta tu s ,
i n t u r n , a r e a c c o m p a n i e d by c o r r e s p o n d i n g d i f f e r e n c e s
i n t h e d e g r e e to w h i c h o b s e r v e r s i m i t a t e t h e m o d e l ' s
31
behavior.
I n d e e d , in th e b e h a v i o r a l a n a l y s i s of w h a t is in v o lv e d in the c o n
f e r r i n g of " s t a t u s " t w o t h i n g s s t a n d o u t. T h e " s t a t u s " of t h e m o d e l
i s i n f e r r e d f r o m t h e f r e q u e n c y w i t h w h i c h t h e m o d e l i s i m i t a t e d a nd
t h e d i v e r s i t y of s i t u a t i o n s i n w h i c h t h e m o d e l i s i m i t a t e d . M odels
w h o a r e o b s e r v e d to b e p u n i s h e d w i t h r e g u l a r i t y w i l l b e i m i t a t e d
le s s fre q u e n tly and u n d er few er conditions ( i . e . , w ill be c o n fe rre d
w ith low s ta tu s) than w ill m o d e ls who a r e o b s e rv e d being re in fo rc e d
fo r th e ir actions.
A g a in th e p r o c e s s in v o lv e d s e e m s to be nothing m o r e th a n
stim ulus control. M o d e l s w ho a r e f r e q u e n t l y r e i n f o r c e d in d i v e r s e
s i t u a t i o n s c o m e to s e t t h e o c c a s i o n f o r t h e r e i n f o r c e m e n t of i m i t a
tive b e h a v io r in d iv e rs e situ a tio n s. P e r s o n s le a rn through d if fe r
e n t i a l r e i n f o r c e m e n t t h a t e m u l a t i o n of f r e q u e n t l y r e w a r d e d (i. e. ,
h ig h s ta tu s) m o d e l s f r e q u e n t ly r e s u l t s in r e in f o r c in g o u tc o m e s and
t h a t i m i t a t i o n of u n s u c c e s s f u l m o d e l s m a y h a v e d e l e t e r i o u s c o n s e
quences.
The p re c e d in g a n a ly s is d e m o n s t r a te s that v ic a r io u s r e i n
f o r c e m e n t effects can be p a r s im o n io u s ly o r d e r e d by the o p eran t
c o n d i t i o n i n g p a r a d i g m of s t i m u l u s c o n t r o l . T h u s , t h e r e a p p e a r s to
be little justification for proposing that v ic ario u s re in fo rc e m e n t
r e p r e s e n t s a b a s ic le a rn in g p r o c e s s w hich is d iscontinuous w ith
i n s t r u m e n t a l c o n c e p t i o n s of l e a r n i n g .
32
E x p l a n a t i o n of S e l f - C o n t r o l of B e h a v i o r
A s w i t h v i c a r i o u s r e i n f o r c e m e n t e f f e c t s , B a n d u r a (1 9 65 b,
1969a, 1 97 1a, 19 71c , 1977) p r o p o s e s t h a t t h e i n s t a n c e i n w h i c h a
p e r s o n f u n c t i o n s to r e g u l a t e h i s ow n b e h a v i o r a n d i t s c o n s e q u e n c e s
i s d i s c o n t i n u o u s w i t h t h e o r i e s of l e a r n i n g w h i c h e m p h a s i z e e x t e r n a l
a g e n c i e s i n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t a n d m a i n t e n a n c e of b e h a v i o r . As he
states:
T h eo ries that explain hu m an b eh av io r as solely the p r o d

u c t of e x t e r n a l r e w a r d s a n d p u n i s h m e n t s p r e s e n t a t r u n
c a t e d i m a g e of p e o p l e b e c a u s e t h e y p o s s e s s s e l f - r e a c t i v e
c a p a c i t i e s t h a t e n a b l e t h e m to e x e r c i s e s o m e c o n t r o l
o v e r t h e i r ow n f e e l i n g s , t h o u g h t s , a n d a c t i o n s . B e h a v
i o r i s t h e r e f o r e r e g u l a t e d b y t h e i n t e r p l a y of s e l f
g e n e r a t e d a n d e x t e r n a l s o u r c e s of i n f l u e n c e . ( B a n d u r a ,
1977, p. 129)
O p e r a n t t h e o r i s t s w o u l d n o t d i s p u t e t h e f a c t t h a t h u m a n s do
m a n i p u l a t e t h e i r e n v i r o n m e n t i n s u c h a w a y a s to p r o v i d e c o n s e
q u e n c e s f o r t h e i r own a c t i o n s . H o w e v er, they w ould disp u te
w h e t h e r p e r s o n s " p o s s e s s s e l f - r e a c t i v e c a p a c i t i e s " a s p a r t of t h e i r
b e h a v i o r a l e n d o w m e n t o r w h e t h e r the d e v e l o p m e n t a n d m a i n t e n a n c e
of " s e l f - r e a c t i v e c a p a c i t i e s " i s d e p e n d e n t u p o n " e x t e r n a l s o u r c e s of
influence. " B a n d u r a h i m s e l f a c k n o w le d g e s the f u n d a m e n ta l r o le th a t
s o u r c e s of e x t e r n a l c o n t r o l p l a y i n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of b e h a v i o r
c h a ra c te riz e s as self-controlling. As he states:
S e l f - r e i n f o r c i n g r e s p o n s e s a r e u n d o u b t e d l y d e v e l o p e d to
s o m e extent th ro u g h s e le c tiv e r e i n f o r c e m e n t . In this
l e a r n i n g p r o c e s s , a n a g e n t a d o p t s a c r i t e r i o n of w h a t
33
co n stitu te s a w o rth y p e r f o r m a n c e and co nsistently
r e w a r d s p e r s o n s f o r m a t c h i n g o r e x c e e d i n g th e a d o p t e d
c r i t e r i o n le v e l, but non r e w a r d s o r p u n ish e s p e r f o r m
a n c e s t h a t f a l l s h o r t of t h e m i n i m u m s t a n d a r d . W h e n
p e r s o n s s u b s e q u e n t l y r e s p o n d to t h e i r own b e h a v i o r
th e y a r e li k e ly to r e i n f o r c e t h e m s e l v e s in a s i m i l a r l y
s e l e c t i v e m a n n e r . ( B a n d u r a , 1 9 7 1 a , p. 252)
B a n d u r a a l s o p o i n t s o u t t h a t p a t t e r n s of s e l f - r e i n f o r c e m e n t
c a n b e a c q u i r e d t h r o u g h t h e o b s e r v a t i o n of m o d e l s w h o r e s p o n d to
s e lf - p r e s c r ib e d stan d ard s for rein fo rc e m e n t. If, a s a r g u e d e a r l i e r
i n t h i s p a p e r , t h e c a p a b i l i t y of h u m a n s t o l e a r n b e h a v i o r p a t t e r n s
f r o m m o d e l i n g s i t u a t i o n s i s i t s e l f t h e r e s u l t a n t o u t c o m e of p r i o r
l e a r n i n g , i t i s i n d e e d d i f f i c u l t to v i s u a l i z e t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of s e l f -
c o n t r o l a s a n o m a l o u s w i t h r e i n f o r c e m e n t c o n c e p t i o n s of l e a r n i n g .
B a n d u r a n o t o n l y a c k n o w l e d g e s t h e p r i m a r y r o l e of e x t e r n a l s o u r c e s
of i n f l u e n c e i n t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of s e l f - c o n t r o l ; h e a l s o p o i n t s to
t h e n e c e s s i t y of e x t e r n a l s u p p o r t s i n t h e m a i n t e n a n c e of s u c h b e h a v
io rs. A s h e p o i n t s o ut , s e l f - p u n i s h i n g b e h a v i o r i s e f f e c t i v e i n c o n
tro l lin g b e h a v i o r b e c a u s e m a n y t i m e s it p r o v e s v a lu a b le in the
a v o i d a n c e of a v e r s i v e e x t e r n a l l y a d m i n i s t e r e d c o n s e q u e n c e s . Sim i
larly, rew arding oneself for strin g en t p e rfo rm a n c e stan d ard s f r e
quently r e s u lt s in fa v o ra b le co n seq u en c es a d m in is te re d by the so c ia l
com m unity. Thus it a p p ea rs that at le a s t p erio d ic su p p o rt fr o m
e x t e r n a l s o u r c e s i s n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e m a i n t e n a n c e of s e l f - c o n t r o l
behaviors.
A g a i n t h e f o c u s of t h e o r e t i c a l a p p r o a c h e s t o b e h a v i o r c o n t r o l
34
s h i f t s f r o m e x t e r n a l s o u r c e s of c o n t r o l t o a n e m p h a s i s o n e x t e r n a l
d e t e r m i n a n t s of b e h a v i o r . A s S k i n n e r (1 95 3) i l l u s t r a t e s :
A m a n m a y s p e n d a g r e a t d e a l of t i m e d e s i g n i n g h i s o w n
l i f e - - h e m a y c h o o s e the c i r c u m s t a n c e s in w h ic h h e i s to
liv e w ith g r e a t c a r e , and h e m a y m a n ip u la t e his d aily
e n v i r o n m e n t on a n e x t e n s i v e s c a l e . S u c h a c t i v i t y a p p e a r s
to e x e m p l i f y a h i g h o r d e r of s e l f - d e t e r m i n a t i o n . B u t i t i s
a l s o B e h a v i o r , a n d w e a c c o u n t f o r i t i n t e r m s of o t h e r
v a r i a b l e s i n t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a n d h i s t o r y of t h e i n d i v i d u a l .
It is t h e s e v a r i a b l e s w h ich p ro v id e the u ltim a te c o n tro l.
(p. 240)
T h e R o l e of C o g n i t i v e P r o c e s s e s i n t h e
C o n t r o l of H u m a n B e h a v i o r
T h e r o l e w h ic h c o g n itiv e p r o c e s s e s p la y in the d e t e r m i n a t i o n
of b e h a v i o r i s c e n t r a l to a l l of t h e i s s u e s of c o n t r o v e r s y b e t w e e n
rad ic al b e h a v io rism and social learning th e o ry . This w as b riefly
a l l u d e d t o i n e a r l i e r s e c t i o n s of t h i s p a p e r . I t w i l l no w b e e x a m i n e d
in g r e a t e r d e ta il in th e following d is c u s s io n .
The f i r s t q u estio n which m u s t be a s k e d w hen cognitive m e c h a
n i s m s a r e p r o p o s e d a s d e t e r m i n a n t s of b e h a v i o r i s : A re they n e c e s
s a r y i n t h e e x p l a n a t i o n of b e h a v i o r ? In o th e r w o rd s, d o es the i n c lu
s i o n of s u c h m e c h a n i s m s p r o v i d e u s w i t h p r e d i c t i v e p o w e r g r e a t e r
th a n th a t supplied by ro u tin e i n s t r u m e n t a l conditioning p r o c e s s e s ?
B a n d u r a (1 9 7 7 ) p r o p o s e s t h a t i t d o e s :
If h u m a n b e h a v i o r c o u l d b e f u l l y e x p l a i n e d i n t e r m s of
antecedent inducem ents and re s p o n s e consequences,
t h e r e w o u ld b e no n e e d to p o s t u l a t e a n y a d d itio n a l r e g u
la to ry m e c h a n is m s . H ow ever, m o s t e x te rn a l influences
35
affect b e h a v io r through i n t e r m e d i a r y cognitive p r o c e s s e s .
C ognitive f a c to r s p a rtly d e t e r m in e which e x te rn a l events
w ill be o b s e r v e d , how th e y will be p e rc e iv e d , w h e th e r
they le a v e any la s tin g e ffe c ts , w hat v a le n c e and efficacy
th e y h a v e , and h o w the i n f o r m a t i o n th e y convey w ill be
o r g a n i z e d f o r f u t u r e u s e . (p. 160)
H o w e v e r , i n t h e p r e c e d i n g a n a l y s i s of o t h e r c o n t r o v e r s i e s
b e tw e e n s o c ia l le a r n in g th e o ry and o p e ra n t conditioning it w as d e m
o n s tr a te d th a t b e h a v io ra l p r o c e s s e s w hich B an d u ra m a in tain ed
r e q u i r e d cogn itive m e c h a n i s m s f o r ex p lan atio n could be "fully
e x p l a i n e d i n t e r m s of a n t e c e d e n t i n d u c e m e n t s a n d r e s p o n s e c o n s e
q u e n c e s . " I n t h e f o l l o w i n g d i s c u s s i o n w e w i l l a t t e m p t to d e m o n s t r a t e
t h a t d e t e r m i n a n t s of b e h a v i o r a r i s i n g f r o m c o g n i t i v e m e c h a n i s m s
c a n b e f u l l y e n c o m p a s s e d by t h e p r e c e p t s of i n s t r u m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n
ing.
T h e f i r s t r o l e of c o g n i t i v e p r o c e s s e s p r o p o s e d b y B a n d u r a i s
o n e of m o t i v a t i n g b e h a v i o r . C o g n i t i v e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of f u t u r e o u t
c o m e s (i. e. , a n t i c i p a t i o n ) c a n i m p e l p e r s o n s to a c t i n o r d e r to
a c q u i r e d e s i r e d o u t c o m e s o r to av o id d e l e t e r i o u s o n e s. As was
d e m o n s t r a t e d i n t h e p r e v i o u s d i s c u s s i o n of i n c e n t i v e - m o t i v a t i o n a l
f u n c t i o n s of b o t h d i r e c t a n d v i c a r i o u s r e i n f o r c e m e n t , t h i s " m o t i v a
ti o n a l" fu n c tio n is a d e q u a t e l y e n c o m p a s s e d by th e o p e r a n t c o n d itio n
i n g p r o c e s s of s t i m u l u s c o n t r o l . At th a t ju n c tu re , it w as pointed out
t h a t i f a p e r s o n ' s p r e v i o u s h i s t o r y of r e i n f o r c e m e n t w e r e a d e q u a t e l y
a s s e s s e d , it could b e d e m o n s t r a t e d th a t the v a r i a b l e s co n tro llin g
36
resp o n d in g r e s t e d w ith e n v iro n m e n ta l a g e n c ie s . Specifically it was
shown the s tim u li w hich p r e c e d e d the r e s p o n s e h a d a c q u ire d the
a b i lit y to e v o k e a r e s p o n s e . Through th e ir previous associatio n
w ith c o n s e q u e n t e v e n ts , t h e s e s t i m u l i h a d c o m e to " s e t the o c c a s i o n "
for reinforcem ent. Thus if a sp e c ific p e r f o r m a n c e is a n a ly z e d
h i s t o r i c a l l y w i t h s p e c i a l e m p h a s i s on r e l e v a n t p r i o r l e a r n i n g , t h e
p ro p o s a l th a t fu tu re events w e r e " an ticip ated " v ia cognitive p r o c
e s s e s p r o v i d e s no i n c r e m e n t i n t h e p r e d i c t i v e p o w e r of o p e r a n t
theory. T h e i n c l u s i o n of s u c h m e c h a n i s m s m a y e v e n o b s c u r e a
s c i e n t i f i c a n a l y s i s of t h e p r o c e s s u n d e r s t u d y ,
B a n d u ra a ls o p ro p o s e s th a t people cognitively c o n s tr u c t
s t a n d a r d s a g a i n s t w h i c h t h e y j u d g e t h e a d e q u a c y of t h e i r p e r f o r m
ances. If t h e i r p e r f o r m a n c e s f a l l s h o r t of t h e s e p r e s c r i b e d g o a l s ,
p eo p le a r e " s e l f - m o t i v a t e d " to im p r o v e th e i r p e r f o r m a n c e s . A gain,
a s w a s m e n t i o n e d i n t h e d i s c u s s i o n of " s e l f - r e i n f o r c e m e n t , " a
f u n c t i o n a l a n a l y s i s of e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o n t r o l of b e h a v i o r i n d i c a t e s
th a t such b e h a v io rs a re e s ta b lis h e d and m a in ta in e d by e n v iro n m e n ta l
agencies. P e o p l e do n o t " s p o n t a n e o u s l y " c o n s t r u c t g o a l s a g a i n s t
w h i c h to j u d g e t h e a d e q u a c y of t h e i r p e r f o r m a n c e s . R a th e r, they
le a rn , through p r i o r contingent re in fo rc e m e n t a n d /o r p u n ish m en t
s u p p l i e d b y t h e s o c i a l c o m m u n i t y , a c c e p t a b l e s t a n d a r d s of p e r f o r m
ance.
A gain, w hat m u s t be e m p h a s i z e d is that " s e lf - e v a l u a ti v e "
37
b e h a v i o r s a r e ju s t that: behaviors. The controlling v a r ia b le s for
t h e s e b e h a v i o r s a r e to be found in th e e n v i r o n m e n t e x t e r n a l to the
p e r s o n p erfo rm in g them . T h u s, w e n eed not point to d i s c r e p a n c i e s
b e t w e e n c o g n i t i v e l y c o n s t r u c t e d s t a n d a r d s a n d o v e r t p e r f o r m a n c e to
e x p l a i n w h y a p e r s o n i s " m o t i v a t e d " to a c h i e v e m o r e e x a c t p e r f o r m
ances. W e n e e d o n l y to d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t s u c h b e h a v i o r s o c c a s i o n
r e i n f o r c e m e n t or avoid p u n is h m e n t in the s o c ia l co m m u n ity . Again
i t i s r e v e a l e d t h a t t h e i n c l u s i o n of c o g n i t i v e p r o c e s s e s p r o v i d e s no
d i f f e r e n t i a l p r e d i c t i v e p o w e r t o t h e p r e c e p t s of i n s t r u m e n t a l c o n d i
tioning.
N ext, B an d u ra p ro p o s e s that people m u s t cognitively r e p r e
s e n t e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o n t i n g e n c i e s i n o r d e r to l e a r n w h a t i s b e i n g
re in fo rc e d o r punished. I n o t h e r w o r d s , p e o p l e m u s t b e " a w a r e " of
the r e la tio n s h ip b e tw e e n th e i r b e h a v io r and its c o n s e q u e n c e s . As
w as po in ted out e a r l i e r in this p a p e r , o p e r a n t c o n d itio n e r s r e c o g n i z e
th a t t h e r e is a s e n s e in w hich a ll o r g a n is m s m u s t d i s c r i m i n a t e the
s i m i l a r i t y b e t w e e n r e s p o n s e s f r o m one p e r f o r m a n c e to th e next.
T h u s a r a t m u s t b e a b le to d i s c r i m i n a t e t h a t the b a r p r e s s w h ich h e
e m i t s i n t h e p r e s e n t i s s i m i l a r to b a r p r e s s r e s p o n s e s w h i c h h a v e
been re in fo rc e d in the p ast. T he q u estio n w hich m u s t be a s k e d is:
I s t h e d e l i n e a t i o n of t h e m e c h a n i s m s u n d e r l y i n g t h i s a b i l i t y n e c e s s a r y
f o r a n e x p l a n a t i o n of b e h a v i o r ? I n o t h e r w o r d s , d o e s t h i s t y p e of
r e d u c t i o n i s m a d d s i g n i f i c a n t l y t o t h e p r e d i c t i v e p o w e r of o u r t h e o r y ?
38
If t h e o c c u r r e n c e of a r e s p o n s e c a n b e a d e q u a t e l y e x p l a i n e d i n
o p e r a t i o n a l t e r m s of a n t e c e d e n t a n d c o n s e q u e n t s t i m u l i , r e d u c t i o n -
i s m to f i n d t h e " c a u s e " of t h e o b s e r v e d e f f e c t s i s of l i m i t e d u t i l i t y
i n d e l i n e a t i n g t h e d e t e r m i n a n t s of b e h a v i o r . A s G e w i r t z ( 19 71b )
illustrates:
. . . i n d i s c u s s i o n s i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e on f u n c t i o n a l
r e s p o n s e c l a s s e s of b o t h n o n v e r b a l a n d v e r b a l o r g a n
i s m s , t h e r e h a s t y p i c a l l y b e e n no s p e c i a l h e u r i s t i c
e m p h a s i s on a s u b j e c t ' s d i s c r i m i n a t i o n t h a t h e h a s p e r
f o r m e d a r e s p o n s e like th o s e th a t p r e v io u s ly h av e led
to r e i n f o r c e m e n t in th a t co ntext, n o r h a s a h e u r i s t i c
n e e d b e e n f e lt to a n a l y z e a s u b j e c t d i s c r i m i n a t i o n in
t e r m s of i t s v a r i o u s c o m p o n e n t e v e n t s . E v e n t h o u g h
m a n y r e s e a r c h e r s w ould co n ceiv e th a t a d i s c r i m i n a
tion p r o c e s s is involved, it h a s r a r e l y b een thought
n e c e s s a r y in conditioning a n a l y s e s to in tr o d u c e o p e r a
tions for studying su ch a d is c r i m in a t io n , o v e r and
a b o v e t h o s e i m p l i e d i n t h e c o n c e p t i o n of a f u n c t i o n a l
r e s p o n s e c l a s s , (p. 296)
A s a n e x a m p l e of t h e a r g u m e n t p r e s e n t e d a b o v e c o n s i d e r t h e
s t u d y b y K a u f m a n , B a r o n a n d K o p p (196 6) c i t e d b y B a n d u r a (1 97 7) i n
s u p p o r t of h i s c o n t e n t i o n t h a t s y m b o l i c r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of c o n t i n g e n
cies is n e c e s s a r y f o r le a rn in g . In this s tu d y all s u b je c ts r e c e i v e d
r e i n f o r c e m e n t c o n tin g e n t upon m a n u a l r e s p o n s e s on a o n e - m i n u t e
v a ria b le in te rv a l schedule. H o w e v e r , o n e g r o u p of s u b j e c t s w a s
in fo rm e d that th e ir r e s p o n s e s w ould be r e in f o r c e d once e v e r y m i n
ute ( F ix e d i n t e r v a l sc h e d u le ). A nother group w as inform ed that
t h e i r r e s p o n s e s w o u l d b e r e i n f o r c e d a b o u t e v e r y 150 t r i a l s ( V a r i a b l e
ra tio schedule). T he final g ro u p w as c o r r e c t l y in fo rm e d ab out the
Reproduced with permission o f the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission
39
prevailing re in fo rc e m e n t contingencies. T h e r e s u l t s of t h e study-
show ed th a t th e s u b jects' p e r f o r m a n c e r a t e s w e r e in a c c o r d a n c e not
w i t h a c t u a l r e i n f o r c e m e n t c o n t i n g e n c i e s of t h e s t u d y (i. e. , o n e -
m i n u t e f i x e d i n t e r v a l ) b u t r a t h e r w i t h t h e s c h e d u l e s of r e i n f o r c e
m e n t w hich they w e r e in fo rm e d w ould p r e v a i l in the e x p e r i m e n t .
B a n d u ra co n ten d s th a t the above study d e m o n s t r a te s th at
people m u s t h av e cognitively r e p r e s e n t e d co n tingencies d iffere n t
f r o m t h e a c t u a l c o n t i n g e n c i e s (i. e. , i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e " f a l s e "
contingencies). O t h e r w i s e , t h e r a t e of r e s p o n d i n g w o u l d h a v e b e e n
i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e p r e v a i l i n g s c h e d u l e of r e i n f o r c e m e n t .
B a n d u r a p r o p o s e s t h a t t h e s u b j e c t ' s " b e l i e f " a b o u t (i. e. , c o g n i t i v e
r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of) t h e s c h e d u l e s of r e i n f o r c e m e n t w a s m a n i p u l a t e d
b y t h e d i v e r g e n t i n s t r u c t i o n s (i. e. , l i e s ) g i v e n to t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l
groups.
A c l o s e r e x a m i n a t i o n of t h e m a n i p u l a t i o n s i n v o l v e d i n t h e
e x p e r i m e n t r e v e a l s th a t the v a r i a b l e w h ich w a s a c tu a lly m a n ip u la te d
w a s t h e v e r b a l i n s t r u c t i o n s g i v e n to e a c h g r o u p . The m a n ip u la tio n
of " b e l i e f s " c a n o n l y b e i n f e r r e d f r o m t h e d i f f e r e n c e s i n r e s p o n d i n g
i t i s p r o p o s e d to e x p l a i n . I f w e c o n c e n t r a t e on t h e e x t e r n a l v a r i a b l e s
which w e re m a n ip u lated , we can re a d ily d e m o n s tra te that the re s u lts
of t h e e x p e r i m e n t a r e e x a c t l y w h a t w o u l d b e p r e d i c t e d u n d e r t h e
p r o c e s s of s t i m u l u s c o n t r o l .
The su b je c ts could not be c o n s id e r e d e x p e rim e n ta lly naive
40
b e c a u s e u n d o u b t e d l y t h e y h a d a h i s t o r y of p r e v i o u s l e a r n i n g r e l e v a n t
to the e x p e r i m e n t a l situ a tio n . In n a t u r a l s e tt in g s v e r b a l in s t r u c t i o n s
a c q u ir e p r o p e r tie s as d is c r im in a tiv e s tim u li through th e ir a s s o c ia
tion w ith co ntingent r e s p o n s e consequation. U nless th e re w ere
o t h e r s t i m u l i i n t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l s i t u a t i o n w h i c h w e r e n o t in a c c o r d
a n c e w i t h t h e s e (i. e. , s t i m u l i w h i c h m i g h t i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e e x p e r i
m e n t e r s w e r e lying), th e n t h e s e v e r b a l S-^'s, w h e t h e r a c c u r a t e o r
n o t , w o u l d s t i l l o c c a s i o n r e s p o n d i n g in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e s c h e d
u l e s of r e i n f o r c e m e n t w h i c h t h e y h a d o c c a s i o n e d on s i m i l a r p r e v i o u s
occasions. T h u s w e w o u l d p r e d i c t t h a t t h e r a t e s of r e s p o n d i n g
w o u l d b e i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e s c h e d u l e of r e i n f o r c e m e n t o c c a
sioned by the a n te c e d e n t stim u li. F u r t h e r , w e w o u l d p r o p o s e t h a t if
the e x p e r i m e n t w e r e e x ten d ed fo r enough t r i a l s , the su b je c ts would
c o m e t o r e s p o n d i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e a c t u a l s c h e d u l e of r e i n f o r c e
m e n t p r e v a i lin g in the situ a tio n .
A n an alo g o u s e x a m p le using s u b h u m a n s p e c ie s m a y help c l a r
ify t h i s p oint. A g a in r e t u r n to the r a t to ilin g a w a y in a S k in n e r - b o x .
This tim e the r a t 's b a r p r e s s r e s p o n s e s have been p rev io u sly r e in
f o r c e d on a o n e - m i n u t e v a r i a b l e i n t e r v a l s c h e d u le . T h e p r e s e n c e of
a l i g h t h a s c o n s i s t e n t l y s e t t h e o c c a s i o n f o r r e i n f o r c e m e n t of
r e s p o n s e s o n t h i s s c h e d u l e (i. e. , i t i s a n S-^). A l l of a s u d d e n w e
" w h im s ic a lly " change the schedule f r o m o n e -m in u te v a r ia b le - in te r v a l
to o n e - m i n u t e f i x e d - i n t e r v a l . W e t u r n on t h e l i g h t a n d l o - a n d - b e h o l d
th e r a t c o n t in u e s to r e s p o n d a t a s te a d y r a t e r a t h e r th a n th a t
c h a r a c te r i z e d as a fix e d -in te rv a l scallop. The o p e ra n t conditioner
n e e d n o t p o s tu la te that h e h a s m a n ip u la te d the r a t 's " b e lie f" about
th e p r e v a i l i n g c o n t in g e n c i e s to e x p lain w hy w e o b s e r v e th is p h e n o m
ena. H e n e e d o n l y p o i n t o u t t h e r e l e v a n c e of t h e p r e v i o u s h i s t o r y of
reinforcem ent. A g ain i t is a r g u e d th a t th e in c lu s io n of c o g n itiv e
c o n s t r u c t s w h ic h can only b e i n f e r r e d and not in d e p e n d e n tly
m e a s u r e d a n d / o r m a n ip u la t e d ad d s nothing to i n s t r u m e n t a l c o n c e p
t i o n s of l e a r n i n g .
In a r e la te d is s u e , B a n d u r a p ro p o s e s th at p e r s o n s m u s t code
and s to re for m e m o r y re p re s e n ta tio n the topo g rap h ical c h a r a c t e r
i s t i c s of b e h a v i o r . T h ese coded re p re s e n ta tio n s , w hich can be
e i t h e r v e r b a l o r i m a g i n a l , c a n b e r e c a l l e d a t s o m e l a t e r t i m e to
m e d i a t e b e tw e e n e x te r n a l s tim u li w hich o c c a s io n a r e s p o n s e and the
o v e r t p e r f o r m a n c e of t h e r e s p o n s e . A g a in it m u s t b e a s k e d : Does
t h e a d d i t i o n of s u c h r e d u c t i o n i s t i c p r o c e s s e s a d d s o m e t h i n g t o a n
o p e r a n t a n a l y s i s of b e h a v i o r ? T h e f o l l o w i n g d i s c u s s i o n of t h e o p e r
a n t c o n d i t i o n e r ' s d e s c r i p t i v e c o n c e p t of a f u n c t i o n a l r e s p o n s e c l a s s
(Skinner, 1935) s h o w s t h a t i t d o e s not.
A f u n c t i o n a l r e s p o n s e c l a s s i s a c l a s s of r e s p o n s e s w h i c h a r e
d e f i n e d n o t o n t h e b a s i s of t o p o g r a p h i c a l s i m i l a r i t y b u t r a t h e r on
t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p to c o n t r o l l i n g e n v i r o n m e n t a l s t i m u l i . M anipula
t i o n s w h i c h e f f e c t t h e o c c u r r e n c e s of o n l y a f e w r e s p o n s e s i n a g i v e n
42
functional r e s p o n s e c la s s m a y p ro d u c e s i m i l a r changes in the
p r o b a b i l i t y of a l l r e s p o n s e s w i t h i n t h a t r e s p o n s e c l a s s . Responses
w h i c h c o n s t i t u t e m e m b e r s of t h i s r e s p o n s e c l a s s a r e a c q u i r e d a n d
m aintained through differential rein fo rcem en t. New resp o n ses are
r o u ti n e ly a d d ed to the fu n ctio n a l r e s p o n s e c l a s s v ia th is p r o c e s s and
w i l l b e m a i n t a i n e d i n t h e a b s e n s e of d i r e c t r e i n f o r c e m e n t s o lo n g a s
th e y a r e not e x p lic itly p u n is h e d and so long a s o th e r m e m b e r s of the
functional r e s p o n s e c la ss a r e rein fo rc ed .
G e w irtz (1969a, 19 69b , 1 9 71 a, 1971b) p r o p o s e s t h a t t h e c o n
c e p t of f u n c t i o n a l r e s p o n s e c l a s s e s m o r e p a r s i m o n i o u s l y o r d e r s t h e
above phenom enon than inexplicitly stated cognitive m e c h a n is m s
w h i c h c a n n o t b e i n d e x e d i n d e p e n d e n t of t h e p e r f o r m a n c e s t h e y a r e
p r o p o s e d to e x p la in o r the d i f f e r e n t i a l s e ttin g co n d itio n s d e v e lo p e d
to e s t a b l i s h t h e m . As he explains:
. . . when an o rg a n is m a c q u ire s a functional re s p o n s e

