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Photography and Tourism. The use of Photographic representations to

influence a destination Image perception: The case study of Sicily

Thesis · November 2015

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.1.4196.7442

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 School of Architecture and Built Environment
MA TOURISM MANAGEMENT

Photography and Tourism

The use of Photographic representations to influence a
destination Image perception: The case study of Sicily

GIORGIA TARASCIO
W1520849

Supervisor: Ilaria Pappalepore

29 August 2015

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Declaration

This Dissertation is the work of Giorgia Tarascio. All other contributors are
acknowledged in the text and listed in the bibliography.

Word count: 16.547


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 Abstract

This study is focused on the relationship between photography and

destination image. The aim is to understand how photographic
representations can influence a place image, in order to provide
recommendation for tourism marketers. The case study for this research is
an Italian island, Sicily.

Firstly, it has been identified the image of Sicily projected online by some
tourism websites, using visual methods the researcher has collected and
analysed photographs which appeared in the introduction page. In
addition, to understand which is the mental image of Sicily held by
potential tourists, and to verify how those tourists perceive the
photographs of Sicily projected online by marketers, the researcher has
interviewed potential tourists who have never visited Sicily. To collect the
data the researcher has used semi-structured interviewing and the photo
elicitation technique, analysed using the thematic analysis.

The results reveal the cyclical nature of the representation process. Sicily's
photographic representations comprehend stereotypical images of the
destination. Similarly, potential tourists representations of Sicily are
dominated by stereotypes. However, stands out from the results that
tourists are attracted by signifiers of distinctiveness and authenticity.
In order to improve the tourism sector, marketers should abet these unique
features that the island has to offer, encouraging a more modern image of
Sicily.

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Table of Contents

Table of Contents……………………………………………………………… 6
List of Tables and Figures……………………………………………………. 8
Acknowledgments…………………………………………………………….. 9

Chapter 1
Introduction…………………………………………………………………… 10
1.1 Opening Remarks………………..……………………………………… 10
1.2 Research Rationale……………………………………………………… 11
1.3 Aims and Objectives ……………………………………………………..12
1.4 Case Study.. ………………………………………………………………13
1.5 Structure……………….…………………………………………………..14

Chapter 2
Literature Review ……………………………………………………………..15
2.1 Introduction …………………………………………………………..……15
2.2 Destination Image …………………………………………………..……16
2.3 Image Formation and Types of Images…………………………..…….17
2.4 Stereotypes ……………………………………………………..…..…….22
2.4.1 Sicily and its Stereotypical Images……………………..…..…….23
2.5 Commercial Tourism Photography …………………………..…..……..26
2.6 Summary ……………………………..……………………………..…….30

Chapter 3
Methodology and Methods……………………………………………………32
3.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………32
3.2 Research Philosophy ……………………………………………………..33
3.3 Research Sources .……………………………………………………… 35
3.4 Research Methods………………………………………………………. .37

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 3.4.1 Visual Methods……………………………………………………. .37
3.4.1.1 Method 1. Content Analysis ……………………………. 38
3.4.1.2 Method 2. Photo-Elicitation …………………………….. 41
3.4.2 Textual methods ……………………………………………………42
3.4.2.1 Method 3. Semi-Structured Interviewing……..………42
3.4.2.1.1Thematic Analysis……..……………….……46
3.5 Summary …………………………..………………………………………47

Chapter 4
Discussion of Findings ………………..………………………………………48
4.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………48
4.2 Section one: Content Analysis……………………………………………49
4.3 Section two: Interviews and Photo-Elicitation…………………………..58
4.3.1 Step I. Respondent Information ..…………………………..58
4.3.2 Step II. Guided Questions……………………………………59
4.3.2.1 Source of informations ……………………………..60
4.3.2.2 Themes……………………………….………………62
4.3.3 Step III. Photo-Elicitation ………………….………………. 67
4.3.3.1 Themes……………………………….………………69
4.4 Discussion…………….……………………………………………………72

Chapter 5
Conclusions and Recommendations………………………………….…….76
5.1 Conclusive Remarks ……………………………….…………………… 76
5.2 Recommendations for future research………….…………………….. 79
5.3 Recommendations for Marketers………….……………………..……..81

References……………….…………………………………………………….84
Appendices………………………………………………………..………….. 93

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List of Tables and Figures

Fig. 1 General Framework of Destination Image Formation………………19

Fig. 2 The Circle of Representations ………………………………………..28
Fig. 3 (photo 9F) “Trapani, Segesta”……………………………………….. 52
Fig. 4 (Photo 5E) “Piazza Teatro Massimo, Catania”………………………53
Fig. 5 (Photo 5G) “Harbor of Marettimo”…………………………………….55
Fig. 6 (Photo 5B) “Volcano Etna”…………………………………………….56
Fig. 7 “Families brought together by love and food”……………………….82
Fig. 8 “Many faces of Sicily”………………………………………………… 83

Table 1 Frequency of codes, Photographic Technique……………………49


Table 2 Frequency of codes, Light ………………………………………….50
Table 3 Frequency of codes, Resources………………..………………….50
Table 4 Frequency of codes, Environmental Area ……….……………….50
Table 5 Frequency of codes, Presence of People or Animals……………51

Table 6 Frequency of codes, Cultural Identity……………………………..51
Table 7 Respondent information…………………………………………….59
Table 8 Keywords Frequencies Results Tabulation ………………………59
Table 9 Photo-Elicitation correspondents ………………………………….68


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Acknowledgments

I would like to thank my supervisor for her advices and support throughout
the research.

I am grateful to my parents, who have always supported my university

career, for investing in me and encouraging me to achieve my dreams;
also a big thank to my friends for their constant support, encouragement
and understanding.

I would also like to thank all the interviews participants for giving me their
precious time.


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 Chapter 1

Introduction

1.1 Opening Remarks

The aim of this research is to understand the nature of the relationship

between photography and place image. In particular, how photographic
material can project a place image and how this is perceived by potential
tourists. This will be achieved in the present project by identifying and
examining photographic material used by marketers to promote a
destination, and by investigating potential tourists’ place image.

This research project builds on previous studies of different academics

who have investigated the relationship between image and photography
(e.g., Gallarza, Saura and Garcia 2001; Garrod 2009; Jenkins 2003;
Garlick 2002; Haldrup and Larsen 2003; Urry 2002), and it aims to
contribute to the existing literature and to open up new points of reflexion
for future studies in the field.
The present chapter illustrates the research rationale, reveals the research
objectives, justifies the chosen case study and outlines the research
structure.

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1.2 Research Rationale

In tourism, photographic images are the medium through which

photogenic characteristics of destinations are represented and portrayed
for the promotion of the destination. This usage of photographic
representations for place promotion has complex and multidimensional
effects on how people perceive and experience a destination (Hunter
2008). The concept of photographic representation in tourism has been
studied for over 50 years by scholars, but research has not yet arrived at a
univocal conclusion regarding the dynamics of photographic
representations and destination image (Human 1999).

As Jenkins (2003) argues, studies in the post-modern era focus mainly on

the examination and interpretation of visual materials as cultural products,
as when travelling tourists base their experiences and expectations on
representations of the destination visited. Urry (1999) is the most
influential voice among academics who have studied the process through
which photographic material influences tourist behaviour and tourist
images of a place. However, researchers in this field have mainly focused
on how tourists reproduce photographic images already seen before when
travelling, and gaze on the same places they already know.

This research aims to fill a gap, providing an in-depth study of promotional

photographic material and focusing on potential tourists’ destination
images. 

This project attempts to understand the characteristics of photographic
materials produced by marketers for promotional purposes and to
investigate how potential tourists perceive these photographs. This project
is motivated by the researcher’s interest in exploring thematics of

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photographs and images in order to understand how a destination can
enhance the efficiency of its own marketing plan.

1.3 Aims and Objectives

The aim of this research is to understand the implications of tourism

promotional photographic representations and destination image. It will
analyse photographic images produced by marketers to promote the
destination, consequently defining the image that destination marketers
project. In addition, it will be determined how potential tourists perceive
those photographs in order to understand if the image projected by
marketers is positively valued by potential tourists, and therefore to
evaluate its effectiveness.

The research will achieve the following objectives:

1. To identify which set of elements recur in photographs of Sicily used by

marketers in destination travel websites. 


2. To investigate how photographic images used by marketers in

destination travel websites represent Sicily as a tourism destination.

3. To determine what naive image of Sicily are held by the target segment
of European young adults aged between 25 and 35 years old, and to verify
if those images include stereotypes.

4. To evaluate if those photographic images of Sicily promoted by

marketers are positively valued by the target segment of European young

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adults, and to verify if those photographs contribute to creating an
appealing image of Sicily.

1.4 Case Study

To study the topics of photography and image, the research focuses on a

case study. The Italian island of Sicily has been chosen because it has
characteristics that mean it can effectively answer the research objectives.

Sicily is one of the biggest islands in the mediterranean, and it represents

a perfect example of a destination full of potential but that does not attract
as many tourists as it deserves to. Moreover, Sicily is known world-wide
for its association with the mafia, and therefore it has a negative reputation
that needs to be modified. In addition, although literature on destination
image is well developed, as argued by Volo (2008), not much research
has been conducted on Sicily.

Sicily represents an example for other Mediterranean islands which need

to improve their images in order to attract more tourists.
Understanding the implications of photographic representations and place
image for Sicily can provide a broader perspective and an example for
other Mediterranean islands which need to modify their images in order to
improve their tourism appeal.

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1.5 Structure

The research includes 5 chapters. The current chapter introduces the topic
studied, presents the research rationale and introduces the research
objectives. Chapter 2 focuses on reviewing existing literature on the
themes of destination image, stereotypes and photography. Chapter 3
discusses the methodological approach of the research, including
methods used for the data analysis and related limitations. The method
used are visual methods and semi-structured interviews. Chapter 4 will
present the findings gathered for each research question, discussed and
linked with the literature reviewed in Chapter 2. Finally, Chapter 5 will
provide an appropriate conclusion for the research. It will explain how the
study has achieved the research objectives and it will provide some
recommendations for future research. 


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 Chapter 2

Literature Review

2.1 Introduction

The objective of this literature review is to analyse the existing literature

regarding the themes of destination image and photographic
representations, and to use this as a ground of knowledge for the
proposed research.