c l a s s , i n a s e n s e a d i s c r i m i n a t i o n of s i m i l a r i t y i s m a d e
b etw een h i s p r e s e n t r e s p o n s e and h is p a s t r e s p o n s e s
th a t h av e b e e n r e in f o r c e d in the d i s c r i m i n a t i v e context
(e. g. , a s i n b a r p r e s s i n g o r i n i m i t a t i v e m a t c h i n g
r e s p o n s e s ) . Thus, t h e r e is a s e n s e in w hich all o r g a n
is m s m u s t som ehow b ridge the gap betw een rele v an t
e x p e r ie n c e and l a t e r r e s p o n s e p e r f o r m a n c e that depends
on e a r l i e r e x p e r i e n c e . W h a t i s n o t o b v i o u s , h o w e v e r ,
i s t h e m e a n s by w h i c h t h i s i s a c c o m p l i s h e d ; a n d t h e o r e t
ic a l a p p r o a c h e s m a y d iffe r in w h e t h e r th e y a t t e m p t to
b r i d g e t h i s g a p o n ly w i t h t h e i r t h e o r y o r a l s o w i t h o p e r a
t i o n s t h a t i n d e x s u c c e s s i v e a s p e c t s of t h e p o s t u l a t e d
p r o c e s s . ( G e w i r t z , 1969b, p. 138)
G ew irtz continues:
43
F o r m o s t h e u r i s t i c p u rp o s e s it h a s ty p ic a lly been
a s s u m e d b y c o n c e p t u a l i z e r s of h u m a n a n d s u b h u m a n
l e a r n i n g to b e u n n e c e s s a r y t o p o s i t a s p e c i a l d i s c r i m
i n a t i v e p r o c e s s o v e r a n d a b o v e t h a t i m p l i e d in t h e
fu n ctio n al r e s p o n s e c l a s s as d efin e d by th e s u b je c t
o v e rt responding. F o r, unless an independent o p e r a
tio n is s p e c i f i e d and u l t i m a t e l y e m p l o y e d to in d e x a
p o stu la te d r e p r e s e n t a tio n a l o r cognitive p r o c e s s ,
t h e p a r s i m o n y a n d u t i l i t y of p o s t i n g t h e o c c u r r e n c e of
s u c h a n i m p l i c i t p r o c e s s to b r i d g e t h e t i m e g a p b e t w e e n
e x p e rie n c e s and su b se q u en t p e r f o r m a n c e is questionable,
b o t h f o r i n f r a - h u m a n a n d h u m a n s u b j e c t s , (p. 138)
I t a p p e a r s t h a t t h e a d d i t i o n of c o g n i t i v e m e c h a n i s m s to m e d i
ate betw een an te c e d e n t en v iro n m e n ta l stim u li and the p e r f o r m a n c e
of b e h a v i o r d o e s n o t p r o v i d e d i f f e r e n t i a l l e v e r a g e on t h e p r o c e s s of
behavior change. A t this tim e, the cognitive m e c h a n is m s p ro p o se d
b y B a n d u r a c a n n o t b e m a n i p u l a t e d f o r s c i e n t i f i c s t u d y i n d e p e n d e n t of
s e t t i n g c o n d i t i o n s u s e d to e s t a b l i s h t h e m , n o r c a n t h e i r e f f e c t s b e
m e a s u r e d i n d e p e n d e n t of t h e b e h a v i o r s w h i c h t h e y a r e p r o p o s e d to
explain. T h u s , w e a r g u e t h a t t h e i n c l u s i o n of s u c h m e c h a n i s m s ,
h o w ev e r intuitatively p lau sib le they m a y s e e m , is not p a rs im o n io u s
a n d c a n o n l y s e r v e t o d i s s u a d e e m p i r i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s of e n v i r o n
m e n t a l d e t e r m i n a n t s of b e h a v i o r .
T h e I s s u e of D e t e r m i n i s m
I t w a s a r g u e d in t h e p r e c e d i n g s e c t i o n t h a t t h e c o g n i t i v e p r o c
e s s e s p ro p o s e d by B a n d u ra w e re not in fa c t n e c e s s a r y fo r a d e s c r i p
t i v e a n a l y s i s of b e h a v i o r . W h a t t h e n b e c o m e s of B a n d u r a ' s c o n c e p t
of r e c i p r o c a l d e t e r m i n i s m ? The cognitive m e c h a n is m s p ro p o se d
by B a n d u r a allo w e d p e o p l e to be " p a r t i a l l y f r e e " to c o n t r o l t h e i r
own b e h a v i o r . It w ill be r e c a lle d th at B a n d u ra s c h e m a tic a lly
r e p r e s e n t e d r e c i p r o c a l d e t e r m i n i s m as follow s:
(Bandura, 1977, p. 204)
In th is s c h e m a t i c , " B " r e p r e s e n t s b e h a v i o r , " E " r e p r e s e n t s e n v i r
onm ental influences and " P " r e p r e s e n t s p e r s o n a l influences. In the
conceptual an aly sis each facto r effected the o th e r fa c to rs in a r e c i p
r o c a l fashion. T h a t is , c h a n g e s in b e h a v i o r n o t only p r o d u c e d
c h a n g e s in the e n v i r o n m e n t b u t th e r e s u l t a n t e n v i r o n m e n t a l c h a n g e s
influenced subsequent behavior. L ik ew ise, changes in b e h a v io r
in flu e n c e d ch an g e s in p e r s o n a l f a c t o r s and th e r e s u lt a n t c h an g e
again influenced su b seq u en t b eh av io r. In a s i m i l a r fa sh io n th e r e
w as re c ip ro c a l in teractio n betw een p e rs o n a l and environm ental
d e t e r m i n a n t s of b e h a v i o r .
It h a s b e e n a r g u e d th ro u g h o u t th e p re c e d in g d is c u s s io n s that
the " p e r s o n a l in flu e n c e s" p r o p o s e d by B a n d u r a can be m o r e p a r s i
m o n i o u s l y o r d e r e d b y t h e i n s t r u m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n i n g c o n c e p t of p r e
v i o u s h i s t o r y of r e i n f o r c e m e n t . T hat is , th e se " p e rs o n a l influ
e n c e s " m a y b e a r e s u l t a n t o u t c o m e of p r i o r l e a r n i n g a c q u i r e d on t h e
b a s i s of c o n t i n g e n t r e s p o n s e c o n s e q u e n c e s . I n t h e a n a l y s i s of a n y
specific b e h a v io ra l sequence we can adequately account for th ese
p e r s o n a l i n f l u e n c e s o n l y if w e a s s e s s t h e r e l e v a n c e of t h e s e h i s t o r
ical v aria b les. If w e do n o t , b e h a v i o r a l s e q u e n c e s w h i c h r e p r e s e n t
n o t h i n g m o r e t h a n s t i m u l u s c o n t r o l of a f u n c t i o n a l r e s p o n s e c l a s s
m a y a p p e a r t o b e d i s c o n t i n u o u s w i t h r e i n f o r c e m e n t c o n c e p t i o n s of
le a r n in g (as is the c a s e with o b s e r v a ti o n a l le arn in g ).
If w e now r e p l a c e B a n d u r a ' s p e r s o n a l in flu e n c e s in the s c h e
m a t i c w i t h t h e o p e r a n t c o n d i t i o n e r ' s h i s t o r y of r e i n f o r c e m e n t , w e
get:
H o w e v e r , c l o s e r e x a m i n a t i o n of t h e p r o c e s s r e v e a l s t h a t a p e r s o n ' s
h i s t o r y of r e i n f o r c e m e n t c a n n o t d i r e c t l y in flu e n c e e n v i r o n m e n ta l
events. A person's re le v a n t p r i o r h i s t o r y can influence how a p e r
son R esp o n d s to e n v iro n m e n ta l in flu en ces. E n v iro n m en ta l events
can selec tiv e ly activate rele v an t p rio r h isto ry . This is p r e c is e ly
w hat a d isc rim in a tiv e stim ulus does. Thus our sch em atic r e p r e
sentation beco m es:
The r e c ip r o c a l re la tio n s h ip betw een en v iro n m en tal events and
behavior (B « E) i s v e r y r e a l . B eh av io ral p e rfo rm a n c e does
p r o d u c e c h a n g e s in e n v i r o n m e n ta l condition s. The resultant
46
e n v i r o n m e n t a l c h a n g e s a l t e r t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of s u b s e q u e n t s i m i l a r
behaviors. This r e c ip r o c a l r e la tio n s h ip betw een e n v iro n m e n ta l and
b e h a v i o r i s w h a t o p e r a n t c o n d i t i o n e r s r e f e r to a s a c o n t i n g e n c y .
H o w e v e r , it m u s t b e p o in te d out t h a t su ch c o n t in g e n c i e s e ffe c t
subsequent behavior. Thus our d i a g r a m should be re d o n e a s fo l
low s:
E* > H ------> B > > Subsequent B
I n t h e a b o v e s c h e m a t i c a n e n v i r o n m e n t a l e v e n t (S-^) s e l e c t i v e l y
a c tiv a te s re le v a n t p r io r e x p e rie n c e (history) w hich in flu en ces a
behavioral response. This b e h a v io ra l re s p o n s e a lte r s e n v iro n
m e n ta l conditions. The e n v iro n m e n ta l change a l t e r s the p r o b a b il
i t y of f u t u r e p e r f o r m a n c e s of s i m i l a r b e h a v i o r s .
T h e c o n c e p t of a n S-^ i m p l i e s t h a t t h e p e r s o n ' s r e l e v a n t h i s
t o r y a n d a n t e c e d e n t e n v i r o n m e n t a l s t i m u l i c a n n o t be a r t i f i c i a l l y
s e p a r a t e d s in c e th e stim u li h a v e a c q u i r e d t h e i r a b ility to s e t the
o c c a s i o n f o r b e h a v i o r th ro u g h p r i o r a s s o c i a t i o n with c o n tin g e n t
response consequences. Thus we can com bine the " E ^ " and "H"
c o m p o n e n t s of o u r s c h e m a t i c i n t o t h e s i n g l e c o n c e p t , S^*. Thus, we
have:
S-D > B E > Subsequent B
OR
V r
SD > B ---- > E
47
T h e final s c h e m a tic above should be r e c o g n iz e d as the in s t r u m e n t a l
p a r a d i g m of l e a r n i n g . Thus, it a p p e a rs that when B a n d u r a 's
" p e r s o n a l i n f l u e n c e s " a r e a p p r o p r i a t e l y c o n c e p t u a l i z e d (i. e. , a s
h i s t o r y of r e i n f o r c e m e n t ) b e h a v i o r i s a f u n c t i o n of i t s c o n s e q u e n c e s
[ B = f(E) ].
Sum m ary
In the p re c e d in g d is c u s s io n it w as d e m o n s t r a te d th a t B a n d u r a 's
c o n s i s t e n t f a i l u r e to c o n s i d e r r e l e v a n t p r i o r le a r n in g in b e h a v i o r a l
a n a l y s i s h a s l e d h i m to p r o p o s e t h a t c o g n i t i v e m e c h a n i s m s a r e n e c
e s s a r y f o r a n e x p l a n a t i o n of d e t e r m i n a n t s of b e h a v i o r . T h is is
e s p e c i a l l y t r u e fo r o b s e r v a ti o n a l le a r n in g (which B a n d u r a c o n s i d e r s
t h e b a s i s of a l l l e a r n i n g ) . Thus B andura concludes so cial learning
t h e o ry , and the p h e n o m e n a w h ic h it p u r p o r t s to explain, a r e d i s c o n
t i n u o u s w i t h i n s t r u m e n t a l c o n c e p t i o n s of l e a r n i n g . R econceptualiza
t i o n of t h e s e p h e n o m e n a w i t h i n t h e f r a m e w o r k of o p e r a n t c o n d i t i o n i n g
h o w e v e r r e v e a le d th a t they w e r e not in fa c t a n o m a lo u s . It was
f u r th e r arg u e d that o p e ran t th e o ry p ro v id ed a m o r e p a rs im o n io u s
e x p l a n a t i o n of l e a r n i n g t h a n s o c i a l l e a r n i n g t h e o r y b e c a u s e i t d o e s
not r e q u i r e c o n s tr u c ts which, although intu itively p la u s ib le , cannot
b e m e a s u r e d i n d e p e n d e n t of t h e b e h a v i o r s t h e y a r e p u r p o r t e d to
explain.
C H A P T E R IV
An A lternative T heory for O bservational