In particular, the present work begins by introducing the concept of

destination image. The research reviews some of the most important
image theories: image formation and types of images in relation to visitors’
perceptions. It analyses the issue of stereotypes in relation to the case
study of Sicily. It discusses the importance of destination branding to
repositioning the destination in the global tourist market.

In addition, the research analyses the concept of photographic

representations, taking into account the main theories in the field, in
particular the “circle of representations” of Urry (2002). To conclude, the
relevant findings from the assessed research will be pointed out in a short
summary.


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2.2 Destination Image

Firstly, it is important to define what a destination (or place) image is.

According to Kotler, a destination image “is the sum of beliefs, ideas and
impressions that people have of a place” (Kotler et al 1999:160). In
addition, “images represent a simplification of a large number of
associations and pieces of information connected with a place” (Gertner
and Kotler 2004: 50). The concept of image in tourism studies has been
discussed consistently by theorists, however a shared definition of the
meaning of place image has not yet been found (Pike 2004). Gunn, Hunt
and Mayo have been the pioneers in researching and introducing the topic
of destination image (Pike, 2008). Since then, many researchers have
tried to give a comprehensive definition of image but there is still no
shared univocal meaning (Gallarza et al 2001)


In marketing studies, destination image has been defined as “a consumer
perception of a product, institution, brand, company or person, which may
or may not correspond to reality” (Andreu et al., 2000: 49). In accordance
with this, Kotler et al (19993) argue that two individuals can have dissimilar
opinions, and therefore images, of the same destination. In addition, two
subjects who share the same image of a destination can have different
attitudes toward the destination, depending on their personalities.
Therefore, as Williams (1988) argues, the concept of image can be
defined in terms of both physical and mental characteristics. As Kim and
Richardson (2003) claim, the concept of destination image is of crucial
importance for tourism marketing studies. Due to its psychological
characteristics, it is considered to be extremely relevant in the analysis of
human behaviour, especially when analysing the destination decision-
making process (Kim and Richardson 2003).

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This argumentation is of significant importance for the present dissertation
because it aims to assess mental images of Sicily as a destination among
European young adults, in order to identify if those images promoted by
marketers are positively valued by the studied target market.

2.3 Image Formation and Types of Images

Researchers in the tourism field have arrived at the conclusion that the
images people have of a particular destination have a significant influence
on their travel behaviour and destination-decision process (Walmsley and
Young 1998). Therefore, it is important to study how those images are
created. As Baloglu and McCleary (1999) argue, even though researchers
have studied the concept of tourism image, not many studies have
focused on how an image is formed, in particular for those who have not
visited the destination before.


Gunn (1997) has developed one of the most influential conceptualisations
of the image formation process. The researcher discusses the fact that
individuals, in their lifetimes, create in their minds different images for
different destinations, even for those they have never visited. Gunn
distinguish between two different stages of the image creation process:
organic and induced images. “By organic image of a destination is meant
the totality of what a person already knows or perceives about that
destination” (Gunn 1997: 37). Organic images are created organically by
non-commercial sources exposition. Information about a destination is
accumulated over time from TV, newspapers, films, radio and similar
sources but also from word of mouth or friends’ and relatives’
experiences. The latter, as argued by Gunn (1997), are the most influential
sources of information. The combination of all this information, combined

17
with personal experiences and personality, creates the organic image of a
destination that an individual may have about a place (Gunn 1997). “This
organic accumulation of information is the most powerful factor influencing
travel decisions” (Gunn 1997: 37).

Induced images, in contrast, are generated by marketers with the purpose

of attracting tourists to certain destinations. These are the results of
commercial campaigns with promotional purposes, which usually are more
powerful and direct when people show interest in the destination
advertised (Pike, 2008). According to Selby and Morgan (1996), the sum
of organic and induced images forms the so-called naive image. In other
words, a naive image is the consumer’s mental perception of the
destination, composed of different secondary sources, in the absence of
direct experience (visit) of the destination (Selby and Morgan 1996).

The present work aims to identify the different naive images held by the
target segment of European young adults (aged between 20 and 35 years
old), basing the analysis on Gunn’s model of image formation. The results
of this research will be used to identify the most common images of Sicily
and to use them as a basis of knowledge for improving marketing
strategies used to promote the destination.

As Gertner and Kotler (2004: 50) discuss, “people’s perception[s?] of a

place do not necessarily reveal their attitudes toward that place”. In the
same period as Gertner and Kotler, the beginning of the new millennium,
two other researchers were exploring the theme of image within a similar
approach. Beerli and Martin (2004) differentiate between two dimensions
of image, cognitive (beliefs) and affective (feelings) (Figure 1). The
cognitive dimension corresponds to the personal knowledge, ideas and
attributes that a subject confers on an object. In contrast, the affective

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dimension corresponds to the emotions that a subject has toward an
object (Beerli and Martin 2004). The two authors believe that the cognitive
dimension will generate the affective dimension. Therefore, a consumer's
information about a place will influence evaluation of the destination
(Beerli and Martin 2004), and consequently the two authors attribute a
high value to the affective image.
As Baloglu and Brinberg (1997) argue, affective components should be
studied separately from the cognitive ones due to having a better
understanding of how people perceive a place. One of the results of their
study is that “the affective image space can be used as a tool by
marketers to position tourism destinations. Those destinations that have a
negative affective image can apply marketing techniques to modify their
image” (Baloglu and Brinberg 1997:14). Affective images will be studied in
this research so as to better understand the image that the target segment
has of Sicily.

Figure 1. General Framework of Destination Image Formation

(source: Baloglu and McCleary 1999)

Different researchers in the tourism field suggest that destination image

can be separated into two categories: projected and perceived (Beerli and
Martin 2004). In the literature, a projected image is defined as an agent of

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“pull” power in the destination decision-making process. It is derived from
communication and marketing channels of the tourism supply which aim to
attract a specific target segment of potential tourists (Andreu et al 2001;
Kotler et al 1993; Middleton 1994). In fact, according to Morgan et al
(2004), the main challenge for destination marketers is to insert their
destination into the tourist mental “to visit” list for possible holidays. On the
other hand, perceived image is associated with “push” power (Andreu et al
2001). The latter can be defined as “socio-psychological variables that
predispose an individual to travel” (Andreu et al 2001: 51) and includes
factors such as motivation, needs and desires (Andreu et al 2001).


However, it is possible to argue that the process of image formation is
slightly more articulated than how Andreu et al (2001) have described it.
Beerli and Martin (2004) have developed a model of destination image
formation which analyses and links together projected and perceived
images with factors influencing image formation, including cognitive and
affective images (Beerli and Martin 2004).

To conclude, as Selby and Morgan (1996) discuss, in order to enhance the

efficiency of a destination marketing plan it is important to comprehend the
differences between naive images held by non-visitors and re-evaluated
images held by visitors. In particular, according to Hunt (1975), the
opinions of potential visitors about the environment, climate and
inhabitants of a particular destination dramatically influence the success or
failure of the relevant marketing campaign. In other words, even though a
destination may have a wide range of tourism-related winning resources,
such as sunny weather, facilities, good cuisine and sociable locals,
misrepresented naive images can affect the success of a destination’s
development (Hunt 1975). Therefore, potential visitors’ naive images have
significant importance for a destination. For this reason, the present

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research aims to understand what naive images of Sicily are held by
potential visitors, in order to provide a useful basis for developing a
strategic promotional plan.

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2.4 Stereotypes

The definition of destination image elaborated by Baud-Bovy and Lawason

(1977) brings together the concept of personal images and that of
stereotypical images shared by a group of people. The authors define
image as: “the expression of all objective and knowledge, impression,
prejudice, imagination and emotional thoughts an individual or a group
might have of a particular place” (Baud-Bovy and Lawason 1977: 10).
According to the two authors, it is possible to say that images held by
people contain stereotypes. Avraham (2004) differentiates between “open”
and “closed” images, where the former are those images which are
continuously modified with the addition of more characteristics, whereas
the latter are less easily modifiable images. These last kinds of images are
better known as “stereotypes”.


Gold (cited in Avraham 2004: 473) defines stereotypes as: “simplified

attitudes or beliefs about a place that are not examined thoroughly and are
difficult to change”. The concept of stereotype has been deeply discussed
in tourism studies as it is strongly linked with the concept of destination
image (Echtner and Ritchie, 2003). Hinton (2000) distinguishes between
three significant attributes of stereotypes, which are based on specific,
additional and meaningful characteristics. According to Hinton (2000),
whatever the nature of a specific stereotype, they all share the
characteristic of being difficult to modify, untruthful, erroneous and
generalized as they can hinder analytical judgment, being linked with
ignorance.

However, as Dyer (1993) suggests, stereotypes are needed when the

alternative is to have no knowledge at all of the subject. As Jenkins (2000)
suggests, stereotypes can help to create a sense of place. In addition,

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Gran (2012) argues that destination image and stereotypes have a strong
correlation, both being ways to interpret the world. In fact, stereotypes, like
images, can be categorized as either induced or organic. In particular,
Gran (2010) highlights that stereotypes are closely related to the creation
of naive images.


As previously mentioned, this research aims to study naive images of
Sicily held by the target segment of European young adults. As
stereotypes are intrinsically related to naive images it is essential, for
analytical purposes, to discover the most common stereotypical images
associated with the region of Sicily and its inhabitants.

2.4.1 Sicily and its Stereotypical Images

Located in the heart of the Mediterranean Sea, Sicily is Italy’s biggest

island and offers natural beauty of all types: rocky coastlines, long and
white beaches, different mountain ranges, natural parks, a natural salt
pan, 50 protected areas and Europe’s tallest active volcano, Mt. Etna.,
which in winter is transformed into a small ski resort.

Having always been colonized by the greatest civilizations and cultures,

Sicily has been defined as “the cradle of civilization” (Smecca 2009). The
island represents a hub of culture, history and art. During its history, the
island has given birth to the biggest Italian talents: writers, musicians,
painters and other artists. For this reasons Sicily has the necessary
qualities to become a major tourism destination. However, its potential is
far from being fulfilled (Volo 2004).

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Sicily has been described as “a terrestrial paradise inhabited by
demons” (Hart 2007). This quote summarises quite efficiently how the
island is perceived around the world. While the natural beauty of Sicily has
been acknowledged throughout history, its population has been mainly
negatively stereotyped. According to Smecca (2009), Sicily is perceived as
being trapped between a glorious classical past, full of tradition, and a
stagnant present, heedless of the future and progress. The main
stereotypes about Sicily and Sicilians refer to the characteristics of the
“Mafioso”, associated with attributes of criminality, lack of modernity,
violent passion and the centrality of the family, in particular devotion to the
mother figure. According to Hart (2007), the main stereotypes about Sicily
are generated by films, in which stereotypical attributes are used to
enhance the status of the character and therefore reinforce the audience’s
perception. “The spectacular nature of the medium and the classic realist
approach to narration in mainstream cinema attaches factual
credibility” (Hart 2007: 216), therefore creating cultural identity. Films have
diffuse stereotypical images of how Sicilians look and what they wear as
strong signifiers of identity. These are moustaches and black clothes for
men and drab black dresses for women (Hart 2007). Films like The
Godfather have given rise to an eternal “mafioso” figure. Even cartoons
present “mafioso” characters; for example, the mafioso Fat Tony in The
Simpsons (Hart 2007).

According to Smecca (2009), the Lonely Planet Guide, British version

2005, reports a significantly stereotypical description of Sicilians: “Think
‘Sicilian’ and a variety of images springs to mind ︎from the black-clad
widow, bent double with hard work and age, to the menacing mafioso in a
dark suit and sunglasses” (Smecca 2009: 114). However, different
campaigns have tried to modify the negative attributes related to Sicily.
Dolce and Gabbana, two icons in the world of fashion design and both

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Sicilians, launched a promotional campaign in 2004/05 to promote their
new perfume, Sicily. This campaign promoted Sicilian stereotypes from a
positive and stylish perspective. According to Kotler and Gertner (2004),
turning a negative stereotype into a positive one through repositioning is
one of the three strategies a destination can actuate to correct a negative
image.

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2.5 Commercial Tourism Photography

The relationship between tourism and photography has been widely

studied by different researchers, including Urry (1990), Jenkins (2003),
Garlick (2002) and Larsen (2003). These academics share the opinion that
photography is a significantly influential medium for the promotion of
tourism destinations. The peculiar characteristics of the medium allow a
destination to best reproduce its natural and cultural resources and frame
them from the best-possible perspective. For this reason, the functional
power of photographic representations can transform a place into a
destination (Hunter 2008). In particular, according to Adler (1989),
photographs have transformed the way tourism is transmitted from the
narrative language of travel writers into a visual code. However, as Urry
and Larsen (2011:155) observe: “photographs are more than just
representations. They are performative objects generating affective
sensations”.

Currently, tourism depends greatly on photographic representation, in

terms of both production and consumption (Urry 1990). The production
and distribution of photographic representations has an economic and
affective value. In fact, such images provide a tool through which it is
possible to describe and perceive the world (Hunter 2008).

In place marketing, photographic images have become the perfect

medium through which promote a destination, using travel brochures,
postcards and guidebooks to influence travel decisions (Hunter 2008).
Crawshaw and Urry (1997) researched how commercial tourism
photographs could be improved, in terms of contents, element framing and
composition, in order to make them more effective at attracting
consumers. According to the study, photographers need to avoid:

26
“Vehicles, cars anything that would date a picture. … Anything that is
obtrusive and jars. People with bright clothes on, people carrying plastic
bags… dead trees, barbed wire … derelict buildings, scaffolding. Road
signs, litter, car parks, crowds, traffic jams, low flying planes, Bermuda
shorts” (Crawshaw and Urry, 1997: 187, cited in Urry and Larsen 2011).

On the other hand, regarding the consumption of photographs, this is

intrinsically related to the condition of being a tourist. Tourists consume
photographic images of the destination before, during and after travelling.
Before travelling they consume photographs to gather information about
the destination. While travelling, tourists produce photographs in order to
collect memories. Once at home, people share their personal photographs
with other people, friends and family, through the narration of their
memories. In addition, people now share their photographs with a wider
audience by uploading their pictures onto blogs, social media platforms
and websites, while travelling or afterwards, enabling others to find
information about a tourist’s experience of a destination (Tussyadiah
2010).

In relation to the production and consumption of photographic images,

Urry (1990) has developed the paradigm of the “Tourist Gaze”. Urry's
thesis is that most tourism practice and experience is about the acting and
framing of a gaze, created by the tourism industry, which uses the physical
framework of the photographic image and socially constructed framework
of social people who act on an imaginary stage.


Commercial photographs are generators of desires and needs, implicated
in our post-Fordist society dominated by capitalism. Photographs have the
quality of transforming the unknown into reality through the tool of visual
representation, making the object of the photography available for all

27
those who look at the picture (Crowshaw and Urry 1997). As Hunter
(2008) observes, photographs provide potential tourists with the
information needed to build their expectations and mental images, giving
them instruction about what is worth seeing once at the destination and
what to photograph. As Goss (1993: 663) states, “destination marketing is
simultaneously implicated in the construction of place imagery and the
constitution of subjects who experience that image in specific ways”.
However, the practice of tourism photography has been criticized due to
concerns regarding its implication in image formation. The images
captured by the camera are decontextualized as the photographer has the
freedom to frame whatever catches his interest, thus altering reality
(Hunter 2008).

Figure 2. The Circle of Representations (source: Jenkins 2003)

As mentioned above, Urry links the phenomenon of producing tourism

photography by marketers with the phenomenon of consumption-
reproduction of photographs by tourists, affirming that, linked together,

28
they form a “Closed Hermeneutic Circle” (Urry, 2002). This process of
cyclical reproduction of photographic images has been discussed by
different academics in the tourism field. Some have criticised Urry’s
hermeneutic circle; in particular, Haldrup and Larsen (2003) argue that the
tourism experience is more than just the reproduction of pre-programmed
photographic images. As reported by Garrod (2009), Larsen suggests that
there are different motivations that push tourists to produce photographs,
some of which are related to social activities and place consumption.

29
2.6 Summary

The present literature review has highlighted some relevant points of

interest. These points are related to the topics of image and photography,
needed as a base of academic information on top of which the findings of
this research project can be analysed.

Drawing on the literature analysis, it is observed that the topic of image

has been discussed a lot by academics since its first introduction in 1970s.

As point of reflection, it is detected that the majority of the research

exploring themes of image and photography refer back to studies made in
the ‘90s; those studies are still valid now in the global era. However, it is
also true that even though the topic of image has been studied for
decades, several academics point out a gap in its definition which needs
to be filled to gain a better understanding of the topic, encouraging
academics to find a universal definition (Jenkins 1999).

As second point of reflection, it is possible to argue that, even though

different scholars have analysed the topic of photography in the tourism
field, Urry (2002) has been the most influential. Urry's conceptualisation of
the “tourist gaze” stresses the importance of photography for tourists, both
as a practice during travel and as a source of information and motivation
before travel. Urry’s "Circle of Representation” connects the phenomenon
of the production of photographs by marketers for tourism advertising
purposes with the phenomenon of consumption-reproduction of similar
photographs made by tourists.

These two topics, destination image and photography, are both

significantly relevant for the present work. This research aims to

30
understand how the use of photographic images promoted by marketers
can influence the destination images of potential tourists, and therefore
how the usage of such images marketing tools to attract tourists to a
destination can be improved. 


31
 Chapter 3

Methodology and Methods

3.1 Introduction

The objective of this chapter is to explore the research strategy and

philosophical approach underpinning the carrying out of this project.
In the first section the research philosophy will be justified and reinforced
by the necessary theory to support the arguments. Following that, the
method used to gather and analyse the data will be illustrated. Lastly, the
research methods’ limitations will be evaluated in order to identify
weaknesses and their suitability for addressing the research objectives.

As previously mentioned, the research objectives to be achieved are:

1. To identify which set of elements recur in photographs of Sicily used by

marketers in destination travel websites. 


2. To investigate how photographic images used by marketers in

destination travel websites represent Sicily as a tourism destination.

3. To determine what naive image of Sicily are held by the target segment
of European young adults aged between 25 and 35 years old, and to verify
if those images include stereotypes.

4. To evaluate if those photographic images of Sicily promoted by

marketers are positively valued by the target segment of European young
adults, and to verify if those photographs contribute to creating an
appealing image of Sicily.

32
3.2 Research Philosophy

According to Jennings (2010), methodologies are ruled by distinctive

“paradigms”. Paradigms are a set of ideas that guide the action, taken in
relation to a disciplined research. The most recognized paradigms in
research literature are positivism and interpretivism (Veal, 2011).

Positivism is based on empirical studies; it recognizes reality as structured

and led by rules grounded on science (Jennings 2010). Interpretivism, in
contrast, is the opposite approach, exploring reality internally, from an
individual perspective (Veal, 2011). This second approach is more suitable
for the nature of the present work due to the topic being investigated,
which requires us to find an interpretation of a specific phenomenon
(Bryman, 2012).

According to Veal (2011), the main methodological approaches of research

are quantitative and qualitative. The principal opposition between the two
methods is that quantitative research implicates numbers, whereas
qualitative research involves words and images. Quantitative research
draws on measurement and quantification of figures and evidence,
assessed objectively through standardized research methods (Flick,
2006). For the purpose of this research, an analysis will be conducted
which is framed according to the interpretivist paradigm. A qualitative
methodology will be used, paired with a holistic-induced paradigm
(Jennings 2010).

This is because a quantitative research kind of methodology has been

proved inadequate in terms of providing results for the research objectives
(Veal, 2011). A qualitative approach is deemed more suitable for the
present research project because it explores the ideas and aptitudes of

33
interviewees (Flick 2006). This leads to a preference for an inductive
strategy which generates theories as a result of the conducted
investigation (Veal 2011).

The present work employs a qualitative methodological strategy in order to

collect in-depth data about the studied theme. The overall aim is to
appraise how the use of photographic images can influence individuals’
mental images of a destination. In order to examine the phenomenon, two
different methods have been used: content analysis of secondary data and
semi-structured interviewing of a sample market segment of potential
tourists. Based on the responses of the interviewees, key themes have
been drawn out and utilised to achieve the research objectives (Jennings
2010).