L e a rn in g : C onditional Responding
I t i s a p p a r e n t f r o m t h e f o r e g o i n g d i s c u s s i o n t h a t a c c e p t a n c e of
o b s e r v a t i o n a l l e a r n i n g a s a p r e p o t e n t c a p a c i t y of t h e h u m a n o r g a n
i s m is p r e m a t u r e . A r g u m e n t s f o r t h e p r i m a r y of s u c h a p r o c e s s
a r e d e r i v e d p r i m a r i l y f r o m t h e w r i t i n g s a n d e m p i r i c a l r e s e a r c h of
B an d u ra and h is colleagues (e.g. , H ilg a rd and B ow er, 1966) a n d a s
such should not be a c c e p te d w ithout re s e r v a tio n . T h ro u g h o u t the
p re c e d in g a n a ly s is it w as a rg u e d th a t the p r o c e s s la b e le d o b s e r v a
t i o n a l l e a r n i n g a n d t h e c o r r e l a t e d p r o c e s s of v i c a r i o u s - r e i n f o r c e
m e n t c o u l d b e p a r s i m o n i o u s l y o r d e r e d b y t h e p r e c e p t s of i n s t r u
m e n ta l o r o p e ra n t conditioning.
The p o ssib ility that o b s e rv a tio n a l le arn in g (or g e n e r a liz e d
i m i t a t i o n ) p h e n o m e n a m a y r e p r e s e n t t h e o u t c o m e of a r o u t i n e i n s t r u
m e n t a l conditioning p r o c e s s in w hich d i s c r i m i n a t i v e s tim u lu s c o n
tro l over m atching re sp o n se s h as been acq u ired has been suggested
by s e v e ra l o p eran t th e o ris ts (B a e r & S h erm an , 1964; G e w i r t z ,
19 69 b, 1 9 7 1a , 1971 b; G e w i r t z & S t i n g l e , 1968; M i l l e r & D o l l a r d ,
1941; R o s e n b a u m & A r e n s o n , 1968; S k i n n e r , 1953).
T he m o s t c o m p r e h e n s i v e a t t e m p t s to d e t a il o b s e r v a t i o n a l
le a r n in g and v i c a r i o u s r e i n f o r c e m e n t p h e n o m e n a w ithin the
48
49
i n s t r u m e n t a l c o n d itio n in g f r a m e w o r k h a v e b e e n th e e f f o r t s by
G e w i r t z (1969b, 1971a, 1971b ; G e w i r t z & S t i n g l e , 1968). A ccording
to t h i s p a r a d i g m , o b s e r v e r - l e a r n e r s m a y have a c q u ire d a functional
r e s p o n s e c l a s s c o m p o s e d of t o p o g r a p h i c a l l y d i v e r s e r e s p o n s e s
w h i c h a r e m a t c h e d to t h e d e m o n s t r a t e d r e s p o n s e s of a m o d e l o r
m odels. The controlling a n tece d en t stim u li for this functional
r e s p o n s e c l a s s a r e t h e a c t i o n s of t h e d e m o n s t r a t o r m o d e l a n d o t h e r
e n v iro n m e n ta l stim u li p r e s e n t in th e m odeling context. T h ese other
e n v iro n m e n ta l s tim u li m a y in c lu d e su ch things as the stim u li w hich
c o n t r o l t h e m o d e l ' s r e s p o n d i n g a n d t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s d e l i v e r e d to
t h e m o d e l (i. e. , v i c a r i o u s r e i n f o r c e m e n t ) . Such situ a tio n a l stim u li
m a y i n t e r a c t w i t h t h e c o n t r o l l i n g s t i m u l i of t h e m o d e l ' s r e s p o n s e s to
c o n tro l the o b s e r v e r - l e a r n e r ' s r e s p o n s e s . T h u s , on an y g iv e n t r i a l ,
i t i s t h e c o n d i t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e p e r f o r m a n c e s of t h e
m o d e l, th e situ a tio n a l s tim u li, and the m a tc h e d b e h a v io r s f r o m the
o b s e r v e r ' s r e p e r t o i r e w h i c h d e f i n e t h e r e s p o n s e s l i k e l y to b e r e i n
forced. Finally, e v e r y i n s t a n c e of i m i t a t i o n n e e d n o t b e d i r e c t l y
reinforced. S o lo n g a s o t h e r r e s p o n s e s i n t h e f u n c t i o n a l r e s p o n s e
class a re in te rm itte n tly re in fo rc ed im itative m atching p e rfo rm a n c e s
will be m a in tain ed .
This p a r a d i g m is s i m i l a r to th e p r o c e s s e s t e r m e d " le a r n i n g -
t o - l e a r n " b y H a r l o w (1 959 ) a n d " r u l e " o r " s t r a t e g y l e a r n i n g " b y
G agne (1968, 1970). T h e follow ing d is c u s s io n w ill e x a m in e in
g r e a t e r d e tail how th is in s tr u m e n ta l conditioning conception can
p a r s i m o n i o u s l y o r d e r t h e p h e n o m e n o n of o b s e r v a t i o n a l l e a r n i n g a n d
v icario u s reinfo rcem en t.
A Functional R esponse C lass

of " M a t c h e d " B e h a v i o r s
A s w as m e n tio n ed e a r l ie r , w hen a functional re s p o n s e c la ss
i s a c q u i r e d i t i s t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n m e m b e r s of t h e r e s p o n s e
c la s s and the e x t r i n s ic controlling stim u li w hich is im p o rta n t. In
t h e c a s e of a r a t ' s b a r p r e s s t h e m e m b e r s of t h e f u n c t i o n a l r e s p o n s e
class a re topographically sim ilar. B u t , t h e m e m b e r s of a f u n c t i o n a l
re s p o n se c la ss need not be. I n t h e c a s e of i m i t a t i v e b e h a v i o r s t h e
f u n c t i o n a l r e s p o n s e c l a s s c o u l d b e c o m p o s e d of t o p o g r a p h i c a l l y
d i v e r s e r e s p o n s e s a l l of w h i c h a r e m a t c h e d t o t h e d e m o n s t r a t i o n s of
m odels. The im p o r t a n t point is th a t th e s e m a tc h in g re s p o n s e s a r e
a ll f u n c ti o n a lly r e l a t e d to t h e s a m e c o n t ro l li n g e n v i r o n m e n t a l
stim uli. T h u s t h e i r p r o b a b i l i t i e s of o c c u r r e n c e v a r y c o n c u r r e n t l y .
T hat this functional r e s p o n s e c la ss can be a c q u ire d and m a in tain ed
t h r o u g h d i r e c t e x t r i n s i c r e i n f o r c e m e n t is d e m o n s t r a t e d in s tu d ie s
b y B a e r , P e t e r s o n a n d S h e r m a n ( 1 9 6 7 ) ; B a e r a n d S h e r m a n ( 19 64 ) ;
L o v a a s , F r e i t a g , N e l s o n a n d W h a l e n ( 19 67 ) ; M e t z (1 96 5) ; P a r t o n
( 1 97 0) ; P e t e r s o n ( 1 9 6 8 ) ; W a x i e r a n d Y a r r o w ( 19 70 ) ; a n d W i l l i a m s
( 1 9 7 1 ).
51
C onditional Responding; S tim u lu s C o n tro l
of a F u n c t i o n a l R e s p o n s e C l a s s
G e w i r t z (197 1) p r o p o s e s t h a t t h e a n t e c e d e n t s t i m u l i w h i c h
h a v e a c q u i r e d c o n t r o l of t h e i m i t a t i v e f u n c t i o n a l r e s p o n s e c l a s s c a n
b e e q u a t e d w i t h t h e c o n d i t i o n a l r e s p o n d i n g p a r a d i g m of L a s h l e y
(1938) o r t h e m a t c h i n g - t o - s a m p l e p a r a d i g m of C u m m i n g a n d
B e r r y m a n (1 9 65 ). In s t r a i g h t - f o r w a r d d i s c r i m i n a t i o n l e a r n i n g a
sin g le s t im u lu s s e t s the o c c a s i o n f o r r e i n f o r c e m e n t an d its a b s e n c e
occasions nonreinforcem ent. H ow ever, in conditional responding
(o r m a t c h i n g - t o - s a m p l e ) it is th e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n two o r m o r e
s tim u lu s conditions w hich o c c a sio n s r e in f o r c e m e n t . As G ew irtz
(1971) e x p l a i n s :
The d is c rim in a tiv e stim u lu s thus v a r ie s a c r o s s d i s c r i m