However, as Jennings (2010) points out, each methodology has its

limitations. Firstly, the empirical evidence resulting from using a qualitative
method is based on the production of key topics interpreted by the
researcher, who has not followed a standardised procedure. Therefore, the
research will not be replicable.

Secondly, even though qualitative methods require a certain amount of

researcher subjectivity, this can influence the findings, resulting in a lack of
objectivity. This can also be considered as a limitation related to the
specific research approach (Jennings 2010).

Nevertheless, due to the nature of the analysed topic, photographs and

mental images, a qualitative methodology framed within a interpretivist
paradigm has been evaluated by the researcher as the most appropriate
choice.

34
3.3 Research Sources

In accordance with the research objectives and the connected appropriate

paradigm, a combination of primary and secondary data and empirical
primary material has been chosen for analysis in order to carry out the
investigation. As Volo (2008) observes, although the topics of image and
photography have been greatly discussed by academics, “hardly any
study has been conducted on Sicily” (Volo 2008: 20). Therefore, the topic
studied requires the collection of primary data and empirical material,
gathered in accordance with the scope of the present study.

Jennings (2010) considers some relevant advantages and disadvantages

of this approach. Primary data and empirical material collection are always
undertaken first-hand by the researcher for the exact objective of
comprehending the phenomenon being studied. Therefore, the collected
data will have the positive attributes of being relevant, up-to-date,
transparent, reliable and designed for achieving the purpose of the
research.

However, Jennings (2010) also acknowledges some limitations of

gathering primary data. Human participation can be reactive for the
research because interviewees may alter their behaviour as they are
conscious of being studied. It is intrusive as participants are required to
invest time and energy in the investigation. It is resource-costly and time
consuming as data needs to be collected, analysed, interpreted and
reconstructed.
However, despite these limitations, the advantages of this research's
approach are more relevant to the success of the analysis.

35
Additionally, the present project analyses secondary data collected online.
Secondary data in the form of photographs will be studied, examining it
using the content analysis method. According to Rakic and Chambers
(2010) the characteristics that this secondary material needs to possess to
be successfully studied are: manageability, reliability, representability and
relevance to the research objectives.

36
3.4 Research Methods

Having discussed the idea that, for the success of the analysis, a
qualitative methodology associated with a holistic-inductive paradigm is
the best choice, it is now time to evaluate which research methods are the
most suitable.
As Jennings (2010) remarks, methods are instruments used by the
researcher to collect empirical data. In this research process, three
different methods have been appraised as most effective for achieving the
research objectives: content analysis and photo-elicitation, which fall
under the sub-category of visual methods, and semi-structured
interviewing.

3.4.1 Visual Methods

Research objective 1, 2 and 4

1. To identify which set of elements recur in photographs of Sicily used

by marketers in destination travel websites. 

2. To investigate how photographic images used by marketers, in

destination travel websites, represent Sicily as a tourism destination.

4. To evaluate if those photographic images of Sicily promoted by

marketers are positively valued by the target segment of European yang
adults, and to verify if those photographs contribute to creating an
appealing image of Sicily.

37
Tourism studies, as tourism practices are intrinsically related to images.
Visual methods are relevant tools for helping researchers to access
knowledge.
In this research project, with photographs being the key topic of analysis,
visual material is analysed so as to achieve the first, second and fourth
research objectives.
This will be discussed in more depth in the following paragraphs.

3.4.1.1 Method 1. Content Analysis

In order to achieve the first and second research objectives, an analysis of

the visual representations collected through secondary sources was
conducted. Photographic representations of Sicily were identified and
examined from the supply perspective. 

The analysis focused on the material produced by the different destination
marketers and promoters. The purpose of this first research step was to
attempt to identify how photographic images promoted by marketers
represent Sicily. In addition, the research aimed to investigate the set of
characteristics which recur in Sicilian marketing promotional photographs.
This was achieved by using content analysis.

Content analysis has been chosen for analysing the data due to the
research need for an empirical and interpretive approach (Hunter 2008).
Krippendorf (1980:21 in Ritchie et al. 2005:191) defines content analysis
as: “A research technique for making replicable and valid interferences
from data to their context”. The technique is based on numbering the
frequency with which certain visual elements recur in a defined sample of
images. Once the frequencies are gathered together the data is analysed
(Rose 2012).

38
Although the chosen research approach is qualitative, the specific
characteristics of the method adopted require a first stage of investigation
which needs quantitative data. Ritchie et al. (2005) debate the idea that
the main limitation of this research approach “is the potential influence of
the researcher. Researcher bias has the potential to constrain decisions
on data collection, analysis and interpretation in favor of the research
hypothesis” (Neuendorf 2002, in Ritchie et al. 2005:191). Therefore, the
value of the analysis relies on the skills and judgments of the researcher.
An additional limitation of the content analysis method is that, as Rose
(2012) observes, it is hard to transform numerical and quantitative
information, required for the data collection step regarding secondary
sources, into qualitative information which then needs to be analysed and
translated into results.

• Photographic Study

Photographic visual material has been studied in order to comprehend the

projected tourism representation of Sicily as produced by different
destination marketers, to identify the official induced image of Sicily.

Rose (2012) identifies four steps the researcher has to follow to produce a
content analysis. The first step is images research; A total of 74 images
have been collected from those official tourism websites that appeared in
the first ten positions when searching for: “Sicily official tourism”. On each
website, the pictures which appeared in the photo galleries of the main
sections were picked, as those images represented a sample of the
general overview of the promoted destination. Some photographs have
been excluded from the analysis as they appeared in more than one
website, therefore representing a duplicate. After exclusion of the

39
duplicates, 70 photographic images were left which possessed the
attributes of being both significant and representative.

Following Rose’s (2012) process, the second and third steps refer to
coding the images through the identification of specific categories. The
chosen categories need to be exhaustive, exclusive and enlightening but,
most importantly, based on the research objectives (Krippendorff 1980).
The coding categories for the present project have been created following
two different criteria: inductive and deductive. The deductive element is
based on the literature review and the research objectives. The inductive
element is based on the outcomes of the research. Additionally, the
categories were chosen according to visual shared characteristics among
the photographs.

Finally, the fourth step identified by Rose (2012) is the analysis of the
results. As Rose (2012: 100) underlines: “A more sophisticated analysis
can be developed by exploring the relations between different coding
categories”. Therefore, the categories have been qualitatively analysed
and grouped into smaller classes based on the relationships between the
different labels. Six subcategories have been found: photographic
technique, light, environment type, presence of people or animals,
resources and cultural identity (For more information see table
1,2,3,4,5,6).

It is possible to argue that this analysis is subject to some limitations. As

Hall and Valentin (chap. 15 in Brent et al. 2005) observe, the primary
drawback is related to sampling. In this research the material analysed
could have been broader. This is because many other websites could have
provided additional information as tourists make different selection choices
when looking for information in the vast sea of the internet. The present

40
analysis does not take into consideration all possible materials but just a
sample selected for convenience, in accordance with the research
objectives and for the specific purposes of this research project. An
additional limitation, claimed by different academics, is that visual
methodologies are subject to the point of view of the researcher who
interprets the visual data (Botterill and Platenkamp 2012). However, the
advantage of choosing the content analysis method is that the codes
selected by the researcher possess the characteristics of reproducibility
and validity, and therefore the codes are verifiable.

3.4.1.2 Method 2. Photo-Elicitation

For the specific purpose of this research project, it has been decide to
focus only on textual representations such as photographs. The photo-
elicitation technique has been evaluated as the best method of achieving
the fourth research objective. According to Rakic and Chambers (2012),
the photo-elicitation method uses photographs as a device for eliciting
answers during an interview process and gathering data. The photographs
inserted into the interview can be taken by the researcher, by the
respondents or produced by secondary resources (Veal 2011). Rose
(2012) illustrates the main strengths of this approach.

Croghan et al (2008) illustrate some of the limitations connected to the

photo-elicitation technique. Being a critical approach, this method requires
the researcher to spend a valuable amount of time and resources on
research production and analysis of the data as photographs need to be
either researched or produced. Moreover, it requires its practitioners to be
as objective as possible, trying to avoid showing their subjective points of
view during the interview and during the analysis stage.

41
Photo-elicitation has been chosen in this research project because it is
considered to be the most appropriate method for evaluating destination
photographic representations of Sicily. The semi-structured interview
method, which will be discussed in the next paragraph, has also been
chosen by the researcher in association with the photo-elicitation
technique. The conversation was driven around five images representing
Sicily, collected by the researcher from five different websites promoting
the destination online. Those images was used to investigate topics such
as image and perception so as to find out attitudes and opinions relating to
the Sicilian destination as held by the target segment of European young
adults who have never been to Sicily. Each image was chosen for a
unique characteristic representing the destination and for replicability in
the explored websites. A sample of the questionnaire used can be found in
Appendix 1.

3.4.2 Textual Methods

3.4.2.1 Method 3. Semi-Structured Interviewing

Research objective 3

3. To determine which are the naive images of Sicily held by the target segment of
European young adults, aged between 25 and 35 years old, and to verify if those
images include stereotypes.

Several scholars define interviews as conversations with an objective

(Jennings 2010; Dexter 1970). Oakley (1981) criticises this definition as
too simplistic. For Oakley (1981), interviews are a pseudo-conversation
with rules to follow, in a relationship of mutual trust between the

42
interviewer and the respondent, allowing the researcher to make a
contribution to the conversation.

By looking at the levels of contributions made by the researcher to the

interview process, and to the structure of the interview questionnaire, it is
possible to distinguish different kind of interviews, ranging from structured
to unstructured (Jennings 2010). Semi-structured interviewing is the
method chosen for this research project, in which the interaction between
the researcher and the subject is a two-sided conversation. Semi-
structured interviewing appears to be a suitable method of effectively
providing results for the third research objective, as it presents a way to
achieve insight into the real perceptions of the subjects, to understand
respondents’ perceptions of the destination and to identify if those
perceptions are driven by stereotypes (Jennings 2010).

As Jennings (2010) highlights, there are some limitations in this research

approach. Specifically, participants may do not provide their real beliefs
but instead give information that they think will please the researcher
(Jennings 2010). This issue has been a real disadvantage in the present
research project as respondents may have felt restricted about giving their
honest opinions when answering questions about Sicily, as most of them
knew that the researcher is of Sicilian origin. Moreover, as Finn et al
(2000) observe, when answers are derived from open questions and
discussion this may reduce the comparability between the empirical data
collected.

However, the semi-structured interview approach has been chosen for the
purposes of this research as its advantages and suitability largely
overcome the limitations. According to Jennings (2010), one of the main
strengths of this method is its capacity to study multiple realities, therefore

43
providing rich material. In fact, this research project needs a method like
this which allows the researcher to study the impressions of a variety of
subjects, most of whom came from different backgrounds, cultures and
nationality. The subjects studied are from different European countries.

• Sampling

According to Brotherton (2008), a sample is a segment of a whole,

commonly known as a population. The sample segment shares common
attributes with the population. “A sample which is not representative of the
population is described as bias in the sample” (Veal 2011: 357). 


In this research project, the sample size of the semi-structured interview

comprises 20 respondents, who were chosen using the strategy identified
by Miles and Huberman (1994) as purposive sampling. Using purposive
sampling, the subjects were picked according to specific criteria. The
criteria used to select the interviewees in this research project were:

- nationality: European
- age group: between 20 and 35 years old
- no direct experience of destination: those who had never been to Sicily.

In terms of ethical concerns, the interviews have been analysed

anonymously, as for analytical purposes the only characteristics important
to the research are the ones listed above.

• Data Collection

The researcher conducted 20 interviews over the period between July and
August 2015. The selection of the respondents was determined by the

44
sampling criteria, as explained in the above paragraph. The interviews
were conducted in London as the researcher was based there but the
interviewees were from different European countries. Interviewing people
in London was preferable because the city offers a wide variety of people
coming from all around Europe, and due to the preference for conducting
a face-to-face interview, rather than using other media. Therefore all the
interviews were conducted face-to-face, with an average of 20-30 minutes
per interview. The main issue resulting from the choice to conduct face-to-
face interviews was a lack of time for the respondents. Three subjects had
to cancel their meetings due to lack of availability.

Each interview was recorded, after asking for permission from the
respondents, then transcribed to facilitate the analysis. The researcher
used the interview guide that can be found in appendix 1. This was
created according to the literature review, the research objectives and
previous knowledge of the researcher (from being from Sicily). The
framework of the interview covered exploring images of Sicily and the
origins of those images with participants. Moreover, in association with the
photo-elicitation technique, the interview was designed to explore the
reactions of participants to images projected by marketers, and how those
images matched respondents’ mental images of the destination.

The research guide was followed chronologically for all the interviews,
although there were some divergences and diversions from interview to
interview due to respondents’ previous knowledge, attitudes or interests.
Therefore the interview guide was slightly altered to meet the
characteristics of the respondent and consequently achieve a deeper
focus in the conversation. However, in the end, the interviews were similar
enough to make their results comparable and analysis possible.

45
All the interviews were conducted in English, this being the shared
language of the researcher and the respondents. However, the language
did represent a barrier to some extent because English was the second
language of all the interviewees and for the researcher, and therefore
some expressions and definitions would have been more detailed if the
respondents had had the possibility of expressing themselves in their
native language.

3.4.2.1 Thematic Analysis

Thematic analysis is described by Williamson and Whittaker (2014) as a

form of qualitative data analysis, a “method for identifying, analyzing and
reporting patterns (themes) within data” (Braun and Clarke 2006: 79).
However, as Braun and Clarke (2006) point out, between scholars there is
no a standardised practice for implementing it. Williamson and Whittaker
(2014) describe a way of producing a thematic analysis. The authors
underline the importance of the creation of codes, which are common
characteristics within the data collected from each interview, and which are
chosen according to the interests of the researcher. Once a list of codes
has been identified, the next step is to group the codes into broader
themes, related one to another, and which represent a superior level of
analysis (Williamson and Whittaker 2014).

Braun and Clarke (2006) claim that codes and themes are generated in
relation to the research objectives and from the researcher’s prior
understanding of the phenomenon. This is the case for this research
project, given the researcher’s prior information on and experience of
Sicily. In the present research study, the analysis process involved the
transcription of all 20 interviews, avoiding oral expressions of hesitation
(such as mhh…, I mean etc. ).

46
3.5 Summary

This chapter has highlighted the methodological approach used in this

research project. Advantages and disadvantages of each method, plus
their applicability to the study, have been pointed out, with a discussion of
the motivation behind each choice and the steps used to implement it.
Moreover, the connection between the methods has been explained in
order to collocate each technique within the wider prospect of the whole
research project.

In synthesis, an interpretivist philosophical approach was chosen as the

research paradigm. The research study was carried out using a qualitative
research approach, with a combination of primary and secondary data. In
particular, the investigation used three different methods, two of them to
assess visual data and the third to assess text data. 


47
 Chapter 4.

Discussion of Findings

4.1 Introduction

The present chapter will present the findings of the research study. It will
be divided into two sections, one for each research method utilised.
Section one will discuss the findings from the content analysis. In
particular, this section aims to achieve the second and third research
objectives. Section two will present the results of the semi-structured
interviews, together with the results of the photo elicitation, in order to
provide evidence for the first and fourth research objectives. Finally, the
results will be compared and discussed, making reference to the existing
literature, in order to provide a whole framework through which to better
understand the studied phenomena.

48
4.2 Section one: Content Analysis

Research objective 1 and 2

1. To identify which set of elements recur in photographs of Sicily used by marketers in

destination travel websites.

As previously mentioned a total of 70 photographs taken from 7 Sicilian

tourism websites have been sampled. The analysis has identified 28 code
categories, which have been subsequently grouped into 6 subcategories.
These subcategories have been organised into 6 different tables. Each
table includes the name of the subcategory group, the code with its
corresponding number of photographs and its percentage. For more
details see table 1,2,3,4,5 and 6.

PHOTOGRAFIC
TECHNIQUE

FREQUENCIES
CODE
( /70) PERCENTAGE %

Black and White 1 1.42%

Colors 69 99%

Blue Water 26 37%

Blue Sky 55 78.5%

Landscape 39 55.7%

Table 1. Frequency of codes, Photographic Technique

49
 LIGHT

CODE FREQUENCIES ( /70) PERCENTAGE %

Day light 55 78.5%

Night light 12 17.1%

Artificial light 4 5.5%

Table 2. Frequency of codes, Light

RESOURCES

FREQUENCIES (
CODE
/70) PERCENTAGE %

Facilities 7 10%

Activities 4 5.5%

Night life 0 0%

Food and Wine 2 3%

Vehicles 14 20%

Table 3. Frequency of codes, Resources

ENVIRONENTAL AREA

CODE FREQUENCIES ( /70) PERCENTAGE %

Seaside area 24 34.2%

Urban area 21 30%

Natural area 36 51%

Heritage area 28 40%

Prestine area 21 30%

Table 4. Frequency of codes, Environmental Area

50
 PRESENCE OF PEOPLE
OR ANIMALS

CODE FREQUENCIES ( /70) PERCENTAGE %

People (primo piano) 2 3%

People far 11 16%

No people 57 81%

Locals 1 1.4%

Animals 0 0%

Table 5. Frequency of codes, Presence of People or Animals

CULTURAL IDENTITY

FREQUENCIES ( /
CODE
70) PERCENTAGE %

Traditional Culture 11 16%

Volcano 10 14.2%

Food and Wine 2 3%

Sicilian Baroque 18 26%

Architecture

Harbour 5 7%

Table 6. Frequency of codes, Cultural Identity

51
Figure 3 represent an example of coding process applied to a photograph.

• Picture 9F - Trapani, Segesta 


codes: no people; daylight; colours; blue sky; heritage area.

Figure 3. (photo 9F): “Trapani, Segesta” (Source: Sito ufficiale del turismo in Italia,
2012)

The analysis of the data collected shows some important trends that
should be pointed out. The most striking evidence is that 55 of the 70
pictures were shot on sunny days. This means that Sicily is mainly
represented as a sunny destination where the weather is always nice and
warm. Overall, a total of 60 pictures (24 seaside destinations and 36
natural areas) show amazing scenery, representing Sicily as a beautiful
land immersed in green. 34% of the images portray seaside areas. This

52
reflects the idea of Sicily as a sea and sun holiday destination, a relaxing
place for visitors where they can swim in crystalline water.

The same concepts of a peaceful land can be inferred by analysing the

presence of people in the pictures. Among the total of 70 pictures, 57 do
not show the presence of people or animals. 11 pictures show people from
very far away and only 2 show people in the foreground. This enhances
the idea of a peaceful land where one can relax without being disturbed by
the noise of other people.

Although the absence of people in pictures showing long beaches and

coastal areas could be perceived by visitors as a strong advantage for a
destination, on the other hand this might not be the case for other scenery
types. In 21 pictures representing urban areas only three showed people;
in particular, 2 pictures portrayed people from very far away and just 1
picture showed people in the foreground doing an activity. The absence of
life in urban pictures could represent a disadvantage for promoting the
destination, as it could be parcelled as desolate, tedious or to a certain
extent inauthentic. (See example picture below, figure 4)

Figure 4 (Photo 5E): “Piazza Teatro Massimo, Catania”

(Soure: Dimensione Sicilia Tour Operator e DMC, 2015)

53
Furthermore, out of the total of 70 pictures analysed, only 7 showed the
clear presence of facilities such as restaurants, transports or hotels (see
tale 3). In the majority of the images beautiful but empty scenery is seen,
as if pristine beauty and empty ruins is all Sicily can offer. Moreover, only 4
of the analysed photographs show activities a tourist could do, for example
an excursion over Mount Etna or shopping at a local market (see tale 3).
Traditional culture, such as traditional food and wine, are almost
completely forgotten in the images; in fact, only 2 pictures show a
traditional Sicilian plate. In addition, locals are almost never represented,
either with Sicilian stereotypical images of the “mafioso” or as ordinary
people. However, as Gertner and Kotler (2004) point out, a negative
stereotype can be turned into a positive one, therefore the image of the
mafioso can be transformed into a funny and folkloristic image that can
attract visitors.