in a tio n t r i a l s , ch an g in g r e l a t i v e to th e ( c o n c u r r e n t or
prece d in g ) conditional stim u lu s. And the conditional
s t i m u l u s c o m e s to fu n c tio n not a s a s i m p l e cue f o r i n d i
vidual re s p o n s e s , but r a th e r as a differe n tial s e t or
se le c to r for d is c rim in a tiv e re s p o n s e s : a subject le a rn s
to m a k e a p a r t i c u l a r m a t c h i n g r e s p o n s e i n on e d e m o n
s t r a t i o n c o n t e x t a n d a n o t h e r i n a s e c o n d c o n t e x t , a n d so
on. (p. 282)
T h u s t h e r e s p o n s e s of a m o d e l s e r v e a s a c o m p a r i s o n s t i m u l u s
a g a i n s t w hich the o b s e r v e r - l e a r n e r s e l e c t s r e s p o n s e s f r o m the
im itativ e functional re s p o n s e c lass. The rela tio n sh ip betw een these
s t i m u l u s a t t r i b u t e s (i. e. , s i m i l a r i t y ) c o n s t i t u t e s t h e c o n d i t i o n a l
d is c r im in a tio n w hich se ts the o c c a sio n f o r r e in fo rc e m e n t.
S i t u a t i o n a l s t i m u l i c a n a l s o b e c o n s i d e r e d a s p a r t of t h i s
conditional d is c rim in a tio n . Thus, a s is the c a s e w ith v i c a r i o u s
r e in f o r c e m e n t , the c o n s e q u e n c e s d e liv e r e d to the m o d e l can also
c o m e to c o n t r o l m a t c h i n g r e s p o n s e s b y t h e o b s e r v e r - l e a r n e r . The
p r o b a b i l i t y of i m i t a t i v e r e s p o n s e s t h u s m a y i n c r e a s e w h e n t h e m o d e l
is re in fo rc e d and d e c r e a s e w hen the m o d e l is punished. Follow ing
th is p a r a d i g m , the c o n d itio n a l s t i m u l i ( i . e . , th e m o d e l ' s r e s p o n s e s
a n d / o r th e c o n s e q u e n c e s d e l i v e r e d to the m o d e l) n e e d n o t be p r e s e n t
w hen the o b s e r v e r - l e a r n e r p e r f o r m s the m a tch in g b e h a v io rs .
T h e R o l e of E x t r i n s i c C o n s e q u e n c e s i n t h e
D e v e l o p m e n t a n d M a i n t e n a n c e of t h e
F unctional R esponse C lass
T h e p r o c e s s of c o n d i t i o n a l r e s p o n d i n g p r o p o s e d a b o v e i s
d e v e l o p e d a n d m a i n t a i n e d t h r o u g h t h e u s e of e x t r i n s i c c o n s e q u e n c e s
for m atching re sp o n se s. G ew irtz p ro p o ses that under n a tu ra lis tic
c o n d i t i o n s t h e f i r s t o c c u r r e n c e s of i m i t a t i o n " w i l l o c c u r t h r o u g h
p h y s i c a l a s s i s t a n c e o r i n s t r u m e n t a l t r a i n i n g " (p. 282). Once e s ta b
l i s h e d , t h e s e m a t c h i n g r e s p o n s e s a r e lik e ly to be f u r t h e r s t r e n g t h
e n e d b y t h e c o n t i n g e n t d e l i v e r y of e x t r i n s i c c o n s e q u e n c e s d e l i v e r e d
by environm ental agents. On t h i s b a s i s c h i l d r e n c a n r a p i d l y a c q u i r e
a f u n c t i o n a l r e s p o n s e c l a s s of i m i t a t i v e r e s p o n s e s . T h e r e f o re , new
r e s p o n s e s w ill be r o u t i n e l y a d d ed to the fu n c tio n a l r e s p o n s e c l a s s so
long a s m e m b e r s of the c l a s s a r e a t l e a s t i n t e r m i t t e n t l y r e in f o r c e d .
In fact, it is highly p ro b a b le that in n a t u r a l s e ttin g s , reinforcem ent
fo r im ita tiv e b e h a v io rs w ill be in te rm itte n t.
A gain w hat m u s t be e m p h a s iz e d is th a t the p r o c e s s d e s c r ib e d
i s t h e o u t c o m e of p r i o r l e a r n i n g , n o t a p r e p o t e n t c a p a c i t y to l e a r n
by observation. W hen c o n s i d e r e d in th i s h i s t o r i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e ,
w h i c h e m p h a s i z e s a p e r s o n ' s p r e v i o u s h i s t o r y of r e i n f o r c e m e n t ,
o b s e r v a t i o n a l l e a r n i n g p h e n o m e n a do n o t a p p e a r to b e d i s c o n t i n u o u s
w i t h i n s t r u m e n t a l c o n c e p t i o n s of l e a r n i n g . Indeed, it would s e e m
t h a t t h e p r e c e p t s of o p e r a n t c o n d i t i o n i n g a r e a b l e t o m o r e p a r s i m o
n io u sly o r d e r the p h e n o m e n a than cognitive a p p ro a c h e s which a r e
b a s e d on p r o c e s s e s w h i c h c a n n o t b e e m p i r i c a l l y t e s t e d f o r v a l i d i t y .
CHAPTER V
R esearc h S trategies
If, a s s u g g e s t e d i n t h e p r e v i o u s s e c t i o n s , t h e p r i o r l e a r n i n g
h i s t o r y of s u b j e c t s i s a n i m p o r t a n t c o n s i d e r a t i o n i n e m p i r i c a l s t u d i e s
of o b s e r v a t i o n a l l e a r n i n g a n d v i c a r i o u s r e i n f o r c e m e n t , t h e t a s k of
r e s e a r c h e r s studying th e s e p h e n o m e n a is c o m p lic a te d . F a i l u r e to
im p le m e n t e x p erim en tal co n tro ls fo r this rele v an t learn in g m a y
l e a d r e s e a r c h e r s to p r o p o s e a p r e p o t e n t p r o c e s s , such as o b s e rv a
tio n a l l e a r n i n g , to e x p la in e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s u l t s w h ic h in r e a l i t y m a y
o n l y r e f l e c t a p r o c e s s a c q u i r e d on t h e b a s i s of t h i s p r i o r l e a r n i n g .
H o w e v e r , a s G e w i r t z ( 1 97 1b ) p o i n t s o u t, t h e n e c e s s a r y c o n t r o l s a r e
d i f f i c u l t to i m p l e m e n t b e c a u s e " n o r m a l c h i l d r e n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y
d i s p l a y i m i t a t i v e b e h a v i o r s a t e a r l y a g e s " (p. 2 9 3 ) . T h e r e f o r e the
p o s sib ility th a t o b s e rv a tio n a l le a rn in g m a y r e f le c t an a c q u ir e d d i s
crim in a tio n can pro b ab ly n e v e r be definitively ru le d out or d e m o n
strated. H o w ev er, this does not m e a n th a t e m p ir ic a l stu d ie s cannot
be d e v ise d , im p le m e n tin g e x p e r i m e n t a l c o n tro ls , w h ich in g e n e r a l
c a n b e c o n s i d e r e d s u p p o r t i v e of t h i s a l t e r n a t i v e p o s s i b i l i t y .
T h e v a s t m a j o r i t y of s t u d i e s w h i c h s e e m i n g l y a r e s u p p o r t i v e
of s o c i a l l e a r n i n g t h e o r y c o n c e p t i o n s of o b s e r v a t i o n a l l e a r n i n g
(Bandura, R oss & R oss, 1961, 1 96 3a ) a n d v i c a r i o u s r e i n f o r c e m e n t
54
55
(Bandura, 1962, 1965; B a n d u r a , R o s s & R o s s , 1963b; D u b a n o s k i ,
1967; F e r n a n d e z & L i e b e r t , 1970; F l a n d e r s & T h i s t l e w a i t e , 1970;
G eshuri, 1972; H a m i l t o n , 1970; K e l l y , 1966; L i e b e r t & F e r n a n d e z ,
19 69 , 1 9 7 0 a , 19 7 0 b ; M a r l a t t , 1970; W a l t e r s , B e a t & M e z e i , 1963;
W alters & P ark e, 1964; W a l t e r s , P a r k e & C a n e , 1965) d i s p l a y e d a
c o n s i s t e n t f a i l u r e t o i m p l e m e n t a n y t y p e of c o n t r o l s f o r r e l e v a n t
p rio r learning. In t h e s e stu d ie s th e s u b je c t s w e r e b r o u g h t in to the
e x p e r i m e n t a l s e t t i n g a n d e x p o s e d ( e i t h e r v i s u a l l y o r a u d i t o r i l y ) to
a m o d e l d e m o n s t r a t i n g t h e c r i t i c a l r e s p o n s e s of t h e s t u d y . Once
t h e y h a d o b s e r v e d t h e e n t i r e s e q u e n c e of m o d e l e d b e h a v i o r s ( i n c l u d
i n g t h e a c c o m p a n y i n g c o n s e q u e n c e s of t h e m o d e l i n t h e v i c a r i o u s
r e i n f o r c e m e n t s tu d ie s ) th e s u b je c ts w e r e p la c e d in a s itu a tio n s i m
i l a r to th a t in w h ic h th e y h a d o b s e r v e d the m o d e l re s p o n d in g . F re
q u e n c y o f c r i t i c a l r e s p o n s e s (i. e. , t h o s e d e m o n s t r a t e d by t h e m o d e l )
w a s m e a s u r e d a n d c o m p a r e d to c o n t r o l g r o u p s .
F o r t h e s t u d i e s on o b s e r v a t i o n a l l e a r n i n g ( B a n d u r a , R o s s &
Ross, 1 961 , 1963a), w h ic h did n o t in v o lv e e x p o s u r e to v i c a r i o u s
c o n s e q u e n c e s, the subjects' c r it ic a l r e s p o n s e freq u e n c y w as c o m
p a r e d t o t h a t of c o n t r o l s w h o w e r e p l a c e d i n t h e t e s t i n g s i t u a t i o n b u t
r e c e i v e d no e x p o s u r e t o t h e m o d e l . F o r t h e s t u d i e s on v i c a r i o u s
reinforcem ent, c o m p a r i s o n s w e r e m a d e b e tw e e n s u b je c ts who saw
the m o d e l re w a rd e d , s u b je c ts who did not o b s e r v e c o n s e q u e n c e s fo r
the m o d e l, a n d / o r s u b je c ts who s a w the m o d e l pu n ish ed . A l l of
56
t h e s e s tu d ie s d e m o n s t r a t e d f a c ilita tiv e effects f o r e x p o s u r e to a
m odel. The stu d ies dealing w ith v ic a rio u s c o n se q u e n c e s a lso con
s is te n t ly d e m o n s t r a t e th e d iff e r e n tia l c o n t r o l which they e x e r t o v er
responding. H o w e v e r , n o n e of t h e s e e x p e r i m e n t s a l l o w f o r a d e t e r
m i n a t i o n of w h e t h e r t h e o b s e r v e d e f f e c t s r e p r e s e n t a p r e p o t e n t
l e a r n i n g p r o c e s s o r a r e m e r e l y t h e r e s u l t a n t o u t c o m e of p r i o r
learning.
G e w i r t z (1 971 b) p r o p o s e s s e v e r a l r e s e a r c h s t r a t e g i e s w h i c h ,
if i m p l e m e n t e d in e m p i r i c a l s t u d i e s , c o u ld p r o v i d e the n e c e s s a r y
controls for p rio r learning. T h e f i r s t of t h e s e w o u l d b e to u s e s u b
h u m a n s p e c ie s w hose p r e - e x p e r i m e n t a l h is to r y could b e re a d ily c o n
trolled. S ev eral studies (C h esler, 1969; C h u r c h , 1957; C r a w f o r d
& S p e n c e , 1939; D a r b y & R i o p e l l e , 1959; G r o e s b e c k & D u e r f e l d t ,
1971; H a g g e r t y , 1909; H a y e s & H a y e s , 1952; H e r b e r t & H a r s h ,
1944; J o h n , C h e s l e r , B a r t l e t t & V i c t o r , 1968) h a v e d e m o n s t r a t e d
o b s e r v a t i o n a l le a r n i n g p h e n o m e n a in s u b h u m a n s p e c i e s . H owever,
e v e n t h e s e s t u d i e s h a v e r o u t i n e l y f a i l e d to i m p l e m e n t c o n t r o l s f o r
r e l e v a n t p r e - e x p e r i m e n t a l h i s t o r y ( cf. H a l l , 1963).
A s e c o n d m e t h o d of c o n t r o l l i n g f o r r e l e v a n t p r i o r l e a r n i n g
s u g g e s t e d b y G e w i r t z i s t o e m p l o y h u m a n s u b j e c t s w h i c h h a v e no t
exhibited im itatio n . S t u d i e s of t h i s t y p e t y p i c a l l y u s e r e t a r d e d
children as ex p erim en tal subjects. S e v e r a l stu d ie s using such
children (B ry & N awas, 1972; H i n g t g e n , C o u l t e r & C h u r c h i l l , 1967;
57
Lovaas, B erb erich , P erloff & Schaffer, 1966; L o v a a s , F r e i t a g ,
N e ls o n & W halen, 1967; M e t z , 1965; W i l l i a m s , 1971) h a v e d e m o n
s t r a t e d th at g e n e r a l i z e d i m ita tiv e r e p e r t o i r e s can be d ev elo p ed using
differential rein fo rcem en t.
T h e s t u d y b y B r y a n d N a w a s (1972) i s of p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t
b e c a u s e it w a s s p e c if i c a l ly d e s ig n e d a s a t e s t b e tw e e n the S-S co n
c e p t i o n of B a n d u r a a n d t h e S - R c o n c e p t i o n of G e w i r t z . In this
e x p e r i m e n t tw o s e v e r l y r e t a r d e d a n d t w o p r o f o u n d l y r e t a r d e d c h i l
d r e n w h i c h d i d n o t d i s p l a y a n y m a t c h i n g b e h a v i o r s ( d e t e r m i n e d on
t h e b a s i s of o b s e r v a t i o n a n d t e s t i n g ) s e r v e d a s s u b j e c t s . T h e two
s e v e rly re ta r d e d subjects w e re p a ire d in a y o k e-co n tro l p ro c e d u re
a s w e r e t h e tw o p r o f o u n d l y r e t a r d e d S ' s i n a r e p l i c a t i o n .
T h e e x p e r i m e n t c o n s i s t e d of f o u r p h a s e s (A, B, C, D). In
p h a s e " A " o n e of t h e s u b j e c t s w a s e x p o s e d to a m o d e l w h i c h d e m o n
s t r a t e d s i m p l e m o t o r t a s k s to b e i m i t a t e d . O n e of t h e e x p e r i m e n t e r s
p r o m p t e d a n d p h y s i c a l l y g u i d e d t h e s u b j e c t i n t h e r e p r o d u c t i o n of
r e s p o n s e s m a t c h e d to t h o s e of t h e m o d e l . If t h e s u b j e c t i m i t a t e d
the m o d e l e d r e s p o n s e h e w as r e i n f o r c e d . T his p r o c e d u r e (including
p h y s ic a l g u id a n ce and p r o m p tin g ) w as d u p lic a te d f o r the c o n tro l s u b
je c t except the co n tro l w as n e v e r re in fo rc e d for im ita tiv e r e s p o n s e s ,
if an y w e r e p e r f o r m e d .
I n t h e e a r l y p a r t of p h a s e " B " b o t h s u b j e c t s w e r e r e i n f o r c e d
for im itation. I m m e d i a t e l y f o l l o w i n g t h e e a r l y p a r t of p h a s e " B , "
58
b o t h s u b j e c t s w e r e t e s t e d f o r i m i t a t i o n of t h e s e q u e n c e of m o d e l e d
r e s p o n s e s th e y o b s e r v e d in p h a s e "A " w ith o u t p r o m p t in g . Each
c o r r e c t im itation was rein fo rc ed . T h is w a s done to t e s t w h e t h e r o r
n o t t h e c o n t r o l s u b j e c t h a d a c q u i r e d a n y of t h e p h a s e " A " r e s p o n s e s
by m e r e e x p o s u r e to th e m o d e l.
A fter this a p r o c e d u r a l r e v e r s a l w as im p le m e n te d for the
e x p e rim e n ta l subject. U n d e r this p r o c e d u r e im ita tiv e r e s p o n s e s
w e re never rein fo rc ed and non-im itativ e resp o n ses w ere. N ex t the
e x p e r im e n ta l p r o c e d u r e w a s r e v e r s e d again and r e in f o r c e m e n t w a s
re in sta te d for im itation. T h is w a s done to d e m o n s t r a t e th a t i m i t a
t i o n w a s u n d e r c o n t r o l of t h e r e i n f o r c e m e n t o p e r a t i o n s . N ext in the
l a t e s t a g e of p h a s e " B " b o t h s u b j e c t s w e r e r e i n f o r c e d f o r i m i t a t i o n
until they re a c h e d c r ite r io n . P h a s e "C " involved the i m p l e m e n t a
t i o n of a p r o c e d u r a l r e v e r s a l f o r b o t h s u b j e c t s l i k e t h e e a r l i e r o n e
fo r the e x p e r im e n ta l s u b ject. F i n a l l y , in p h a s e " D " r e i n f o r c e m e n t
fo r im ita tio n w as r e i n s t a t e d fo r both su b je c ts.
T h e r e s u l t s of t h i s s t u d y s t r o n g l y s u p p o r t a n S - R i n t e r p r e t a
t i o n of l e a r n i n g i n t h a t t h e y d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t r e i n f o r c e m e n t w a s
n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e l e a r n i n g of i m i t a t i o n . In p h a s e "A" the e x p e r i
m e n t a l s u b j e c t b e g a n t o m a t c h t h e b e h a v i o r s of t h e m o d e l w h i l e t h e
c o n tro l subject, although p r o m p te d and p h y sic a lly a s s is te d , m a d e
no p r o g r e s s a t a l l . In p h a s e " B " w hen the c o n tro l s u b je c t w a s a l s o
r e in f o r c e d , h e too b e g a n to i m i t a t e . In the te s t situ atio n the co n tro l
59
s u b je c t w as no m o r e p r o f i c i e n t a t im ita tin g r e s p o n s e s w h ich h e had
p r e v io u s ly o b s e r v e d (p h ase "A" ite m s ) than a t im ita tin g new
r e s p o n s e s ( p h a s e MB " i t e m s ) . F r o m this it a p p e a rs th a t m e r e
" c o n tig u o u s s e n s o r y s t i m u l a t io n " w a s in s u f f ic i e n t to f a c i l i t a t e
im itation. The p r o c e d u r a l r e v e r s a l s em p lo y ed fo r the e x p e r im e n ta l
s u b je c t and fo r both s u b je c ts (p h ases "C " and "D") d e m o n s t r a t e d
that im itativ e re s p o n s e s fo r all subjects w e re under re in fo rc e m e n t
control.
This study cannot be c o n s id e r e d definitive b e c a u s e it is
i m p o s s i b l e to d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t t h e s u b j e c t s d i d n o t p r e v i o u s l y h a v e
an im itative r e p e r to ir e . N e v e r t h e l e s s , a n a t t e m p t w a s m a d e to
a s s e s s t h i s i m p o r t a n t v a r i a b l e a n d t h e r e s u l t s a r e s u p p o r t i v e of a n
o p e r a n t conditioning in t e r p r e ta tio n .
A n e x p e r i m e n t b y W i l l i a m s ( 19 71 ) , a l s o u s i n g r e t a r d e d c h i l
d r e n , e x t e n d s t h i s a n a l y s i s to i n c l u d e v i c a r i o u s r e i n f o r c e m e n t
phenomena. In th is s tu d y c h i ld r e n who did n o t d is p la y im ita tio n
w e r e d i f f e r e n t i a l l y r e i n f o r c e d f o r i m i t a t i o n i n t h e p r e s e n c e of a
m o d e l who w as co n seq u ated for b e h a v io rs. A f t e r t r a i n in g , the
c o n s e q u e n c e s of t h e m o d e l e x e r t e d d i s c r i m i n a t i v e c o n t r o l o v e r i m i
tation. Thus it a p p e a r s th a t stu d ie s using r e t a r d e d c h ild re n , w h o 's
h i s t o r y of r e i n f o r c e m e n t c a n b e m o r e r e a d i l y a s s e s s e d , l e n d s u p
p o r t to t h e i n s t r u m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n i n g p a r a d i g m a d v a n c e d b y G e w i r t z
a s a p a r s i m o n i o u s e x p l a n a t i o n of o b s e r v a t i o n a l l e a r n i n g a n d
60
vicarious rein fo rcem en t phenom ena.
T h e t w o s t r a t e g i e s f o r a s s e s s m e n t of p r i o r l e a r n i n g d e s c r i b e d
a b o v e r e q u i r e a n i n f e r e n t i a l j u m p i n o r d e r to g e n e r a l i z e t h e e m p i r
i c a l fin d in g s to th e p o p u la tio n of " n o r m a l " c h i ld r e n . M any p sy ch o l
o g i s t s a n d s o c i a l p s y c h o l o g i s t s , t h e r e f o r e , w o u l d f i n d t h e v a l i d i t y of
such r e s e a r c h stra te g ie s questionable. T h erefo re, G ew irtz p r o
p o s e s a t h i r d m e t h o d of c o n t r o l l i n g f o r p r e - e x p e r i m e n t a l l e a r n i n g
w h e n " n o r m a l " s u b je c t s a r e e m p lo y e d fo r e x p e r i m e n t s on o b s e r v a
tional le arn in g and v ic a rio u s re in fo rc e m e n t. This s tra te g y is
e s s e n t i a l l y a p r o c e d u r a l r e v e r s a l of t h e r e i n f o r c e m e n t c o n t i n g e n
c i e s p r e s u m e d (o r d e m o n s t r a t e d ) to be in e ffe c t in th e s o c i a l c o m m u
nity.
If w e b e g i n w i t h t h e n o t i m p l a u s i b l e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t a m o d e l ' s
p e r f o r m a n c e s h av e a c q u ire d d is c rim in a tiv e p r o p e r tie s through a
f r e q u e n t a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h c o n t i n g e n t r e i n f o r c e m e n t (i. e. , p r e v i o u s
h i s t o r y of r e i n f o r c e m e n t ) , t h e n , i f w e r e v e r s e t h e c o n t i n g e n c i e s ,
th e su b je c ts m a tc h in g p e r f o r m a n c e s should in tim e , change in line
w ith the e n v iro n m e n ta l r e a litie s . An ex am p le using v ic a r io u s
rein fo rc em en t m a y be in stru ctiv e. A ss u m e that re in fo rc e r s
d e l i v e r e d to a m o d e l h a v e f r e q u e n t l y s e t t h e o c c a s i o n f o r t h e r e i n
f o r c e m e n t of m a t c h i n g p e r f o r m a n c e s b y a n o b s e r v e r - l e a r n e r . When
the o b s e r v e r w i t n e s s e s a m o d e l r e in f o r c e d and then is given the
o p p o r tu n ity to i m i t a t e , w e w o u ld p r e d i c t th a t h e w ould i m i t a t e (as
m a n y s t u d i e s on v i c a r i o u s r e i n f o r c e m e n t h a v e d e m o n s t r a t e d ) .
H ow ever, if w e now a r b i t r a r i l y change the co nting encies and
e ith e r punish m atch in g r e s p o n s e s , e x t i n g u i s h t h e m (i. e. , n o l o n g e r
r e in f o r c e them ) o r d iffe re n tia lly r e in f o r c e o th e r, n o n -m atc h in g
r e s p o n s e s , we w ould p r e d ic t th a t the o b s e r v e r w ould eventually
c e a se im itation. In o th e r w o r d s , th e c o n s e q u e n c e s d e l iv e r e d to the
m o d e l would lo s e th e i r d i s c r i m i n a t i v e p r o p e r t i e s . T h e e f f e c t s of
su ch a p r o c e d u r e w ould not be i m m e d i a t e and t h e r e f o r e would
r e q u i r e r e p e a te d e x p o s u re to the m o d e l.
M a n y s t u d i e s on v i c a r i o u s r e i n f o r c e m e n t h a v e s o u g h t to i n v e s
t i g a t e t h e r e l a t i v e e f f e c t i v e n e s s of v i c a r i o u s r e i n f o r c e m e n t i n c o m
p a r i s o n w ith d i r e c t r e in f o r c e m e n t . S o m e of t h e s e s t u d i e s , i n d i