In addition, none of the pictures taken under examination represent

nightlife. As mentioned by Volo (2008), Sicily is a land with an energetic
and variable nightlife and an emergent music scene; in the summer period
especially it offers a good variety of festivals which attract a young
audience. Some pictures could have showed Sicilians events, such us the
“Not Fest” which is a popular festival which runs every years in the island
the 15th of August, to celebrate summer. Some other pictures could have
included the Taormina nightlife. For example, the greek theatre of
Taormina, is not just a beautiful historic sight, during the year it becomes a
stage for different shows, representations and concerts, some pictures
should include to represent the theatre in action, as it is a suggestive place
to see a performance.

Moreover, the presence of infrastructures, amenities and activities, as well

as local traditions and lifestyle, seems to be completely ignored. A good

54
example is represented by the 5 pictures of the harbour (see figure 5). All
the pictures representing a Sicilian harbour show the traditional Sicilian
blue and red boats but none of them include a fisherman or a fish.
Furthermore, it is not clear to which market segment the promoting
campaign is directed as there are no representations of tourist activities or
tourists anywhere in analysed sample.
On the other hand, it is possible to argue that the photographs analyzed
avoid to show elements that, as suggested by Crawshaw and Urry (1997),
can compromise the purpose of the photo to attract tourists. Those
elements are, as previously mentioned in the literature review chapter:
vehicles, cars, people with bright clothes, road signs, traffic congestion
ecc.. .

Figure 5 (Photo 5G): “Harbor of Marettimo” (Soure: Sicilia Turismo, 2015)

55
However, there are as well some interesting representations that it is worth
to point out and into which marketers should concentrate to provide a
more catching representation of Sicily. The most important is the
representation of the volcano Etna (see figure 6).

Figure 6 (Photo 5B): “Volcano Etna” (Soure: Visit Sicily Tour, 2015)

The mount Etna is the highest volcano in Europe, and it is an outstanding

attraction that needs to be more represented in photographs of Sicily.
Moreover the mount Etna, as stated by Cuccia and Rizzo (2009), if well
advertised can help Sicily to fight the issue of seasonality. Being a
mediterranean island, Sicily is perceived as a destination mainly for
summer vacations, however the active volcano of Etna can provide
activities all year around, as it is a destination for excursionist of all kinds.
In addition, in winter the volcano is transformed in a ski resort, which offer
the possibility to ski having in front the mediterranean sea. It is a unique
attraction in all the world and it should be more advertised by Sicilian and
Italian marketers. Some of the analyzed websites do not display either one
picture of the volcano in the introductive page (e.g. Sito ufficiale del
turismo in Italia, 2012; gustare and gustare, 2015).

56
In conclusion, the findings of the content analysis reveal that Sicily is
represented as a destination immersed in nature with beautiful landscapes
and coasts, as well as being a historic destination containing ruins from
different historic populations. Therefore, the image that stands out from the
analysis of Sicilians and Italians tourism promotion websites is of a typical
mediterranean destination, which can offer relaxing holidays for those who
are attracted by cultural and sea and sun kind of vacations.


57
4.3 Section two: Interviews and Photo-Elicitation

Research objective 3 and 4

3.To determine what naive image of Sicily are held by the target segment of European
young adults aged between 25 and 35 years old, and to verify if those images include
stereotypes.

4. To evaluate if those photographic images of Sicily promoted by marketers are

positively valued by the target segment of European young adults, and to verify if those
photographs contribute to creating an appealing image of Sicily.

Section two presents the findings resulting from the semi-structured

interviews, including the photo-elicitation technique. These investigated
naive images held by potential tourists, in particular European young
adults, and how those tourists perceived induced destination
representations. The data collected were analysed through thematic
analysis and are presented following the structure of the questionnaire:

• Step I. Respondent Information

• Step II. Guided Questions
• Step III. Photo-Elicitation

4.3.1 Step I. Respondent Information

To achieve the research objectives a total of 20 subjects have been

interviewed. This section presents the participants profiles summarized in
table 7, for a clearer understanding of the sample. For the complete list
with the profile of the interviewees see appendix 2.

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Category Results

Gender • Male: 7
• Female: 13
Age group • 20-25: 8


• 26-30: 6


• 31-35: 6
European Nationality • British: 2
• Bulgarian: 1
• Danish: 1
• Dutch: 1
• German: 1
• Greek: 1
• Hungarian: 1
• Lithuanian: 1
• Polish: 1
• Portuguese: 3
• Rumanian: 2
• Spanish: 3
• Swiss: 1
• Turkish: 1
Table 7. Respondent information

4.3.2 Step II. Guided Questions

Step II aimed to meet the first research objective and therefore focused on
the identification of naive images and the presence of stereotypical images
in interviewees’ perceptions of Sicily. Five questions were used. The first
question focused on geographical information, to see if respondents could
locate Sicily in space. The second and third questions focused on
identifying existing knowledge about the destination and on the origin of
this information, respectively. The fourth question requested the
respondents to describe their mental pictures of Sicily, while the last
question asked the interviewees to express their willingness and
motivation to visit the destination.

59
Finally, the transcript of the interviews was analysed using thematic
analysis (Bryman, A. 2012). The results, drawn in accordance with the
studied academic literature and the researcher’s personal knowledge,
have highlighted some key themes and recurring topics.

The findings reveal that, despite the interviewees being almost all from
different European countries and in different age groups, the answers
provided are significantly similar and highly comparable when revealing
their knowledge and mental idea of Sicily.

In fact, for example, when asked to locate Sicily geographically, 15 out of

the 20 interviewees answered that Sicily is an island off southern Italy.

4.3.2.1 Source of informations

Respondents were asked to list a total of 5 words that arose in their minds
when thinking about Sicily. The most frequent words were: food, which
was mentioned 15 times; beaches and warm weather, both mentioned 10
times; mafia, mentioned 9 times; mountains, mentioned 8 times; nice
people, mentioned 7 times (The frequencies of keywords mentioned by
interviewees answering question 5, can been found below, please see
table 8).

60
 KEYWORD
FREQUENCIES
(Including variation)

Food 15

Beaches 10

Warm weather 10

Mafia 9

Mountains 8

Nice people 7

Sea 6

Sun 5

Scenery 4

History 3

Holiday 3

Italy 3

Beautiful 2

Fragrance 2

Garden 2

Unique 2

Others 1

Table 8 . Keywords Frequencies Results Tabulation

61
According to the analysis, respondents shared similar knowledge of Sicily.
Moreover, most of the interviewees answered that their main sources of
information were friends, those who had been to Sicily and those who
were Sicilians or Italians. School and films were another common source
of knowledge for potential tourists.

On the other hand, internet research into the destination have been
named only 3 times by the respondents. This demonstrates that the
images held by the studied segment were naive images, according to the
definition provided by Selby and Morgan (1996): naive images are
people’s mental perception of a destination, made by different secondary
sources, in the absence of a direct visit of the destination.

4.3.2.2 Themes

The analysis of the responses held by interviewees, revealed two main

themes: Sicilian-Italian image overlap, and positive and negative
stereotypes. However, it is worth mentioning that some results data may
belong to more than one category or fall between the two.

• Association with Italy

One of the key themes emerging from the interviews was an overlap
between Sicilian and Italian images in respondents’ perceptions.
When asked to describe their mental images of Sicily and Sicilians,
interviewees started explaining images more common to Italy than to Sicily
or even justifying themselves, saying, for example: “I image Sicilians are
similar to Italians, very energetic people, always smiling and speaking
loudly” (Respondent J). This kind of justification turns around the point that

62
respondents have little knowledge of Sicily; they think about the
destination as an extension of Italy.

Moreover, some respondents had no information at all about Sicilian

culture and therefore they associated it completely with Italian culture,
arguing: “I don’t know much about Sicily, I know Italian food is great so I
think Sicilian food must be good as well!” (Respondent H). According to
this response, Sicily does not seem to an individual identity, so for some
respondents it is not easy to distinguish the Sicilian image from the Italian
image. One respondent justified this point by claiming that: “Sicily is not a
separate independent region from Italy; that is why when I think about Italy
I do not think about any specific region but a sum off them all, which
includes Sicily as well. So, when I think about Sicily I generally think about
Italy” (Respondent N).

in almost all the interviews. In fact, a significant number of answers, 17 out

of 20, mentioned Italy and Italian stereotypes when describing mental
images of Sicily. This phenomenon is probably caused by a lack of
information about the destination. Indeed, the three respondents who had
a distinctive image of Sicily were those three who specified in question 6
that internet research was one of their sources of information for their
knowledge about Sicily, due to their previous interest in visiting the
destination.

Therefore, it is possible to argue that the three respondents who had

searched for online information about Sicily had a induced mental image
of the destination, one more rich in detail and consequently different from
the superficial image of Sicily overlapping with the Italian one held by the
rest of the interviewees.

63
However, it is also true that, in most cases, once the conversation went
deeper and respondents felt more comfortable about expressing their
thoughts, some interesting Sicilian stereotypes emerged from the
conversation. These positive and negative Sicilian stereotypes will be
discussed in the following paragraph.

• Positive and Negative Stereotypes

As Baud-Bovy and Lawason (1977) point out, stereotypes are the sum of
the knowledge and impressions individuals have of a particular
phenomenon. 

Through the analysis of the collected responses the presence of common
stereotypical images among the interviewees emerged. The results show
the presence of both negative and positive Sicilian stereotypes.

Among the negative stereotypes, the most commonly found one was
associated with the “mafia”. All of the 20 interviewees mentioned the mafia
when describing Sicily. The phenomenon of the mafia and the character of
the mafioso are well known in Europe. However, based on the results of
this analysis, it can be said that this is a typical stereotype as respondents
know the word “mafia” but a significant number of them do not know what
the mafia is in reality.

The 4 male respondents knew about the mafia and associated it with Sicily
because they had seen the film The Godfather. Nevertheless, they were
aware that Sicily is no longer like it is described in the movie. On the other
hand, the female respondents aged 20-25 years old knew the word mafia,
but did not really know its meaning. They associated it with a negative
criminal situation which used to affect the Italian country in the past. This

64
image recalls, as mentioned in the previous paragraph, the overlap
between the Italian and Sicilian images held by the respondents.

Connected with the mafia stereotype is the stereotype of Sicilians.

Generally, Sicilians were described by the interviewees as “really nice and
welcoming people”, “tanned and with a strong and funny accent who talk a
lot with their hands” (Respondent R). “Men are good-looking and
womanizers but they live with their mothers until adulthood” (respondent
A). As can be seen from the last example, Sicilians are perceived by the
respondents as a sum of positive and negative stereotypical figures, the
latter associated with the old stereotype of the “Mafioso” (mafia
characters). Indeed, the interviews mentioned the idea that “families are
very close and family members look constantly after each
other” (Respondent S), with “men really jealous of their mothers and their
women” (respondent I). One respondent in particular provided a strong
stereotypical description of Sicilian people: “Small, old ladies always black
dressed with the ability to make wonderful food. Mafia guys in suits that
are too big and always carrying a gun”. This is an extreme example;
however, it is clear evidence that some people still perceive Sicily today as
it was 50 years ago. In particular, marketers, no representing Sicilians
people in the photos they provide for tourists do not help to change this
stereotypic image of Sicilians.

On the other hand, Sicily is also associated with some very positive
stereotypes that make the destination more appealing. The first and most
mentioned positive stereotype was the idea of an island with beautiful
beaches, crystalline water that is constantly kissed by the sun. The warm
weather and the pristine beaches were the first pull factor that seemed to
motivate respondents to desire to visit the destination. “I am not sure Sicily
has enough to see but for sure it has beautiful beaches where you can go

65
all year round; that it is why I would choose it for a relaxing
holiday” (Respondent P). This quote from respondent P, demonstrates that
there is still a significant ignorance regarding Sicily and what the
destination has to offer to tourists.

Another positive stereotype emerging from the investigation was “good

food and wine”.
Sicily was perceived as “the right destination for food and wine
lovers” (respondent F). However, it was frequently mentioned by the
interviewees that “generally Italy is famous for the cuisine and the wine, so
if I had to visit Italy, I would not choose Sicily. There are other regions in
Italy that I would rather visit for a cuisine and culture holiday” (Respondent
O). Therefore, the overlap between the Italian and Sicilian identities
appeared once again.

In conclusion, respondents showed a certain level of awareness of the

negative image of Sicily associated with the phenomenon of the mafia,
while expressing explicitly that they were not scared to visit the destination
and that they considered it extremely attractive and safe: “I am not scared
by the mafia, I think it is an old problem, and now when I think about Sicily
I image it as a nice place, full of fragrances and good people where to
spend my holidays” (Respondent D).

66
4.3.3 Step III. Photo-Elicitation

Step III aims to achieve the fourth research objective; i.e., to understand
how the target segment of European young adults who have never been
to Sicily perceive and value destination tourism photographs promoted by
marketers. From the material already studied for the content analysis (70
photographs collected from official Sicilian and Italian tourism websites) 5
pictures were selected for showing to respondents with the photo-
elicitation technique (see table 9 below). Each photo was selected
according to its representability for its category and its frequent presence
in the studied websites. The categories were: architecture and heritage,
natural scenery, seaside destination, urban area, tradition and cultural
identity. Analysis of the findings revealed three main themes.

Respondents were asked, first, to name five words that came to mind
while seeing the picture. Then they were asked to state if the photo
matched their mental image of the destination. Lastly, they were asked
about their willingness to visit Sicily based on the photograph they had
been shown. Conversations went further than the questions asked.

The collected data were coded using the general guidelines of the
thematic analysis (Bryman 2012 ). The identified themes were as below.

67
Photo showed Category Mental image Frequencies
represented correspondance willingness to
frequencies visit
1. Taormina Greek
Theatre • closely march: 5

• yes: 19
- Architecture and • somewhat match:
Arritage 12

• no: 1
• do not match: 4

2. Volcano Etna
Eruption • closely march: 10

• yes: 17
• somewhat match:
- Natural Scenery
5

• no: 3
• do not match: 5

3. Favignana, Cala
Azzurra
• closely march: 14

• yes: 16
- Seaside • somewhat match:
Destination 6

• no: 4
• do not match: 0

4. Catania
• closely march: 2

• yes: 16
• somewhat match:
- Urban Area
9

• no: 4
• do not match: 9

5. Acitrezza Harbor
• closely march: 14

• yes: 5
- Tradition and • somewhat match:
Cultural Identity 3

• no: 15
• do not match: 3

Table 9- Photo-Elicitation correspondents 


68
4.3.3.1 Themes

• Correspondence between organic images

Correspondence between organic images was observed by analysing the

answers interviewees gave when asked if the photographs they had in
front of them matched their mental picture of Sicily. The results showed
that two out of the five pictures presented close correspondence between
the photographic representation and the organic image held by
respondents. For example, picture three, which displayed the crystalline
water of a Sicilian costal destination, was perceived as highly
representative by 14 interviewees.

However, correspondence between images does not mean that the picture
has been attributed with a positive value. In fact, even though respondents
expressed willingness to visit the places represented, they also made
some relevant points of argument. 15 out of the 20 respondents
mentioned that the representation looked too desolate, and that it
reminded them of a solo trip. In particular, respondent O said that: “This
picture looks like many others I have seen before, so I do not care. It is not
new or interesting and it is pretty much expected when I visit an island in
the Mediterranean”. This sentence summarizes a shared feeling among
respondents.

According to that, a relevant and opposite example was represented by

responses to picture 1, which showed the amphitheatre of Taormina with
Mount Etna and the Mediterranean Sea in the background. 12
respondents answered that this picture matched their mental image of
Sicily, and 19 expressed willingness to visit that place as it was perceived
as unique. “I love this picture, it really catches my eyes, I think the

69
combination of scenery with the volcano and historic ruins is very
captivating and unique” (respondent R).

• Mediterranean island negative stereotypical representation

The results show that the photographs valued as matching respondents’

mental images of Sicily were also those which reflected the stereotypical
image of a Mediterranean island. For example, pictures 3 and 5 displayed
a coastal destination and a harbour, respectively, which are typical
representations of Mediterranean islands. Regarding picture 5, of the
Acitrezza harbour, respondent N argued: “It is nice, however it is nothing
new. I have travelled quite much in the Mediterranean and such an
environment is familiar to me. I love it but I do not get excited about it
anymore”.

On the other hand, the pictures which received the most positive
comments and the greatest desire were those which exhibited a factor of
uniqueness.
For example, picture 2, of the Etna volcano, received the maximum
amount of consensus in terms of positive comments. “I would love to read
and find out more about this place and the volcano. It looks so beautiful
and impressive” (Respondent P). “I had no idea that Etna was on Sicily, so
it definitely makes me wanna visit. It looks amazing and beautiful, and I
have read that it would be quite fun to go camping on a
volcano” (Respondent F).
In particular, this picture shows people doing an activity on the top of the
volcano, which confirms the thesis that people are more attracted by those
images with other people entertained, and not only empty beautiful
landscapes.

70
Therefore, the results show that young European potential tourists are
more attracted by photographs which represent unique elements, whether
they be a particular combination of elements in the photos or rare scenery.
Moreover, the results show that this particular market segment is
discouraged from visiting places that look either too lonely or too crowded.
In fact, picture 5, which displayed a particular perspective on the Acitrezza
harbour, was perceived by respondents as too crowded, industrial and not
relaxing. 15 respondents stated unwillingness to visit that place. This
phenomenon was due to the perspective from which the photo had been
shot. Seen from close up, Acitrezza’s harbour is a quiet and small port, full
of tradition and folklore symbolic of the Sicilian oriental coast.

71
4.4 Discussion

The analysis carried out has revealed that Sicily is represented in a

consistent and coherent way by marketers. The same Mediterranean
island image is projected across almost all of the 70 photographs on the
analysed websites. The results show that Sicily is represented as a sunny
island, surrounded by crystalline blue water and endless coasts. Greek
and Roman ruins represent most of its historic and cultural heritage;
however, the small towns photographed show the Sicilian baroque style as
a characteristic that differentiates Sicily from other Mediterranean islands.
Mount Etna is portrayed in all the groups of photographs analysed, and
synbolises the main attraction and icon of uniqueness of the island.

Overall, the vast majority of the photographs analysed is presented bright

daylight in which blue was the main colour, this symbolising the typical
Mediterranean clear water, the world-famous Italian cloudless sky and the
traditional Sicilian boats of local fishermen.

This recurring element projects a stereotypical image of Sicily which

identifies the island with both the countless islands present in the
Mediterranean and the classical image of Italy as a sunny land immersed
in history. Even though these are all positive stereotypes, this
representation of Sicily does not make it stand out from other similar
destinations, and therefore it fails in its purpose. However, it is possible to
argue that the photographs used by marketers avoid to represent those
elements considered by Crawshaw and Urry (1997) as disturbing. For
example, in the pictures analyzed there is not presence of cars, parking,
traffic jams or plastic bags.

72
On the other hand, the analysed websites also shared some other, non-
stereotypical, representations. For example, one or more pictures of the
Etna volcano recur in all the analysed websites, and it is a strong factor of
distinction for the island in comparison with other destinations. However,
there are no pictures representing Etna as a ski resort, as it becomes in
the winter season, which could represent a strong attraction factor for
potential tourists.

Moreover, the results of the content analysis reveal that some elements of
Sicilian culture and identity which could represent potential factors of
attraction and distinction for the island are not taken into consideration by
marketers as they should be. To better represent Sicily it is important to
take into consideration Sicilians, their traditions and historic activities. To
show to potential tourists that Sicily is more than just a sea and sun
destination where one can relax.
As argued by Hunt (1975), potential visitors opinions about locals and their
culture can significantly determine the success or failure of a destination
marketing campaign.
An additional element which is not taken into account by marketers is the
nightlife. Sicily is famous for its food and music culture, and all year round
restaurants are open until late to offer traditional cuisine and wine to locals
and tourists. Moreover, being the home of several universities, Sicily,
particularly in coastal areas, offers an active night life which is never
portrayed in the analysed photographs.

In support of these arguments, evidence from the analysis of the

interviews suggests that potential tourists from European origins and
belonging to the category of young adults evaluated photographs that
presented stereotypes less positively than those which presented unique
features of the studied destination. Moreover, without any experience of

73
the destination, and therefore holding naive images of the destination, this
target segment of potential tourists is inclined to interpret photographic
representations of Sicily according to their previous knowledge and ideas
of the destination, therefore reinforcing their organic images of Sicily. As
Argued by Gunn (1997) organic created images are the most powerful
factors influencing travel behavior, therefore marketers should try to work
on these elements that contribute to create organic images in order to
produce more successful marketing plans.