r e c t l y , p r o v i d e t h e o p p o r t u n i t y to a s s e s s t h e r e l e v a n t p r i o r l e a r n i n g
of t h e s u b j e c t s u s i n g t h e s t r a t e g y o u t l i n e d a b o v e .
S e v e n of t h e s t u d i e s ( B r a u n , 1972; F i n c h , 1971; H a m i l t o n ,
1970; K e l l y , 1966; M c B r e a t y , M a r s t o n & K a n f e r , 1961; P h i l l i p s ,
1 9 68 a; R o s e n b a u m & B r u n i n g , 1 9 6 6 ) w h i c h a t t e m p t to c o m p a r e t h e
r e l a t i v e e f f e c t i v e n e s s of v i c a r i o u s r e i n f o r c e m e n t a n d d i r e c t r e i n
f o r c e m e n t do n o t a l l o w s u c h a c o m p a r i s o n . I n t h e s e s t u d i e s on e
g r o u p of s u b j e c t s r e c e i v e s v i c a r i o u s r e i n f o r c e m e n t a n d a n o t h e r
g r o u p r e c e i v e s d i r e c t r e i n f o r c e m e n t and th e two g r o u p s a r e c o m
pared. T h is p r o c e d u r e d o e s not in v o lv e a r e v e r s a l of c o n tin g e n c ie s
a n d t h u s c a n n o t b e u s e d t o a s s e s s t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n of p r i o r l e a r n i n g
62
to v i c a r i o u s r e i n f o r c e m e n t e f f e c t s .
I n a s e c o n d g r o u p of s t u d i e s ( C l a r k , 1965; C o n d r e l l , 1967;
K anfer & M arston, 1963; L i e b e r t & F e r n a n d e z , 197 0a; M a r s t o n ,
1966; M a r s t o n & K a n f e r , 1963; P h i l l i p s , 1968b) c o m p a r i n g t h e
e f f e c t s of v i c a r i o u s a n d d i r e c t r e i n f o r c e m e n t , s o m e of t h e s u b j e c t s
r e c e iv e both v ic a r io u s and d i r e c t re in fo rc e m e n t. Such a desig n
w o u l d a l l o w f o r a r e v e r s a l of c o n t i n g e n c i e s to b e e m p l o y e d , b u t i n
n o n e of t h e s e s t u d i e s i s s u c h a m a n i p u l a t i o n m a d e . T h e r e i s no
d is c r e p a n c y betw een the c o n s e q u e n c e s o b s e r v e d fo r the m o d e l and
the c o n se q u e n c e s ac tu a lly e x p e rie n c e d by the o b s e r v e r - l e a r n e r s .
T h e s e s t u d i e s t y p i c a l l y d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t t h e a d d i t i o n of d i r e c t r e i n
f o rc e m e n t does not significantly in c re a s e .im ita tio n beyond levels
p r o d u c e d by v ic a r io u s r e in f o r c e m e n t alone. If v i c a r i o u s r e i n f o r c e
m e n t is con ce p tu alized as stim u lu s which h a s a c q u ire d d i s c r i m i n a
t i v e p r o p e r t i e s , it i s not s u r p r i s i n g to find th a t i t w ill evoke i m i t a
t i v e r e s p o n d i n g , a t l e a s t f o r a w h i l e , i n t h e a b s e n c e of d i r e c t r e i n
forcem ent.
S e v e r a l e x p e r i m e n t s w hich e m p lo y both v i c a r io u s and d i r e c t
r e i n f o r c e m e n t s a r e n o t s u b j e c t to t h e l i m i t a t i o n s of t h e s t u d i e s
d e s c r ib e d above. T h e s e stu d ie s include at l e a s t one e x p e rim e n ta l
g r o u p in w hich t h e r e is a d i s c r e p a n c y b e tw e e n th e c o n s e q u e n c e s
o b s e r v e d fo r the m o d e l and the c o n se q u e n c e s re c e iv e d by the e x p e r i
m e n ta l subjects. I n a s t u d y b y M a u s n e r & B l o c h (1957) o n e g r o u p
of s u b j e c t s s a w a m o d e l , t h e i r " p a r t n e r " i n a j u d g m e n t a l t a s k ,
infrequently reinforced. C o n v ersely , the subjects w e re d ire c tly
r e i n f o r c e d on 30 of 35 j u d g m e n t a l r e s p o n s e s . In a s u b s e q u e n t t e s t
f o r i m i t a t i o n ( c o n v e r g e n c e of e s t i m a t i o n s b e t w e e n s u b j e c t s a n d
p a r t n e r s ) , it w a s shown th a t s u b je c t s in th is co ndition did n o t i m i
tate th eir unsuccessful p a rtn e rs .
I n a s t u d y b y C h a l m e r s , H o r n e a n d R o s e n b a u m (1963) s u b j e c t s
o b s e r v e d a m o d e l r e i n f o r c e d e i t h e r 80 p e r c e n t of t h e t i m e (H ig h
m o d e l c o m p e t e n c e ) o r 20 p e r c e n t of t h e t i m e ( L o w m o d e l c o m p e
t e n c e ) f o r g u e s s i n g t h e o u t c o m e s of i m a g i n a r y h o r s e r a c e s . All
s u b j e c t s r e c e i v e d r e i n f o r c e m e n t on 80 p e r c e n t of t h e t r i a l s f o r
m a t c h i n g t h e m o d e l ' s r e s p o n s e r e g a r d l e s s of t h e o u t c o m e s f o r t h e
m odel. A lthough t h e r e w a s a g r e a t e r t e n d e n c y to i m i t a t e a c o m p e
t e n t m o d e l , a f t e r r e p e a t e d t r i a l s t h e s u b j e c t s c a m e to m a t c h t h e
r e s p o n s e s of t h e m o d e l r e g a r d l e s s of w h e t h e r t h e m o d e l w a s c o m
p e t e n t (i. e. , r e i n f o r c e d ) o r i n c o m p e t e n t (i. e. , n o n - r e i n f o r c e d ) .
T w o o t h e r s t u d i e s u s i n g t h e s a m e p r o c e d u r e ( R o s e n b a u m e t al.
1962; R o s e n b a u m & T u c k e r , 1962) r e p o r t e d s i m i l a r f i n d i n g s f o r th e
a c q u i s i t i o n of i m i t a t i o n . In ad d itio n , t h e s e two s tu d ie s a l s o
em ployed a r e v e r s a l design. A f t e r a n a c q u i s i t i o n b l o c k of t r i a l s in
w hich the s u b je c ts w e r e r e i n f o r c e d fo r im ita tio n , the co n tin g e n c ie s
w e re r e v e r s e d and subjects w e re re in fo rc e d fo r no n -im itativ e
responses. T h e r e s u l t s i n d i c a t e d t h a t s u b j e c t s n o t o n l y l e a r n e d to
i m i t a t e i n c o m p e t e n t m o d e l s b u t a l s o to n o n - i m i t a t e c o m p e t e n t o n es.
A s t u d y b y S h e r m a n e t a l . (1970) a l s o d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t m i s
m a t c h i n g a s w e l l a s m a t c h i n g of m o d e l e d b e h a v i o r s c a n b e d e v e l
oped using e x t r i n s ic re in f o r c e m e n t.
F i n a l l y , in a s t u d y b y M a r l a t t (1 97 0) s u b j e c t s p a r t i c i p a t e d i n
a n e x p e r i m e n t on v e r b a l b e h a v i o r i n a n i n t e r v i e w s e t t i n g i n w h i c h
s o m e g r o u p s w e r e e x p o s e d to d i s c r e p a n c i e s b e t w e e n d i r e c t a n d
vicarious consequences. T h e s u b j e c t s w e r e r a n d o m l y a s s i g n e d to
o n e of t w e l v e e x p e r i m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n s . S i x of t h e s e g r o u p s e x p e r i
enced a d is c r e p a n c y betw een the c o n seq u en c es w hich they o b s e rv e d
f o r a m o d e l w h o e n g a g e d i n d i s c u s s i o n s of " p e r s o n a l p r o b l e m s " a n d
th e c o n s e q u e n c e s th e y a c t u a ll y r e c e i v e d f o r s i m i l a r r e s p o n s e s in a
subsequent interview . T w o of t h e s e g r o u p s h e a r d t h e m o d e l r e i n
fo rc e d and subsequently w e re th e m s e lv e s punished or n eu tra lly
evaluated. Two g ro u p s h e a r d the m o d e l n e u tra lly ev a lu a te d and
w e re la te r re in fo rc e d or punished th e m s e lv e s . F i n a l l y , t w o of t h e
g ro u p s h e a r d the m odel punished and w e r e th e m s e lv e s e ith e r r e i n
fo rc e d o r n e u tra lly evaluated.
T h e r e s u l t s of t h i s s t u d y s h o w e d a s i g n i f i c a n t m a i n e f f e c t f o r
both v ic a r io u s and d i r e c t c o n s e q u e n c e s; h o w e v e r, the d a ta w e r e
p r e s e n t e d in s u c h a w a y t h a t i t w a s i m p o s s i b l e to d e t e r m i n e if t h e
v i c a r i o u s r e i n f o r c e m e n t e f f e c t w a s m a i n t a i n e d a c r o s s b l o c k s of
t r i a l s f o r t h e s i x g r o u p s in w h i c h t h e r e w a s a d i s c r e p a n c y b e t w e e n
65
v ic a rio u s and d ire c t re in fo rc em en ts or w heth er v ic ario u s r e in
f o r c e m e n t e f f e c t s m a y h a v e c o n t r i b u te d to an i n i t i a l d i f f e r e n c e
b e t w e e n g ro u p s w h ich w a s s u b s e q u e n tly n e g a t e d by the s u b je c t s '
e x p o s u r e to d i r e c t l y e x p e r i e n c e d c o n s e q u e n c e s .
A l l of t h e s t u d i e s c i t e d a b o v e d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t t h e c o n s e
q u e n c e s e x p e r i e n c e d by e x p e r i m e n t a l s u b j e c t s a l t e r th e w ay in which
c o n s e q u e n c e s o b s e r v e d f o r a m o d e l (i. e . , v i c a r i o u s r e i n f o r c e m e n t )
effect im itation. H o w e v e r , n o n e of t h e s e s t u d i e s w a s d e s i g n e d to
d e te r m in e w h e th e r e x trin s ic r e in f o r c e m e n t f o r im ita tio n is n e c e s
s a r y f o r t h e m a i n t e n a n c e of v i c a r i o u s r e i n f o r c e m e n t e f f e c t s a c r o s s
sev eral trials. It h a s b een a rg u ed th ro u g h o u t this p a p e r that s tim
uli w h ic h p r e c e d e a r e s p o n s e h a v e a c q u i r e d th e c a p a c i t y to d i f f e r
e n t i a l l y c o n t r o l r e s p o n d i n g t h r o u g h t h e p r o c e s s of s t i m u l u s c o n t r o l .
C o n s e q u e n c e s d e l i v e r e d to a m o d e l, it w a s a r g u e d , r e p r e s e n t nothing
m o r e than d is c r im in a tiv e stim uli. Thus vicario u s consequences
w o u ld n o t b e e x p e c t e d to d i f f e r e n t i a l l y c o n t r o l i m i t a t i v e r e s p o n s e s
f o r long if t h e r e w e r e a d i s c r e p a n c y b e t w e e n the c o n s e q u e n c e s
o b s e r v e d f o r a m o d e l a n d t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s a c t u a l l y e x p e r i e n c e d by
the o b s e r v e r - l e a r n e r . In ste a d , w e w ould ex p e c t th a t the o b s e r v e r -
l e a r n e r w o u l d e v e n t u a l l y c o m e to r e s p o n d i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e
external realities. W e w ould not e x p e c t th is change to ta k e i m m e
d ia te effect. T herefore, studies in v e stig a tin g the re la tio n s h ip
b e tw e e n o b s e r v e d and d i r e c t l y e x p e r i e n c e d c o n s e q u e n c e s would
66
r e q u i r e r e p e a t e d e x p o s u r e to t h e m o d e l i n g s e q u e n c e .
T o t h i s a u t h o r ' s k n o w l e d g e , n o e x p e r i m e n t s h a v e a t t e m p t e d to
s y s t e m a t i c a l l y d e t e r m i n e w h e th e r a high c o r r e s p o n d e n c e b e tw e e n
o b s e r v e d and d ir e c tly e x p e rie n c e d c o n se q u e n c e s is n e c e s s a r y fo r
t h e m a i n t e n a n c e of v i c a r i o u s r e i n f o r c e m e n t e f f e c t s a c r o s s r e p e a t e d
e x p o s u r e s to a m o d e l. T h e s t u d y r e p o r t e d h e r e i s a n a t t e m p t to
in v e stig a te this re la tio n s h ip betw een v ic a r io u s and d i r e c t r e in f o r c e
m ent.
T h i s s t u d y e m p l o y s t h e t h i r d m e t h o d of c o n t r o l l i n g f o r p r i o r
l e a r n i n g s u g g e s t e d b y G e w i r t z ( 19 71 b) a s a p a r a d i g m f o r i n v e s t i
gating this re la tio n sh ip . T h e c o n t i n g e n c i e s p r e s u m e d to e x i s t i n t h e
n a t u r a l e n v i r o n m e n t a r e r e n d e r e d i n o p e r a b l e f o r s o m e of t h e e x p e r i
m e n t a l s u b j e c t s a c r o s s r e p e a t e d e x p o s u r e s to v i c a r i o u s c o n s e
quences. This m a n ip u latio n should re v e a l th at a high c o r r e s p o n
dence betw een o b serv ed and ex p erien ced co n seq u en ces is n e c e s s a r y
f o r t h e m a i n t e n a n c e of v i c a r i o u s r e i n f o r c e m e n t e f f e c t s . It should
a l s o d e m o n s t r a t e t h e n e c e s s i t y of c o n t r o l l i n g f o r p r i o r l e a r n i n g in
i n v e s t i g a t i o n s of v i c a r i o u s r e i n f o r c e m e n t a n d o b s e r v a t i o n a l l e a r n i n g .
F i n a l l y , t h i s s t u d y a l s o a t t e m p t s t o d e m o n s t r a t e t h e u t i l i t y of t h e
c o n d i t i o n a l r e s p o n d i n g p a r a d i g m of G e w i r t z a s a n a l t e r n a t i v e e x p l a
n a t i o n of t h e s e p h e n o m e n a a n d t h u s to r e - o p e n t h e s e i s s u e s f o r c o n
stru c tiv e debate.
67
H ypotheses
F o l l o w i n g t h e c o n d i t i o n a l r e s p o n d i n g t h e o r y of G e w i r t z (1 9 71 b) ,
if w e a s s u m e t h a t th e c o n s e q u e n c e s o b s e r v e d f o r a m o d e l h a v e
a c q u ir e d d is c r i m in a t iv e p r o p e r ti e s th ro u g h p r i o r a s s o c ia tio n w ith
d i r e c t r e i n f o r c e m e n t , then the follow ing h y p o th e s e s ca n be g e n e r
ated.
1. If a s u b j e c t (O, o b s e r v e r ) o b s e r v e s a m o d e l (M) r e c e i v e
c o n s e q u e n c e s , O ' s i m i t a t i o n of M w i l l b e d i s c r i m i n a t i v e w i t h
r e s p e c t to the o b s e r v e d c o n s e q u e n c e s.
1-a. If O o b s e r v e s M r e c e i v e p o s itiv e r e i n f o r c e m e n t , th e
p r o b a b i l i t y of i m i t a t i o n w i l l b e g r e a t e r t h a n if M w e r e p u n i s h e d o r
not consequated.
1-b. If O o b s e r v e s M r e c e i v e no c o n s e q u e n c e s , t h e p r o b a b i l
i t y of i m i t a t i o n w i l l b e g r e a t e r t h a n i f M w e r e p u n i s h e d b u t l e s s t h a n
if M w e re rein fo rced .
1-c. If O o b s e r v e s M r e c e i v e p u n i s h m e n t , t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of
i m i t a t i o n w i l l b e l e s s t h a n if M w e r e r e i n f o r c e d o r n o t c o n s e q u a t e d .
2. If t h e r e i s a d i s c r e p a n c y b e t w e e n t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s
o b s e r v e d f o r M a n d t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s a c t u a l l y e x p e r i e n c e d b y O, O
w i l l c o m e to r e s p o n d i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s d i r e c t l y
experienced.
2 - a. If O i s c o n t i n u o u s l y r e i n f o r c e d f o r i m i t a t i o n , t h e
p r o b a b i l i t y of i m i t a t i o n w i l l i n c r e a s e , r e g a r d l e s s of t h e c o n s e
q u e n c e s o b s e r v e d f o r M.
2-b. I f O i s n o t c o n s e q u a t e d f o r i m i t a t i o n , t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of
i m i t a t i o n w i l l d e c r e a s e r e g a r d l e s s of t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s o b s e r v e d
f o r M.
2-c. If O i s c o n t i n u o u s l y p u n i s h e d f o r i m i t a t i o n , t h e p r o b
ab ility of i m ita tio n w ill d e c r e a s e , r e g a r d l e s s of t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s
o b s e r v e d f o r M.
3. If O r e c e i v e s c o n s e q u e n c e s c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h o s e o b s e r v e d
f o r M, im ita tio n w ill be d is c r i m in a t iv e .
3-a. If O o b s e r v e s M r e c e i v e r e i n f o r c e m e n t a n d i s s u b s e
q u e n t l y r e i n f o r c e d f o r i m i t a t i o n , t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of i m i t a t i o n w i l l
increase.
3-b. If O o b s e r v e s M r e c e i v e no c o n s e q u e n c e s a n d i s s u b s e
q u e n t l y n o t c o n s e q u a t e d f o r i m i t a t i o n , t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of i m i t a t i o n
w ill d e c r e a s e .
3-c. If O o b s e r v e s M r e c e i v e p u n i s h m e n t a n d i s s u b s e q u e n t l y
p u n i s h e d f o r i m i t a t i o n , t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of i m i t a t i o n w i l l d e c r e a s e .
I n s u m m a r y , i t i s h y p o t h e s i z e d t h a t s o l o n g a s t h e r e i s no
d is c r e p a n c y b etw een the co n seq u en c es o b s e rv e d for the m o d e l and
the c o n s e q u e n c e s e x p e r i e n c e d by the s u b je c ts f o r im ita tio n , the
s u b j e c t s w i l l c o n t i n u e to r e s p o n d i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e d i s c r i m i n a
t i v e p r o p e r t i e s of t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s d e l i v e r e d t o t h e m o d e l .
H o w e v er, w hen t h e r e is a d i s c r e p a n c y b etw ee n the o b s e r v e r and
e x p e r i e n c e d c o n s e q u e n c e s , the s u b j e c t s w ill c o m e to r e s p o n d in
a c c o r d a n c e w ith the c o n s e q u e n c e s w hich th e y a c tu a lly e x p e r i e n c e
for im itation.
C H A P T E R VI
M ethod
Subjects
T h e s u b j e c t s ( O ' s , o b s e r v e r s ) w e r e 20 b o y s a n d 20 g i r l s
e n ro lle d in M ich ig an Young W o rld , a p r e - s c h o o l and day c a r e c e n te r
in K a la m a z o o , M ichigan. T h e O 's r a n g e d in a g e f r o m t h r e e to s ix
y e a r s , w i t h a m e d i a n of f o u r y e a r s a n d a m e a n o f 4. 4 y e a r s . The
O ' s w e r e r a n d o m l y a s s i g n e d t o o n e of f o u r e x p e r i m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n s ,
w i t h s e p a r a t e a s s i g n m e n t s f o r e a c h s e x to a s s u r e a p r o p o r t i o n a l
d i s t r i b u t i o n of m a l e s a n d f e m a l e s t o e a c h of t h e t r e a t m e n t c o n d i t i o n s .
O n e a d u l t m a l e e x p e r i m e n t e r (E) c o n d u c t e d t h e s t u d y f o r a l l
40 c h i l d r e n .
E x p e r i m e n t a l Setting
T h e e x p e r i m e n t t o o k p l a c e i n a n 8 x 12 f o o t s e m i - d a r k e n e d
r o o m w ith no w indow s. E v e r y t h i n g w a s r e m o v e d f r o m t h e r o o m to
avoid d is tr a c tin g O 's a tten tio n f r o m the e x p e r i m e n t a l ta sk . A lo n g
t h e w a l l o p p o s i t e t h e d o o r w a s a B e s e l e r , m o d e l # 7 7 5 0 TH , o v e r
head projector. T o t h e l e f t of t h e p r o j e c t o r w a s a c h a i r f o r O. To
t h e r i g h t of t h e p r o j e c t o r w a s a c h a i r f o r E a n d a P a n a s o n i c , m o d e l
#N V-8100, videotape r e c o r d e r . On a s m a l l ta b le , d i r e c t l y in f r o n t
70
71
of t h e p r o j e c t o r , w a s a b o w l u s e d f o r d i s p e n s i n g a n d r e m o v i n g
G aylord A nim al C ra c k e rs used as r e in fo rc e rs . On t h e b a c k s i d e of
t h e d o o r to t h e r o o m w a s a s c r e e n u p o n w h i c h w e r e p r o j e c t e d i m a g e s
f r o m the o v e r h e a d p r o j e c t o r . To the r i g h t of the s c r e e n , d i r e c t l y
o p p o s i t e t h e O ' s c h a i r , w a s a v i d e o t a p e m o n i t o r on w h i c h th e O ' s
v i e w e d t h e s e q u e n c e of m o d e l e d t a s k s o n t h e v i d e o t a p e .
M odeled T ask
T h e s e q u e n c e of r e s p o n s e s p e r f o r m e d b y M a n d t h e c o n t i n g e n t
d e l i v e r y of c o n s e q u e n c e s t o M f o r t h e s e b e h a v i o r s w e r e p r e s e n t e d to
the S 's via videotape. This videotape d ep icted a s ix - y e a r - o ld g ir l
(M) s i t t i n g i n a s e m i - d a r k e n e d r o o m v i e w i n g i m a g e s p r o j e c t e d on
a s c r e e n i n f r o n t of h e r b y a n o v e r h e a d p r o j e c t o r i m m e d i a t e l y to
h e r right. A n a d u l t , m a l e e x p e r i m e n t e r (E) w a s s e a t e d on th e
o p p o s i t e s i d e of t h e p r o j e c t o r . On a s m a l l t a b l e d i r e c t l y i n f r o n t of
the p r o je c to r , w as a bowl u s e d by E f o r d is p e n s in g and re m o v in g
anim al c ra c k e rs used as rein fo rc ers.
The ta s k being p e r f o r m e d by M in v o lv ed v e r b a l l y identifying
90 d i f f e r e n t o b j e c t s a s t h e y a p p e a r e d o n t h e s c r e e n . V erbal
r e s p o n s e s w e r e c h o s e n a s the m o d e le d b e h a v i o r s to b e m a t c h e d by
the O 's fo r five r e a s o n s . F i r s t , the to p o g ra p h ic a l s im i la r i ty
b etw ee n a v e r b a l r e s p o n s e by M and a v e r b a l r e s p o n s e by O 's w as
r e l a t i v e l y e a s y f o r E to identify. It w as thought that to p o g rap h ically
72
s i m i l a r p h y sic a l r e s p o n s e s by M and O would be m o r e difficult for
E to i d e n t i f y b e c a u s e of t h e v a r i e t y of s u b t l e d i f f e r e n c e s i n p h y s i c a l
r e s p o n s e s th a t w ould r e q u i r e E to i n t e r p r e t w h e t h e r O w a s t r u l y
im itating. Thus it w as thought th a t m o d e le d v e r b a l r e s p o n s e s
would in c r e a s e e x p e r im e n te r reliab ility .
S e c o n d , t h e u s e of v e r b a l r e s p o n s e s g r e a t l y f a c i l i t a t e d t h e
t r a i n i n g of t h e m o d e l . T he t a s k did not r e q u i r e any s p e c i a l s k ills
o n t h e p a r t of M o t h e r t h a n t h e a b i l i t y to r e a d a l o u d 90 s i m p l e ,
w o r d c u e s w r i t t e n on s l i p s of p a p e r .
T h i r d , t h e r e s t r i c t e d a r e a of t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l s e t t i n g p r e
c l u d e d t h e u s e of r e a d i l y i d e n t i f i a b l e p h y s i c a l r e s p o n s e s .
F o u r t h , t h e u s e of v e r b a l r e s p o n s e s to b e i m i t a t e d d i d n o t
r e q u i r e a n y s p e c i a l s k i l l s on t h e p a r t of t h e O ' s b e y o n d t h e a u d i t o r y
a n d s i m p l e v e r b a l s k i l l s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h e i r a g e g r o u p .
F in a lly , i t w a s thought th a t by u sin g v e r b a l r e s p o n s e s it could
b e m o r e e a s i l y d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t t h e O ' s , if t h e y i m i t a t e d , w e r e
p erfo rm in g a novel d iscrim in atio n , r a t h e r than p e rfo rm in g a
d i s c r i m i n a t e d r e s p o n s e a l r e a d y in t h e i r b e h a v i o r a l r e p e r t o i r e . The
r e s p o n s e s d e m o n s t r a t e d by M w e r e n o t t r u l y " n o v e l " b e c a u s e t h e y
d i d n o t r e q u i r e O to c o m b i n e v o c a l s o u n d s i n t o f i c t i t i o u s w o r d s
(i. e. , a s i n n o n s e n s e s y l l a b l e s ) . L a b e ls w e r e a s s ig n e d which p r o b
a b l y e x i s t e d i n t h e O ' s v e r b a l r e p e r t o i r e s ( s e e d e s c r i p t i o n in
" S e l e c t i o n of S t i m u l u s I t e m s " ) . H o w e v er, la b e ls w e r e p ic k ed which
w e r e d e m o n s t r a t e d to h a v e a l o w p r o b a b i l i t y of o c c u r r e n c e under
the specific s tim u lu s conditions. Thus the r e s p o n s e s w e re c o n s id
e r e d to b e " n o v e l " i n t h e s e n s e t h a t t h e s t i m u l u s i t e m s w h i c h w e r e
s e l e c t e d to o c c a s i o n t h e m h a d a l o w p r o b a b i l i t y of b e i n g d i s c r i m i n a
t i v e f o r s u c h r e s p o n s e s i n s e t t i n g s e x t e r n a l to t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l
situation.
A f t e r e a c h l a b e l i n g r e s p o n s e b y M , E w o u l d do o n e of t h e
following:
1. R e i n f o rc e M by dropping an a n im a l c r a c k e r into the bowl
and saying so m ething like, "Good, you get a cookie fo r that. "
2. P u n is h M by re m o v i n g a c r a c k e r f r o m the bowl and
m aking a s ta te m e n t like, "No, I 'm a fra id you lo s e a cookie for that
on e. "
3. P r e t e n d to i g n o r e M b y a t t e n d i n g to h i s n o t e b o o k , p r o v i d e
no c o n s e q u e n c e s , a n d a f t e r 20 s e c o n d s p r o c e e d t o t h e n e x t p r o j e c t e d
object.
T h e 90 p i c t u r e d o b j e c t s w e r e r a n d o m l y a s s i g n e d to o n e of
t h r e e m o d e l c o n s e q u e n c e c o n d i t i o n s d e s c r i b e d a b o v e s o t h a t on 1 / 3
of t h e m o d e l e d t a s k s M w a s r e i n f o r c e d , on 1 / 3 M w a s p u n i s h e d , a n d
on 1 / 3 M r e c e i v e d n o c o n s e q u e n c e .
74
S e l e c t i o n of S t i m u l u s I t e m s
T h e c h o i c e of s t i m u l u s o b j e c t s t o b e p r e s e n t e d o n t h e o v e r
h e a d p r o j e c t o r f o r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w a s m a d e on t h e b a s i s of c r i t e r i o n
c o n s i d e r e d c r u c i a l to t h e r e s u l t s of t h i s e x p e r i m e n t . F i r s t , the
o b j e c t h a d t o b e a m b i g u o u s e n o u g h s o t h a t t h e r e w e r e a v a r i e t y of
v e r b a l l a b e l s w h i c h c o u l d b e c o n s i d e r e d a p p r o p r i a t e to d e s c r i b e
it. If t h e O ' s w e r e a s k e d t o i d e n t i f y a n o b j e c t w i t h o n l y o n e o r t w o
" a p p r o p r i a t e " la b e ls , it w a s thought th a t th is would i n c r e a s e t h e i r
p r o b a b i l i t y of i m i t a t i n g M b e c a u s e t h e y l a c k e d a n a l t e r n a t i v e
r e s p o n s e in t h e i r v e r b a l r e p e r t o i r e . A l s o , if t h e o b j e c t w a s n o t
a m b i g u o u s e n o u g h f o r s e v e r a l l a b e l s , t h e " c o r r e c t n e s s " of O ' s
l a b e l m i g h t h a v e b e e n m o r e r e i n f o r c i n g t h a n a n y of t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l
consequences.
F o r th e s a m e r e a s o n s the o b je c t could not b e too a m b ig u o u s .
I f t h e O ' s w e r e n o t f a m i l i a r w i t h t h e o b j e c t a t a l l , t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of
i m i t a t i o n w o u l d b e e x p e c t e d to i n c r e a s e b e c a u s e t h e O ' s l a c k e d a n
appropriate alternative response. T h e r e f o r e , i t w a s d e c i d e d to
p r e t e s t t h e s e r i e s of s t i m u l u s o b j e c t s f o r u s e i n t h e e x p e r i m e n t .
T h e s u b j e c t s ( S ' s ) f o r t h e p r e t e s t w e r e 50 b o y s a n d g i r l s f r o m
M i c h i g a n Y o u n g W o r l d ( N o r t h S t r e e t A n n e x ) b e t w e e n t h e a g e s of
t h r e e a n d f i v e y e a r s w i t h a m e d i a n of f o u r y e a r s a n d a m e a n of 4. 2
years. The S 's , who v o lu n te e re d , w e r e t e s t e d individually by E.
E a c h S w as led into a s e m i - d a r k e n e d r o o m w hich contained a p r o
j e c t o r s c r e e n , a n o v e r h e a d p r o j e c t o r , a n d tw o c h a i r s , o n e t o e a c h
s i d e of t h e p r o j e c t o r . E a c h S w a s r e q u e s t e d by E to b e s e a te d an d
to i d e n t i f y t h e p i c t u r e s h e w a s a b o u t to s h o w t h e m . S 's then v ie w e d
a s e r i e s of 120 d i f f e r e n t o b j e c t s a n d E r e c o r d e d S ' s v e r b a l r e s p o n s e s
A t t h e e n d of t h e s e q u e n c e , E t h a n k e d S f o r h e l p i n g h i m and h a n d e d
S a p a c k a g e c o n t a i n i n g 10 a n i m a l c r a c k e r s .
T h e 120 p i c t u r e s u s e d a s s t i m u l u s o b j e c t s w e r e s e l e c t e d
f r o m t h e 3M s e r i e s of T h e r m o f a x T r a n s p a r e n c y m a s t e r s an d p r e
p a r e d f o r t h e o v e r h e a d p r o j e c t o r u s i n g a 3M T h e r m o f a x Copy
M achine. E s e l e c t e d 120 p i c t u r e s f r o m t h e 3M s e r i e s w h i c h
a p p e a r e d t o m e e t t h e c r i t e r i o n f o r a m b i g u i t y ; a n d a f t e r the p r e t e s t ,
s e l e c t e d 90 of t h e s e f o r u s e i n t h e e x p e r i m e n t a c c o r d i n g to t h e f o l
lo w i n g c r i t e r i o n :
1. T h e s tim u l u s o b je c t m u s t h a v e b e e n la b e le d with a t l e a s t
four d iffe re n t w o rd s by the p r e t e s t S 's .
2. T h e s ti m u l u s o b je c t m u s t h a v e b e e n la b e le d w ith no m o r e
than eight d iffe re n t w o rd s by the p r e t e s t S 's .
T h e p r e t e s t r e s u l t s w e r e a l s o e m p l o y e d to s e l e c t the w o r d
w h i c h M w o u l d u s e t o l a b e l e a c h of t h e s t i m u l u s o b j e c t s . The
fourth m o s t f r e q u e n tly o c c u r r i n g r e s p o n s e by the S 's w as c h o s e n as
the m o d e l e d r e s p o n s e f o r two r e a s o n s . F i r s t , t h e s e l e c t i o n of a
l a b e l w i t h a r e l a t i v e l y l o w p r o b a b i l i t y of o c c u r r e n c e s h o u l d i n c r e a s e
76
t h e l i k e l i h o o d t h a t t h e O ' s h a d , a s p a r t of t h e i r v e r b a l r e p e r t o i r e ,
a n a p p r o p r i a t e a l t e r n a t e r e s p o n s e w i t h w h i c h to l a b e l t h e s t i m u l u s
(i. e. , t h e m o r e f r e q u e n t l y o c c u r r i n g p r e t e s t l a b e l s ) . Second, it
s h o u l d i n c r e a s e t h e p r o b a b i l i t y t h a t , if t h e O ' s m a d e t h e s a m e
r e s p o n s e , t h a t r e s p o n s e w a s a c t u a l l y u n d e r t h e s t i m u l u s c o n t r o l of
the m o d e l r a t h e r than a p r e v io u s l y l e a r n e d r e s p o n s e u n d e r the c o n
t r o l of t h e s t i m u l u s o b j e c t .
T h e 90 s t i m u l u s o b j e c t s w e r e t h e n r a n d o m l y a s s i g n e d to t h e
t h r e e m o d e l c o n s e q u e n c e c o n d itio n s a n d to th e p o s iti o n in w h ic h th e y
a p p e a r e d i n t h e s e q u e n c e of p r e s e n t a t i o n .
Procedure
The c h ild re n w e r e in dividually e s c o r t e d into the e x p e rim e n ta l
setting by E, during w hich tim e E in tro d u c e d h im s e lf. Upon e n te rin g
t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l c h a m b e r , E r e q u e s t e d O to b e s e a t e d t o t h e l e f t of
t h e o v e r h e a d p r o j e c t o r a n d s e a t e d h i m s e l f to t h e r i g h t of t h e p r o
jector. N e x t E e x p l a in e d the e x p e r i m e n t a l t a s k to O saying:
"_____________( c h i l d ' s n a m e ) , I w a n t y o u to w a t c h t h e T V o v e r t h e r e
( p o i n t i n g to t h e V T R m o n i t o r ) . E a c h t i m e t h e TV s h o w s t o p s , I w i l l
s h o w y o u a p i c t u r e o v e r h e r e ( p o i n t i n g to t h e p r o j e c t o r s c r e e n ) . I
w a n t y o u to t e l l m e w h a t e a c h p i c t u r e i s . ” O w a s t h e n a s k e d to
r e i t e r a t e to E w h a t w a s e x p e c t e d of h i m . If O c o u l d n o t do s o t h e
ta sk w as explained again. W hen O w a s ab le to v e r b a l l y d e m o n s t r a t e
u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e t a s k , E b e g a n t h e e x p e r i m e n t .
T h e v i d e o t a p e r e c o r d e r w a s s w i t c h e d on a n d O w a s a l l o w e d to
v i e w t h e f i r s t s e q u e n c e of t h e m o d e l e d t a s k . As soon as E h ad con-
s e q u a te d M f o r id entifying the p r o j e c t e d s tim u lu s obje ct, the
r e c o r d e r w a s s w i t c h e d off. E d i r e c t e d O ' s a t t e n t i o n to t h e s t i m u l u s
o b j e c t on t h e p r o j e c t i o n s c r e e n i n t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l c h a m b e r a n d
asked: " N o w _____________ ( c h i l d ' s n a m e ) , c a n y o u t e l l m e w h a t t h i s
is?" If O d i d n o t v e r b a l i z e a r e s p o n s e w i t h i n 20 s e c o n d s , E a g a i n
p ro b e d O to la b e l the stim u lu s object. E c o d e d O ' s r e s p o n s e s on a
data sh eet as e ith e r im itative or n on-im itative.
F o r t h e f i r s t n i n e t r i a l s of t h e e x p e r i m e n t , E d i d n o t p r o v i d e
c o n s e q u e n c e s to O f o r i m i t a t i v e r e s p o n s e s . T h i s w a s d o n e to p r o
v i d e a n o p p o r t u n i t y to a s s e s s w h e t h e r t h e r e s p o n s e s p r e d i c t a b l e
f r o m t h e v i c a r i o u s r e i n f o r c e m e n t p a r a d i g m (i. e. , H y p o t h e s e s 1,
1-a, 1 - b , a n d 1 - c ) w e r e o c c u r r i n g p r i o r to t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l m a n i p
u l a t i o n s f o r e a c h O. In o r d e r to i n s u r e a n e q u a l d i s t r i b u t i o n of
v i c a r i o u s c o n s e q u e n c e s i n t h e s e n i n e t r i a l s , t h r e e of e a c h of t h e
v i c a r i o u s c o n s e q u e n c e c o n d i t i o n s w e r e r a n d o m l y a s s i g n e d to t h i s
initial sequence. H o w e v e r , d u e to t h i s r a n d o m i z a t i o n p r o c e d u r e ,
O ' s o b s e r v e d M r e c e i v e r e i n f o r c e m e n t on t h e f i r s t t h r e e e x p o s u r e s
to the v id e o ta p e . It w as not known how th is would b ia s O 's s u b s e
quent responding. T h e r e f o r e , h a l f of t h e O ' s b e g a n t h e e x p e r i m e n t
a t t h e t h i r t y - e i g h t h t r i a l s e q u e n c e on t h e v i d e o t a p e . The f i r s t nine
78
t r i a l s b e g i n n i n g a t t h i s p o i n t a l s o c o n t a i n e d a n e q u a l d i s t r i b u t i o n of
the t h r e e v ic a r io u s c o n se q u e n c e co n d itio n s, but M r e c e iv e d p u n is h
m e n t on t h e f i r s t t h r e e t r i a l s of t h i s s e q u e n c e .
A t th e e n d of t h e n i n t h t r i a l E d r o p p e d s e v e r a l a n i m a l c r a c k e r s
i n t o t h e b o w l i n f r o n t of t h e p r o j e c t o r s a y i n g : " I f y o u do g o o d f r o m
n o w on, y o u c a n t a k e s o m e c o o k i e s w i t h y o u w h e n w e ' r e t h r o u g h . "
On t r i a l ten E b e g a n th e e x p e r i m e n t a l m a n i p u l a t i o n s , w h ic h w e r e
d e s i g n e d to t e s t H y p o t h e s e s 2 a n d 3.
R e i n f o r c e m e n t condition. The following e x p e r i m e n t a l m a n i p
u l a t i o n w a s i m p l e m e n t e d to t e s t H y p o t h e s i s 2 - a w h i c h p r e d i c t e d a n
i n c r e a s e d p r o b a b i l i t y of i m i t a t i o n w h e n O i s c o n t i n u o u s l y r e i n f o r c e d
r e g a r d l e s s of t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s o b s e r v e d f o r M . B e g i n n i n g on t h e
t e n t h t r i a l , t h e s u b j e c t s i n g r o u p I (C R ) w e r e p l a c e d on a s c h e d u l e
of c o n t i n u o u s r e i n f o r c e m e n t f o r i m i t a t i v e r e s p o n s e s . Each tim e O
la b e le d a s tim u lu s o b je c t w ith th e s a m e w o r d w hich M u s e d on the
v id e o ta p e , E w ould d r o p one a n i m a l c r a c k e r into the bowl an d v e r b
a l l y p r a i s e O. E w a s c a r e f u l i n h i s v e r b a l p r a i s e to u s e o n l y w o r d s
such as "good, " " v e r y good" or " e x c e lle n t. " P r a i s e w o rd s such as
" r i g h t " o r " c o r r e c t " w h i c h m i g h t c o n n o t e a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s of t h e
re s p o n s e w e re avoided. If O l a b e l e d t h e s t i m u l u s o b j e c t w i t h a n o n -
im i ta t iv e r e s p o n s e , E s a id nothing b u t s im p ly r e c o r d e d th e r e s p o n s e
and p r o c e e d e d to th e n e x t t r i a l . T h i s p r o c e d u r e w a s f o l l o w e d f o r th e
r e m a i n d e r of t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l t r i a l s . A t t h e e n d of t h e e x p e r i m e n t ,
79
E r e m o v e d th e c r a c k e r s f r o m the bow l, o s t e n s i b l y to p u t t h e m in a
c o n t a i n e r f o r O. O w a s g i v e n a b a g c o n t a i n i n g 25 a n i m a l c r a c k e r s ,
t h a n k e d f o r h i s c o o p e r a t i o n a n d a l l o w e d to l e a v e t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l
s etting.
No c o n s e q u e n c e condition. T h i s c o n d i t i o n w a s i m p l e m e n t e d to
t e s t H y p o t h e s i s 2 - b w h i c h p r e d i c t e d a d e c r e a s e d p r o b a b i l i t y of i m i
t a t i o n w h e n O ' s r e c e i v e d no c o n s e q u e n c e s f o r i m i t a t i o n . G r o u p II
(NC) O ' s b e g a n t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l s e q u e n c e w i t h 25 c r a c k e r s . The
O ' s i n t h i s g r o u p r e c e i v e d no c o n s e q u e n c e s f o r i m i t a t i v e r e s p o n s e s .
E sim p ly r e c o r d e d O 's r e s p o n s e and p r o c e e d e d to the nex t tr i a l .
U p o n c o m p l e t i o n of t h e t a s k , E t h a n k e d O a n d d i s m i s s e d h i m w i t h a
b a g of 25 c r a c k e r s .
P u n is h m e n t condition. This e x p e rim e n ta l m an ip u latio n was
d e s i g n e d to t e s t H y p o th e s is 2 - c w h ic h p r e d i c t e d t h a t if O 's w e r e
c o n t i n u o u s l y p u n i s h e d f o r i m i t a t i o n , t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of i m i t a t i o n
w ould d e c r e a s e . T h e c h i l d r e n i n g r o u p III ( C P ) b e g a n t h e e x p e r i
m e n t a l t r i a l s w i t h 30 a n i m a l c r a c k e r s i n t h e b o w l . This w as done
so th a t E could p u n ish O 's im ita tiv e r e s p o n s e s by re m o v in g c r a c k e r s
f r o m the bowl. O ' s i n t h i s c o n d i t i o n w e r e p l a c e d on a s c h e d u l e of
continuous p u n is h m e n t for im ita tio n . E v e ry tim e O im ita ted M 's
labeling r e s p o n s e E re m o v e d a c r a c k e r f r o m the bowl and v e r b a lly
p u n ish ed O saying su ch things as: " T h a t w as bad" or " T h a t w as not
so g o o d ." If O 's r e s p o n s e w a s n o n - i m i t a t i v e E s im p l y r e c o r d e d it
a n d w e n t on t o t h e n e x t t r i a l . A t t h e e n d of t h e e x p e r i m e n t E d i s
m i s s e d O w i t h a b a g o f 25 c r a c k e r s s a y i n g : "Y o u r e a l l y did good,
_____________( c h i l d ' s n a m e ) , t h a n k y o u f o r h e l p i n g m e . ”
S am e co n seq u en ce condition. T his condition te s te d H y p o th eses
3, 3 - a , 3-b, and 3 -c. T h e s e h y p o th e s e s p r e d ic te d th at O 's w hich
r e c e iv e d c o n s e q u e n c e s s i m i l a r to th o se w hich they o b s e rv e d for M
w ould d iffe re n tia lly im ita te M in a c c o r d a n c e w ith th e c o n s e q u e n c e s
o b s e r v e d fo r M. T h e O ' s i n g r o u p IV (SC) r e c e i v e d 10 a n i m a l
c r a c k e r s i n t h e b o w l p r i o r to t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l t r i a l s . S u b je c ts in
this condition, if they im ita te d , r e c e iv e d the s a m e c o n se q u e n c e
w h ic h th e y o b s e r v e d M r e c e i v e on the v id e o ta p e . If O o b s e r v e d M
being re in f o r c e d fo r a r e s p o n s e and then lab eled the stim u lu s object
w ith th e s a m e r e s p o n s e , E d ro p p e d a c r a c k e r in th e bowl and v e r
b a l l y p r a i s e d O. If O i m i t a t e d a r e s p o n s e f o r w h i c h M h a d r e c e i v e d
p u n i s h m e n t , E r e m o v e d a c r a c k e r a n d v e r b a l l y p u n i s h e d O. If O
i m i t a t e d a r e s p o n s e f o r w hich M had r e c e i v e d no c o n s e q u e n c e , E
r e c o r d e d it a n d p r o c e e d e d to th e n ex t t r i a l . A ll n o n - im ita tiv e
r e s p o n s e s b y O w e r e r e c o r d e d a n d no c o n s e q u e n c e s w e r e p r o v i d e d .
A t t h e e n d of t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l s e q u e n c e , O w a s g i v e n a b a g of 25
a n i m a l c r a c k e r s , th a n k e d fo r h i s a s s i s t a n c e , and allow ed to le a v e
the e x p e rim e n ta l ro o m .
C H A P T E R VII
R esults
P r e l i m i n a r y a n a ly s is did not r e v e a l any s ig n ific a n t d if f e r e n c e s
b etw ee n su b je c ts who b eg an th e e x p e r i m e n t w ith th e f i r s t v id e o ta p e d
s e q u e n c e a n d s u b j e c t s w h o b e g a n i n t h e m i d d l e of t h e v i d e o t a p e .
T h e r e f o re , the d a ta fo r t h e s e g ro u p s w e r e co m b in ed fo r a n a ly s is .
F i g u r e 2 s h o w s t h e r e s u l t s of t h e t e s t f o r H y p o t h e s i s 1.
R e c a ll th a t H y p o th e s is 1 p r e d i c t e d th a t S 's w ould d i s c r i m i n a t i v e l y
i m i t a t e M i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s o b s e r v e d f o r M.
S p ecifically , im ita tio n w ould be m o s t f re q u e n t w hen M w a s r e i n
fo rc e d , l e s s fre q u e n t w hen M w as not co n seq u ated , and l e a s t f r e
quent when M was punished. The findings g e n e ra lly s u p p o rt this
hypothesis. F i g u r e 2 s h o w s t h e m e a n n u m b e r of i m i t a t i v e
r e s p o n s e s f o r all s u b je c ts fo r the f i r s t nine t r i a l s and the l a s t nine
t r i a l s of t h e e x p e r i m e n t .
In s e rt F igure 2 about h e re
P r i o r to t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l t r e a t m e n t s , i m i t a t i o n w a s m o s t
fre q u e n t when M w as re in f o r c e d , s o m e w h a t le s s w hen M w as not
c o n seq u ated , and l e a s t w hen M w as pu n ish ed . H owever, after
e x p o s u r e to d i r e c t c o n s e q u e n c e s this d is c r i m i n a t i v e re s p o n d in g
81
with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission
82
disappeared. C o m p a r i s o n of t h e m e a n s b y t t e s t s ( T a b l e 1)
r e v e a l e d th a t the in itia l d i f f e r e n c e b e tw e e n th e m o d e l - r e i n f o r c e d and
the m o d e l- n o - c o n s e q u e n c e conditions w as not s ta tis tic a lly significant.
In s e rt Table 1 about h e re
When M was e ith e r re in fo rc e d or not consequated, S 's im ita te d s ig
nificantly m o r e than w hen M w as punished. A fter S 's e x p erien ced
r e p e a t e d t r i a l s with d i r e c t c o n s e q u a tio n , t h e r e w e r e no sig n ific a n t
d iffe re n c e s betw een the v ic a r io u s co n seq u en c e conditions.
F u r th e r analysis rev ea led that v ic ario u s consequences lost
t h e i r ab ility to c o n tro l im ita tio n b e c a u s e th e c o n s e q u e n c e s a ctu ally
e x p e r i e n c e d b y S ' s c a m e to e x e r t c o n t r o l o v e r i m i t a t i o n . H ypothe
sis 2 p r e d ic te d that w hen th e r e is a d is c re p a n c y betw een the c o n s e
q u en ces o b s e rv e d fo r M and the co n seq u en c es actually ex p erie n ced
b y S, S w i l l c o m e to r e s p o n d i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e d i r e c t l y e x p e r i
enced consequences. The data fo r the d iffe re n t e x p e r im e n ta l g roups
s tro n g ly su p p o rt this h y p o th e sis.
F i g u r e 3 s h o w s t h e p e r c e n t a g e of i m i t a t i v e r e s p o n s e s a c r o s s
b l o c k s of t r i a l s f o r S ' s on g r o u p I. T h ese S 's w e re continuously
r e i n f o r c e d f o r i m i t a t i o n r e g a r d l e s s of t h e v i c a r i o u s c o n s e q u e n c e s
they o b serv ed . On t h e f i r s t b l o c k of t r i a l s s u b j e c t s d i s c r i m i n a t i v e l y
I n s e rt F ig u re 3 about h e re
83
i m i t a t e d in a c c o r d a n c e w ith the v i c a r i o u s c o n s e q u e n c e s . H owever,
a f t e r r e p e a t e d e x p o s u r e to d i r e c t r e i n f o r c e m e n t , S ' s c a m e to i m i
t a t e M r e g a r d l e s s of t h e v i c a r i o u s c o n s e q u e n c e s .
b l o c k s of t r i a l s f o r S ' s w ho w e r e n e v e r c o n s e q u a t e d f o r i m i t a t i o n .
A g a i n , i m i t a t i v e r e s p o n d i n g o n t h e i n i t i a l b l o c k of t r i a l s i s d i s c r i m
in a ted in a c c o r d a n c e w ith the v ic a r io u s c o n s e q u e n c e s . H o w e v e r , as
p r o p o s e d by H y p o th e s is 2-b, i m i t a t i v e re s p o n d in g w as s u b s t a n ti a ll y
r e d u c e d when S 's m a tc h in g r e s p o n s e s w ent u n re in fo rc e d fo r
repeated trials. T h e r e w a s n o t a r e d u c t i o n in r e s p o n d in g f o r th e
v i c a r i o u s p u n i s h m e n t c o n d i t i o n i n w h i c h t h e p e r c e n t a g e of i m i t a t i v e
re sp o n se s w as initially su p p re sse d . T h e p a t t e r n of r e s p o n s e s f o r
this group w as m a r k e d ly e r r a t i c , c o n s i s t e n t with the t y p i c a l p a t t e r n
f o r re s p o n d in g in e x tin ctio n .
In s e rt F ig u re 4 about h e re
b l o c k s of t r i a l s f o r S ' s w h o w e r e c o n t i n u o u s l y p u n i s h e d f o r i m i t a t i o n .
A s w i t h t h e o t h e r g r o u p s , on t h e i n i t i a l t r i a l s S ' s i m i t a t i o n w a s u n d e r
c o n t r o l of v i c a r i o u s c o n s e q u e n c e s . A gain, a f t e r e x p o s u r e to d i r e c t
c o n s e q u e n c e s , th e p u n is h in g c o n s e q u e n c e s c a m e to c o n t r o l r e s p o n d
ing. B y t h e t e n t h b l o c k of t r i a l s S ' s h a d c o m p l e t e l y c e a s e d i m i t a t i n g
u n d er all v ic a rio u s co n se q u e n c e conditions. The th r e e p re c e d in g
84
I n s e r t F ig u re 5 about h e re
g ro u p s d e m o n s tr a te d th a t w hen th e r e is a d is c r e p a n c y betw een
o b s e r v e d a n d d i r e c t l y e x p e r i e n c e d c o n s e q u e n c e s , S ' s c o m e to
r e s p o n d in a c c o r d a n c e w ith the d i r e c t l y e x p e r i e n c e d c o n s e q u e n c e s .
F i g u r e 6 s h o w s w h a t h a p p e n s w h e n t h e r e i s no d i s c r e p a n c y
betw een v ic ario u s and d ire c tly ex p erien ced consequences. This
f i g u r e s h o w s t h e p e r c e n t a g e of i m i t a t i v e r e s p o n s e s a c r o s s b l o c k s of
t r i a l s f o r S ' s w h o r e c e i v e d t h e s a m e c o n s e q u e n c e , c o n t i n g e n t on
m a tc h in g r e s p o n s e s , w hich they h ad o b s e rv e d the m o d e l re c e iv e .
A s w i t h t h e o t h e r g r o u p s , on t h e f i r s t b l o c k o f t r i a l s i m i t a t i o n w a s
m o st frequent under vicarious reinforcem ent, som ew hat less f r e
q u e n t u n d e r no v i c a r i o u s c o n s e q u e n c e , a n d l e a s t f r e q u e n t u n d e r
v ic a rio u s punishm ent. H o w e v er, unlike the o th e r g ro u p s , this
I n s e r t F ig u re 6 about h e r e
d i f f e r e n c e w a s m a i n t a i n e d a c r o s s b l o c k s of t r i a l s . In fa c t, the
d if fe re n c e b e tw e e n the v ic a r io u s c o n s e q u e n c e conditions b e c a m e
m o re pronounced a c ro s s trials. A s p r o p o s e d in H y p o t h e s i s 3 - a ,
w hen S 's w e r e both v i c a r i o u s l y and d ir e c tly r e in f o r c e d , the p r o b
a b i l i t y of i m i t a t i o n i n c r e a s e d . T h e c o m b i n a t i o n of d i r e c t e x t i n c t i o n
a n d no v i c a r i o u s c o n s e q u e n c e r e s u l t e d i n a d e c r e a s e d p r o b a b i l i t y of
im itation. This w a s p r e d ic te d by H y p o th e s is 3-b. A gain note the
e r r a t i c p a t t e r n of r e s p o n d i n g . W hen S 's o b s e r v e d v i c a r i o u s punish'
m e n t and w e r e su b seq u en tly pu n ish ed for im itatio n , the p ro b ab ility
of i m i t a t i o n d e c r e a s e d , a s p r e d i c t e d i n H y p o t h e s i s 3 - c .
The above a n a ly sis showed th a t when th e re w as a prolonged
d is c r e p a n c y b etw ee n v ic a r io u s and d ire c tly e x p e rie n c e d c o n s e
q u e n c e s , S ' s e v e n t u a l l y c a m e to r e s p o n d in a c c o r d a n c e w ith the
direct consequences. H o w e v e r , w h e n t h e r e w a s no d i s c r e p a n c y , S'
i m i t a t i o n r e m a i n e d u n d e r c o n t r o l of t h e v i c a r i o u s c o n s e q u e n c e s .
T h e a d d i t i o n of d i r e c t c o n s e q u e n c e s e n h a n c e d t h i s c o n t r o l .
C H A P T E R VIII
D iscussion
T h e p r i m a r y p u r p o s e of t h i s e x p e r i m e n t w a s t o d e t e r m i n e
w h e t h e r d i r e c t r e i n f o r c e m e n t i s n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e m a i n t e n a n c e of
v ic a r io u s r e in f o r c e m e n t effects. I t w a s r e a s o n e d t h a t , if i t c o u l d b e
d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t v i c a r i o u s r e i n f o r c e m e n t p h e n o m e n a w e r e no t
a n o m a l o u s to o p e r a n t cond itio n in g t h e o r y , th e n , s u c h e v id e n c e could
b e c o n s i d e r e d s u p p o r t i v e of G e w i r t z ' s ( 19 71 b) c o n d i t i o n a l r e s p o n d
ing p a r a d i g m f o r o b s e r v a ti o n a l le a r n in g .
Follow ing this p a ra d ig m , it w as a rg u e d th a t co n seq u en c es
d e l i v e r e d to a m o d e l r e p r e s e n t e d n o t h i n g m o r e t h a n a s p e c i f i c t y p e
of d i s c r i m i n a t i v e s t i m u l u s . That is, v ic a r io u s co n seq u en ces had
a c q u i r e d t h e a b i l i t y to d i f f e r e n t i a l l y o c c a s i o n r e s p o n d i n g t h r o u g h
th e ir p r io r asso c ia tio n w ith d ire c tly e x p e rie n c e d co n seq u en ces. It
w a s m a i n t a i n e d t h a t if v i c a r i o u s c o n s e q u e n c e s w e r e n o t h i n g m o r e
t h a n S-D's, i t w o u l d r e q u i r e a h i g h c o r r e s p o n d e n c e b e t w e e n t h e
o b s e r v e d and d ir e c tly e x p e r i e n c e d c o n s e q u e n c e s fo r the v ic a r io u s
c o n s e q u e n c e s to r e t a i n t h e i r d i s c r i m i n a t i v e p r o p e r t i e s . The re s u lts
of t h i s s t u d y s t r o n g l y s u p p o r t t h i s c o n d i t i o n a l r e s p o n d i n g p a r a d i g m
for vicarious reinforcem ent.
Beginning w ith the a s s u m p tio n th a t v ic a r io u s c o n se q u e n c e s a r e
86
87
S ^ ' s , we w ould e x p e c t that, in the n a t u r a l e n v i ro n m e n t, i m i ta tio n
of a m o d e l w o u l d b e m o s t f r e q u e n t l y r e i n f o r c e d w h e n t h e b e h a v i o r s
to b e i m i t a t e d a l s o p r o c u r e f a v o r a b l e c o n s e q u e n c e s f o r t h e m o d e l .
T h u s, we w ould e x p e c t th a t o b s e r v e r - l e a r n e r s would m o s t f r e
q u en tly i m i t a t e a m o d e l who is re in f o r c e d .
S i m i l a r l y , w e w o u l d e x p e c t t h a t t h e i m i t a t i o n of m o d e l e d
r e s p o n s e s w h ic h a r e p u n is h e d w ould f r e q u e n t l y l e a d to p u n i s h m e n t
f r o m the s o c ia l co m m u n ity . T h e r e f o r e , im ita tio n should be le a s t
fre q u e n t w hen the m o d e l is punished. This is exactly w hat was
o b s e r v e d on t h e i n i t i a l b l o c k of t r i a l s f o r a l l g r o u p s i n t h i s s t u d y .
W h e n t h e m o d e l i s n o t c o n s e q u a t e d t h e p r e d i c t a b i l i t y of i m i
ta tio n is c o m p lic a te d c o n s id e ra b ly . W h a t t h i s a m o u n t s to i s t h e
e l i m i n a t i o n of a v e r y p o w e r f u l d i s c r i m i n a t i v e s t i m u l u s . When this
h a p p e n s o t h e r s a l i e n t s t i m u l i f r o m t h e m o d e l i n g s i t u a t i o n c o m e to
e x e rt m o r e pow erful control over im itation. W hen the m o d e l is not
c o n s e q u a t e d i m i t a t i o n w o u l d b e e x p e c t e d to b e l e s s p r o b a b l e t h a n if
t h e m o d e l w e r e r e i n f o r c e d b u t m o r e p r o b a b l e t h a n if t h e m o d e l w e r e
punished. H o w e v e r , w h e n o t h e r s t i m u l i i n d i c a t e to t h e s u b j e c t s
t h a t t h e y w i l l b e r e q u i r e d to p e r f o r m t h e s a m e t a s k a s t h e m o d e l ,
t h e p r e s s u r e t o w a r d i m i t a t i o n w o u l d b e e x p e c t e d to i n c r e a s e . This
w o u l d b e e s p e c i a l l y t r u e w h e n t h e t a s k , a s in t h e c a s e of t h i s s t u d y ,
i s u n f a m i l i a r to t h e s u b j e c t s a n d r e l a t i v e l y a m b i g u o u s .
I n a r e v i e w of t h e l i t e r a t u r e on v i c a r i o u s r e i n f o r c e m e n t
88
T h e l e n a n d R e n n i e (197 2) c o n c l u d e d t h a t o n e of t h e m o s t s a l i e n t
v a r ia b le s in v ic a r io u s r e in f o r c e m e n t p h e n o m e n a is this " e x p e c ta n c y
to p e r f o r m . " T h u s , i t a p p e a r s t h a t t h e i n i t i a l l y h i g h f r e q u e n c y of
i m i t a t i o n i n t h e a b s e n c e of v i c a r i o u s c o n s e q u e n c e s m a y b e a t t r i b
u t a b l e t o a n a r t i f a c t of t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l d e s i g n (i. e. , t h e s u b j e c t s
k n e w th e y w ould b e r e q u i r e d to p e r f o r m the ta sk ).
If, a s h a s b e e n p r o p o s e d , v i c a r i o u s c o n s e q u e n c e s h a v e
a c q u ire d th e ir d is c rim in a tiv e p r o p e r tie s through an a s s o c ia tio n
w ith d i r e c t l y e x p e r i e n c e d c o n s e q u e n c e s , we w ould e x p e c t th a t only
w hen t h e r e is a continu ed c o r r e s p o n d e n c e b e tw e e n o b s e r v e d and
d ir e c t c o n seq u en c es w ill th e se d is c r im in a tiv e p r o p e r ti e s be reta in ed .
W h e n e v e r th e re is a p ro lo n g e d d is c r e p a n c y b etw ee n v ic a r io u s and
d i r e c t c o n s e q u e n c e s w e would ex p ec t th a t the v ic a r io u s c o n s e
q u e n c e s would e i th e r lo s e t h e i r d i s c r i m i n a t i v e p r o p e r t i e s o r b e c o m e
d is c rim in a tiv e for m is- m a tc h in g the m odel. T h e r e s u l t s of t h i s
stu d y p r o v id e convincing s u p p o r t f o r the above p r o p o s a l s .
I n o n l y o n e of t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l g r o u p s d i d v i c a r i o u s c o n s e
q u e n c e s co n tin u e to c o n t r o l i m it a t i o n a c r o s s t r i a l s . T h is w a s the
" s a m e - c o n s e q u e n c e " g ro u p in w hich t h e r e w a s p e r f e c t c o r r e l a t i o n
between vicario u s and d ire c t consequences. S u b je c ts in the r e m a i n
ing t h r e e g r o u p s e x p e r i e n c e d a c o n s i s t e n t d i s c r e p a n c y b e tw e e n
v ic a rio u s and d ir e c t c o n seq u en c es. I n a l l t h r e e of t h e s e g r o u p s
s u b j e c t s q u i c k l y l e a r n e d to r e s p o n d i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e d i r e c t
R e p ro du ced with permission o f the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
89
contingencies.
O f p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t i s t h e g r o u p of s u b j e c t s w h o w e r e n e v e r
d ire c tly consequated for im itation. I n t h e o t h e r tw o g r o u p s i t c o u l d
be arg u ed that d ire c t consequences sim ply e x e rte d g r e a t e r control
o v er responding than the v ic a rio u s co n seq u en c e s. H ow ever, in
t h i s g r o u p t h e r e w e r e no d i r e c t c o n s e q u e n c e s ; t h e r e f o r e , t h e f a i l u r e
of v i c a r i o u s c o n s e q u e n c e s to m a i n t a i n d i s c r i m i n a t i v e r e s p o n d i n g
c o u l d n o t b e a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e i r r e l a t i v e w e a k n e s s i n c o m p a r i s o n to
d irect consequences.
A l t h o u g h t h e r e s u l t s of t h i s e x p e r i m e n t l e n d s t r o n g s u p p o r t to
stim u lu s co n tro l in te rp re ta tio n , they cannot be c o n s id e re d definitive
p ro o f th a t the o p e r a n t conditioning ex p lan atio n is th e " c o r r e c t "
interpretation. A s o c ia l le a rn in g t h e o r i s t could a r g u e th a t the
v i c a r i o u s c o n s e q u e n c e s no l o n g e r c o n v e y e d a c c u r a t e i n f o r m a t i o n
about existing e n v iro n m e n ta l conditions and th u s, s u b je c ts w e r e not
m o t i v a t e d to i m i t a t e .
H o w e v er, w hat is re a d ily a p p a r e n t is th a t even the so c ia l
learn in g th e o ry explanations fo r v ic a rio u s re in f o r c e m e n t re q u ir e
th a t t h e r e be a high c o r r e s p o n d e n c e betw een o b s e r v e d and d ir e c tly
e x p e r i e n c e d c o n s e q u e n c e s f o r t h e m a i n t e n a n c e of v i c a r i o u s r e i n
fo rc e m e n t effects. T h e re fo re it a p p e a rs th at d ir e c t r e in f o rc e m e n t
is a n e c e s s a r y condition for v ic a rio u s r e in f o r c e m e n t p h en o m en a for
both o p e r a n t conditioning and s o c ia l le a r n in g th e o r i e s .
90
S i n c e t h e c o n d i t i o n a l r e s p o n d i n g p a r a d i g m of G e w i r t z ( 1 9 7 1 b )
d o e s n o t r e q u i r e c o g n i t i v e c o n s t r u c t s , w e h a v e a r g u e d in f a v o r of
i t a s a n e x p l a n a t i o n of v i c a r i o u s r e i n f o r c e m e n t a n d o b s e r v a t i o n a l
learning phenomena. A s w a s p o i n t e d out e a r l i e r in th is p a p e r , th e
" r e p r e s e n t a t i o n a l m e d i a t i o n " p r o c e s s of s o c i a l l e a r n i n g t h e o r y i s
u n o b s e r v a b l e a n d c a n n o t b e m e a s u r e d i n d e p e n d e n t of t h e b e h a v i o r s
w h i c h i t i s p r o p o s e d to e x p l a i n . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e i n c l u s i o n of
t h e s e c o g n i t i v e c o n s t r u c t s a d d s n o t h i n g to t h e e x p l a n a t o r y a n d p r e
d i c t i v e p o w e r of o p e r a n t c o n d i t i o n i n g t h e o r y . T herefore we argue
i n f a v o r of t h e m o r e p a r s i m o n i o u s c o n d i t i o n a l r e s p o n d i n g p a r a d i g m
of G e w i r t z ( 1 9 7 1 b ) a s a n e x p l a n a t i o n of v i c a r i o u s r e i n f o r c e m e n t a n d
o bserv atio n al learning phenom ena.
Suggestions for F u r th e r R e s e a r c h
T h i s e x p e r i m e n t , a l t h o u g h s p e c i f i c a l l y d e s i g n e d to i n v e s t i g a t e
v ic a rio u s re in fo rc e m e n t effects, a l s o a t t e m p t e d to d e a l t a n g e n t i a l l y
w i t h t h e p h e n o m e n a of o b s e r v a t i o n a l l e a r n i n g . It w as p r i m a r i l y fo r
t h i s r e a s o n t h a t t h e p r e t e s t w a s p e r f o r m e d to c h o o s e t h e w o r d s
w h ic h th e m o d e l u s e d to l a b e l th e s t i m u l u s i t e m s . It was re a s o n e d
t h a t if t h e s u b j e c t s i m i t a t e d l o w - p r o b a b i l i t y l a b e l s t h a t t h i s w o u l d
c o n s t i t u t e a d e m o n s t r a t i o n of o b s e r v a t i o n a l l e a r n i n g . H o w e v e r , tw o
t h i n g s c a s t s u s p i c i o n on t h i s l i n e of r e a s o n i n g . F i r s t , as w as
p o i n t e d o u t e a r l i e r in t h i s p a p e r , i n o r d e r f o r o b s e r v a t i o n a l l e a r n i n g
91
to b e i n f e r r e d i t m u s t b e d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t t h e m o d e l e d r e s p o n s e
d i d n o t a l r e a d y e x i s t i n t h e b e h a v i o r a l r e p e r t o i r e of t h e o b s e r v e r -
learner. T h e u s e of a p r e t e s t e m p l o y i n g a d i f f e r e n t p o p u l a t i o n of
s u b j e c t s m a y i n c r e a s e t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of c h o o s i n g n o v e l r e s p o n s e s
as la b e ls f o r stim u lu s i t e m s , h o w e v e r it does not allow fo r a d e f in i
tive d e m o n s t r a tio n that the r e s p o n s e s a r e novel fo r the e x p e r im e n ta l
subjects. A n a c c e p t a b l e a l t e r n a t i v e m i g h t b e to p r e t e s t t h e s a m e
p o p u l a t i o n of s u b j e c t s a s w i l l b e e m p l o y e d i n t h e e x p e r i m e n t a n d to
l a b e l t h e s t i m u l u s o b j e c t s w i t h w o r d s n o t u s e d by a n y of t h e s u b
jects. Only in th is w ay could it b e c o n c lu siv e ly d e m o n s t r a t e d th a t
the m o d e le d b e h a v io rs co n stitu te novel r e s p o n s e s .
S eco n d , th is e x p e r i m e n t did not in c lu d e any s p e c ific t e s t s f o r
observational learning. F r o m t h e r e s u l t s of t h i s s t u d y i t m i g h t
a p p e a r th a t only s u b je c t s who w e r e r e i n f o r c e d l e a r n e d s ig n ific a n tly .
H o w e v e r , t h e s o c i a l l e a r n i n g t h e o r i s t w o u l d a r g u e t h a t a l l of t h e
su b je c ts m a y h a v e le a r n e d the m o d e le d r e s p o n s e s but those w ho w e r e
n o t r e i n f o r c e d w e r e n o t s u f f i c i e n t l y m o t i v a t e d to p e r f o r m t h e
responses. T his p o s s i b ili ty can n o t be r u le d out b e c a u s e t h e r e w e r e
no a t t e m p t s t o m o t i v a t e t h e s e s u b j e c t s t o p e r f o r m t h e b e h a v i o r s .
A s u g g e s t i o n f o r f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h m i g h t b e t h e i n c l u s i o n of a
s e q u e n c e of r e s p o n s e s t o t e s t f o r o b s e r v a t i o n a l l e a r n i n g . As in the
s t u d y b y B a n d u r a ( 1 9 6 5 a ) , a t t h e c o n c l u s i o n of t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l
trials, s u b j e c t s c o u l d b e e x p o s e d to a s e q u e n c e of s t i m u l u s o b j e c t s
92
and i n s tr u c te d th a t they would be r e in f o r c e d eac h tim e they n a m e d
th e o b je c t a s th e m o d e l h a d do n e in the e x p e r i m e n t a l t r i a l s . How
ever, e v e n t h e r e s u l t s of s u c h a t e s t w o u l d b e i n c o n c l u s i v e a s l o n g
as ex p erien ced su b jects w e re em ployed for the ex p erim en t. As was
s u g g e s t e d e a r l i e r , t h e o n l y p o s s i b l e w a y to d e f i n i t i v e l y a n s w e r t h e
c o n t r o v e r s i e s a b o u t o b s e r v a t i o n a l l e a r n i n g m a y b e to e m p l o y s u b
je c ts w hose conditioning h is to r y h as been r ig o ro u s ly a s s e s s e d f r o m
birth.
N evertheless, s t u d i e s of o b s e r v a t i o n a l l e a r n i n g w h i c h do n o t
e m p lo y adequ ate c o n tro ls f o r p r i o r le a rn in g m u s t be v ie w ed w ith
suspicion. A s w a s d e m o n s t r a t e d by this e x p e r i m e n t , le a r n in g
p r o c e s s e s w h ic h a p p e a r to b e p r i m a r y m a y in a c t u a li ty be an o u t
c o m e of l e a r n i n g b y d i r e c t e x p e r i e n c e . T h ere fo re , conclusions
a b o u t t h e p r i m a c y of o b s e r v a t i o n a l l e a r n i n g a r e p r e m a t u r e . The
i s s u e m u s t be c o n s i d e r e d a l m o s t as open now a s w hen the c o n t r o
v e r s y f i r s t a p p e a r e d a t t h e t u r n of t h e c e n t u r y .
93
T able 1
t - T e s t C o m p a r i s o n of P a i r s of M e a n s
B etw ee n T r e a t m e n t Conditions
M odel C o n s e q u e n c e Conditions
R ew ard vs. R ew ard vs. No C onsequence

No C o nsequence P unishm ent vs. P u n ish m en t
1 1
B efo re Exp.
T reatm ents 1. 4 9 4 7. 3 6 9 v 5. 873"'
A fte r Exp.
T reatm ents 1. 110 1. 863 0. 8 1 9
*£ .001
Figure 1
C o m p o n e n t P r o c e s s e s G o v ern in g O b s e r v a tio n a l L e a r n in g in the

S o c i a l L e a r n i n g A n a l y s i s ( B a n d u r a , 1977)
M otor
A ttentional R etention R eproduction M otivational
Processes P rocesses Processes Processes
M odeling Sym bolic P hysical E xternal

S tim uli C oding C apabilities R einforcem ent
D istinctiveness A vailability V icarious

C ognitive
O rganization of C o m p o n e n t R einforcem ent
A ffective
V alence Responses
Sym bolic Self-
Com plexity R ehearsal Self- R einforcem ent
O b s e r v a t i o n of
P revalence R eproductions
M otor
F unctional R ehearsal
V alue A ccuracy
M odeled F eedback
Events O bserver M atching
-> C haracteristics ----- - - - >
P erform
Sensory ances
C apacities
A rousal Level
P ercep tu al Set
Past
R einforcem ent
95
Figure 2
M e a n N u m b e r of I m i t a t i v e R e s p o n s e s P r i o r
to a n d A f t e r E x p o s u r e t o D i r e c t l y -
E xperienced Consequences
P r i o r to D i r e c t C o n s e q u e n c e s
3
Responses
A fter D ire c t Consequences

of I m i t a t i v e
2
Number
Mean
No
V icarious V icarious V icarious
R einforcem ent Consequences Punishm ent
96
Figure 3
P e r c e n t a g e of I m i t a t i v e R e s p o n s e s b y
B l o c k s of T r i a l s f o r C o n t i n u o u s
R einforcem ent
100
90
80
Responses
70
60
50
40
Percentage
30
20 No V icario u s C onsequences
V icarious R einforcem ent
V icarious P u n ish m en t
10
5 6
B l o c k s of T r i a l s
97
F igure 4
P e r c e n t a g e of I m i t a t i v e R e s p o n s e s by-
B l o c k s of T r i a l s f o r
No Consequences
100 A A No V ic a r io u s C on seq u en ce s
o — o V icarious R einforcem ent
□ -------□ V icarious P unishm ent
90
80
Responses
70
60
50
40
Percentage
30
20
v
10
4 5 6 7 10
98
Figure 5
P e r c e n t a g e of I m i t a t i v e R e s p o n s e s by-
B l o c k s of T r i a l s f o r C o n t i n u o u s
P unishm ent
100 No V icarious Consequence

V icarious R einforcem ent
V icarious P unishm ent
90
80
Responses
70
60
50
40
Percentage
30
20
10
10
99
Figure 6
P e r c e n t a g e of I m i t a t i v e R e s p o n s e s b y
B l o c k s of T r i a l s f o r
Sam e Consequence
100
90
80
Responses
No V ic a r io u s C o n seq u en ce
70 V icarious R einforcem ent
V icarious Punishm ent
60
50
40
Percentage
30
20
10
5 6 7 8 10
100
R eferences
A r o n f r e e d , J . T h e p r o b l e m of i m i t a t i o n . I n L . P . L i p s i t t & H. W.
R e e s e ( E d s . ), A d v a n c e s i n c h i l d d e v e l o p m e n t a n d b e h a v i o r
(V ol. 4). N e w Y o r k : A c a d e m i c P r e s s , 1969.
B a e r , D. M . , P e t e r s o n , R . F . , & S h e r m a n , J . A. T h e d e v e l o p
m e n t of i m i t a t i o n b y r e i n f o r c i n g b e h a v i o r a l s i m i l a r i t y to a
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MASTERS THESIS io- iu,»oo

OLSEN, Larry Dee, 1950-

Western Michigan U n iv e rs ity , M .A ., 1977

University Microfilms International, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48106

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P a u l W ien ir, f o r h is p a tie n c e and g u id a n ce. Subhash Sonnad and

F in a l ly , I w ould lik e to thank m y w ife f o r h e r e n d l e s s p a t i e n c e ,

IV An A lte rn a tiv e T h eo ry fo r O b serv atio n al

C onditional Responding: S tim ulus

u n d er such titles as o b se rv a tio n a l le a rn in g , im itatio n , identification,

s e c o n d m o d e (o b s e r v a ti o n a l le a rn in g ) h a s b een p r o p o s e d w hich is not

d e p e n d e n t upon r e i n f o r c e r s and p u n i s h e r s fo r it s e ffe c tiv e n e s s .

c o n tra d ic ts o p e ra n t conditioning th e o ry b e c a u se it does not r e q u i r e

L e a r n i n g T h e o r y , B a n d u r a ( 1 96 2 , 1969a, 19 69 b, 1970, 1 97 1 a, 1971b,

d ire c t experience; i . e . , it is innate. In S o c i a l L e a r n i n g T h e o r y , h e

E x c e p t fo r e le m e n ta r y re fle x e s , people a r e not equipped

1968, 1969b, 1 971) t h a t t h e p h e n o m e n o n o f o b s e r v a t i o n a l a n d v i c a r i o u s

in s tr u m e n ta l (operant) conditioning. T hat is, o b serv a tio n a l and

th a t w hen o b s e r v a tio n a l le a rn in g is c o n s id e r e d h i s t o r i c a l l y it can be

B a n d u ra 's Social L earning T heory

B a n d u r a 's S ocial L e a rn in g T h e o ry is a s tim u lu s contiguity

tive level by r e p r e s e n t a tio n a l m e d ia tio n . S pecifically , w hen an

n ovel r e s p o n s e s , the o b s e r v e r - l e a r n e r s y m b o li c a l l y r e p r e s e n t s the

s e q u e n c e of m o d e l e d r e s p o n s e s . This is at the cognitive level.

This sy m b olic r e p r e s e n t a tio n is s tre n g th e n e d by its te m p o r a l co n ti­

guity with the m o d e l e d ev e n ts. A t s o m e l a t e r t i m e , in th e p r e s e n c e

seq u en ce will m e d ia te the o v e r t p e r f o r m a n c e . T h u s t h e c o n t r o l of

b e h a v i o r r e s t s , not w ith e n v i r o n m e n ta l d e t e r m i n a n t s , b u t w ith in the

individual at the co gnitive le v e l. T h i s i s n o t to s a y t h a t e n v i r o n ­

a r e s e e n a s s ig n if i c a n tl y effec tin g w h e t h e r o r not a p e r s o n will

four sequentially o rd e re d p r o c e s s e s . H e s c h e m a tic a lly outlines this

s tim u la tio n a r e r e f e r r e d to a s a tte n tio n a l p r o c e s s e s . Any f a c to r

learn ed re sp o n se a r e co n sid ere d attentional p ro c e s s e s . T h e se can

range fr o m situational d e te rm in a n ts, such as the " d is tin c tiv e n e s s"

" a ro u s a l level. "

f r o m the m o d e lin g situ a tio n , t h e y a r e i n t e g r a t e d i n t o the b e h a v i o r a l

r e p e r t o i r e s a t the co g n itiv e le v e l. It is a t th is point, B a n d u r a c o n ­

tends, th a t the r e s p o n s e is a c tu a lly " l e a r n e d . " W hen a p e r s o n view s

te m p o r a l r e la tio n s h ip b e tw e e n the m o d e le d e v e n ts and this sy m b o lic

into an ab b re v ia te d v e r b a l d e scrip tio n .

e f f i c i e n c y of o b s e r v a t i o n a l l e a r n i n g . A p e rso n cannot sym bolically

in i m a g i n a l f o r m , it w ould be e x t r e m e l y c u m b e r s o m e and doubtful

w h e th e r such a re p r e s e n ta tio n a l s y s te m could be efficient.

Once the m o d eled events have b een sy m b o lically r e p re s e n te d ,

they can be r e ta in e d in m e m o r y and r e t r i e v e d a t s o m e l a t e r point in

explains: "On la te r occasions, im ag es (cen trally a ro u s e d p e r c e p ­

O nce a new r e s p o n s e h a s b e e n in c o rp o r a te d a t the cognitive

the l e a r n e d r e s p o n s e into o v e rt actio n . F i r s t , th e p h y s i c a l c a p a b i l ­

i o r m u s t e x is t in the p e r s o n . A p e r s o n lacking vocal ch o rd s cannot

p e r f o r m an o p e ra tic solo. Secondly, the b e h a v io r a l co m ponents

fro m external sources or self-observation.

This sy m b olic r e p r e s e n t a tio n is s tre n g th e n e d by its te m p o r a l co n ti

individual at the co gnitive le v e l. T h i s i s n o t to s a y t h a t e n v i r o n

r e p e r t o i r e s a t the co g n itiv e le v e l. It is a t th is point, B a n d u r a c o n

explains: "On la te r occasions, im ag es (cen trally a ro u s e d p e r c e p

the l e a r n e d r e s p o n s e into o v e rt actio n . F i r s t , th e p h y s i c a l c a p a b i l

in te g r a te d the r e s p o n s e through sy m b o lic r e p r e s e n t a tio n , and p o s

p r im a r ily fro m th re e different s o u rc e s . T h e f i r s t of t h e s e i s e x t e r

the in fo rm a tio n it p ro v id e s about conditions existing in the e n v iro n

duce a change in the e n v iro n m e n t. If t h e a n a l y s i s b e g i n s w i t h e n v i

' ' m a j o r p o in ts of d is p u te " b e t w e e n s o c i a l l e a r n i n g t h e o r y and i n s t r u

O p e r a n t c o n d i t i o n e r s do n o t p r o p o s e a n y " m e c h a n i s m " w h i c h " a u t o

B a n d u ra 's re p re s e n ta tio n a l m ediation) a r e in a c c e s s ib le for e m p ir i

tio n a l m e d ia tio n , " w hich is i n a c c e s s i b l e f o r e m p i r i c a l i n v e s t i g a

A s a n i l l u s t r a t i o n of the a r g u m e n t above, c o n s i d e r th e f o llo w