In other words, the results of the interviews and the photo-elicitation seem
to suggest that, generally, the photographs promoted by marketers of
Sicily are positively valued by those respondents who have previously
shown an interest in the elements represented in the pictures. Meanwhile
those who do not show the same interest are less enthusiastic and
associate pictures with less positive adjectives when asked about their
willingness to visit the places represented.

In conclusion, the analysed market segment of European young adults

aged between 20 and 35 years old held naive images about Sicily
associated with positive and negative stereotypes, such us the perception
of Sicily and Sicilians as dominated by the Mafia, the presence in Sicily, as
in Italy, of historical culture and excellent cuisine or the image overlap
between Sicily and other Mediterranean islands. In general, drawing from
the results, it is possible to affirm that respondents have a positive naive
image of Sicily and do positively evaluate photographic material promoted
by marketers of Sicily. However, this appealing image of Sicily already
belongs to respondents, and this is why they positively evaluate the
photographic images they are shown. Moreover, respondents perception
of Sicily is mostly based on stereotypical images, negative and positive. As
argued by However and Dyer (1993), stereotypical images are needed

74
when the alternative could be to do not have any image of the destination
at all. Therefore, stereotypical representation have helped Sicily to be
known world wide, now it is time for marketers to add to this images some
new elements that can attract tourists to visit Sicily. 


In support to what claimed above, evidences reveal that when shown

something with which respondents are unfamiliar, for example the Etna
volcano, their reactions are even more positive than when they are shown
something corresponding with their naive mental images of the
destination. This is demonstrated by the interviewees’ responses; for
example: “I had no idea that Etna was on Sicily, so it definitely makes me
wanna visit. It looks amazing and beautiful, and I have read that it would
be quite fun to go camping on a volcano” (Respondent K).

Therefore, the results of the contentment analysis and the interviews

demonstrate that Sicily is a destination whit a lot to offer, however it is
perceived through stereotypical images mainly derived by non-commercial
source of information. As demonstrated by the results of the interviews,
the strongest stereotypical image of Sicily is related to the mafia, although
people do not know about mafia from news, but mainly from movies such
us the “Godfather”. Consequently marketers should invest their energy to
transform those negative connotations associated to the mafia into
positive images by place marketing and branding, as proved by studies of
Gertner and Kotler (2004).

75
 Chapter 5

Conclusions and Recommendations

5.1 Conclusive Remarks

The research has identified the importance of photography in the tourism

field. In particular, it has studied the use of photographic representations to
influence destination image perception. The objective of the project was to
understand the impact of photographic representations in terms of
influencing place image, and therefore to provide a better understanding of
and a base of analysis for future research. 

The Italian island of Sicily was chosen as a case study. Sicily was chosen
because it represents a valid example of a destination which does not
efficiently exploit its touristic potential. It is an island in the middle of the
Mediterranean Sea, full of culture, tradition, heritage sites and landscapes
with some unique features.

A discussion on the topics of image and photography has been used as a

basis from which to draw out the research. The empirical research
analysed a selection of visual photographic materials of Sicily projected
online by official (government) and unofficial (tourism industry) Sicilian
travel websites, in order to identify which image of Sicily is projected online
by tourism marketers. This was followed by semi-structured interviews with
European young adults aged between 20 and 35 yeas old, as they were
evaluated by the researcher as a valid market segment, to examine how
potential tourists perceive and interpret destination photographic
representations and what their mental image of Sicily is.

76
The findings consider the image of Sicily as projected by marketers online
and naive images of potential tourists, as well as the relationship between
photographic representations produced by marketers and their perception
by consumers, according to the cyclical nature of the process of
representation discussed in the literature review chapter.


As stated in the literature review’s chapter, tourism, nowadays more than
ever, is intrinsically dependent on photographic representations (Urry
1990). Marketers should invest a considerable effort in producing effective
photographs to attract tourists.
From the content analysis results have demonstrated that marketers are
using some working techniques to promote the destination, as explicated
above, although there is still room for improvement. Photographs have the
power to transform a destination into an object of desire that needs to be
visited by those who have seen this picture, therefore marketers need to
promote those photos which best can perform this role.

Results from the interviews reveal that those photos are the ones which
display unusual sceneries, unique elements and outdoor activities. For
example, picture number two of the photo elicitation analysis, showing the
Etna volcano, has been valued as the most efficient on persuade potential
tourists to visit Sicily, as it represent a well working mix between unique
scenery and the possibility for an outdoor activity.

From the photo-elicitation data it can be seen that, although Sicily is

portrayed by marketers through stereotypical representations, which are
positively valued by the studied market segment, potential tourists are
most attracted by those photographs with unique and distinctive
characteristics. These unique features can be either related to the

77
technical composition of the picture (arrangement of the elements in the
image) or related to the uniqueness of the subject represented.
This results empirically validate Gray’s (1970) thesis: in our post modern
society, tourist are not anymore looking only for a relaxing holiday by the
sea. Tourists are looking also for adventures and exploration. Marketers
need to reflect on these motivation factors to produce a most efficient
photos and therefore better working promotional campaigns. Nowadays, it
is not sufficient just to produce beautiful pictures to attract tourists, these
photos need to transmit a more deeper message, promoting cultural
identity, adventure and factors of distinctiveness.

78
5.2 Recommendations for future research

The present research project has provided some relevant results on how
the image of Sicily is projected and perceived in the tourism field through
the use of photographic representations. However, there are a number of
limitations and problematic nodes that need to be acknowledged.

Firstly, due to the limited scope of the study, the analysis of the destination
of Sicily is limited to examining only photographic material appearing in the
main pages of some Sicilian and Italian websites. Further research could
investigate other platforms, such as travel brochures, travel books, social
media or documentaries, to evaluate if the images projected across
different promotional material are congruent.

Moreover, due to maintaining a strict focus of research, the project has

concentrated on studying a specific target segment, whereas it could have
included respondents of non-European nationalities and from different age
groups. Furthermore, the researcher has focused on studying only tourists
who have never been to Sicily, while other interesting points of analysis
would have emerged if the interviews had also included re-evaluating
images held by first time visitors.

In addition, due to research length constraints, the list of themes emerging

from the content analysis and interviews was less detailed and exhaustive
than it could have been. Therefore, further research is needed in order to
provide more detailed results and discover new ones. Moreover, different a
method choice could have provided significantly different data but, as
there is no wrong or right way to follow, it is possible to argue that the
methods chosen complement each other by exploring the same issue from
different angles.

79
Lastly, this research has focused mainly on analysing supplied
photographic material, while, as is suggested in the literature review,
research on photography usually mainly analyses material produced by
tourists. Future research on Sicily could address the topic of photographic
representations produced by tourists, comparing them with those
produced by marketers to verify if there is consistency between the image
projected by Sicilian-induced material and the image perceived by visitors.

80
5.3 Recommendations for Marketers

As already explained in the literature review chapter, the concept of

destination image if of crucial importance for tourism marketing studies
(Kim and Richardson 2003).
Following Gunn’s (1997) model of image formation, this research has
studied organic images held by potential tourists regarding the destination
Sicily.
Results revealed that the studied sample held strong organic images of
Sicily which are mostly derived by friends narrations and movies. In
particular, movies are been valued as the most influential sources of
information, as they are responsible for the creation of strong stereotypical
images, for example the image of mafia.

In fact, Sicily has been frequently portrayed by movie makers as the land
of mafia. The most significant example is the movie “the god father”.
Gunns argued that: “organic accumulation of information is the most
powerful factor influencing travel decisions” (Gunn 1997: 37). Therefore,
using movies to re-shape images of Sicily could be a successful strategy
for marketers, given the power of the medium.

As argued by Gertner and Kotler (2004), to change the image of a

destination different industries have to work simultaneously, as it is not
only a responsibility of tourism marketers. As mentioned in chapter 1, in
2005 Dolce and Gabbana have started a considerably successful
campaign inspired by Sicily (see figure 7 and 8 for an example of the
Dolce and Gabbana campaign.). The two fashion designers have worked
on Sicily negative stereotypes, reproposing the classical Sicilian images
within a different and fashionable perspective. The campaign was mostly
based on photographs.

81
Tourism marketers should learn from this campaign and try to adapt it to
their marketing product: the destination.

Figure 7- “Families brought together by love and food” Sicilian Folck collection
2012/2013 winter campaign (Dolcegabbana.com, 2015)

82
 Figure 8 - “Many faces of Sicily”, Sicilian Folck collection 2012/2013 winter campaign
(Dolcegabbana.com, 2015)

Marketers have at their disposal different tools to influence potential

tourists's perception. They can work on photographs framing Sicily's
unique characteristics, such as the volcano, the Sicilian culture, the
Sicilian food and traditions.
Additionally, marketers should work in collaboration with other industries,
for instance the independent cinema industry present in Sicily, in order to
promote a newest image of Sicily, as a destination which “has it all”: warm
weather, low prices, amazing natural landscapes, beautiful costal areas,
historic sights, ski resorts, traditions, folklore, welcoming people, exquisite
cuisine, wine culture, nightlife, adventure, outdoor activities and fashion.

83
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 Appendices

Appendix 1. Interview Guide

Information for participants

The objective of this interview is to explore images that European young

adults, who have never been to Sicily, have about the destination. It will be
investigated respondents' opinion regarding the tourist appeal of the
Sicilian destination; the existence of stereotypes in their images; and their
potential expectations from a Sicilian holiday.
The Interviewee needs to have the following characteristics:
- European nationality
- Aged between 25 and 35 years old
The identity of the respondent will be treated as anonymous, therefore any
reference on the research will be categorized with a code of alphabetic
letters (e.g. respondent A). The Interview is designed to last around 25
minutes and it is composed of 3 steps:


I. General questions about the respondent and his/her knowledge of

Sicily.
II. General questions about Sicily as a tourist destination.
III. Photo-Elicitation. Display of 4 photographs, produced by marketing
agents, discussion of opinions and sensations.


For the success of the analysis, it is important that the respondent answer
the questions as honestly as possible, without being ashamed to show a
negative impression of Sicily. All the thoughts, perceptions and feelings
that questions and pictures arise in the mind of the interviewee will be well
accepted and encouraged for the positive success of the research. 


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STEP I. Respondent information

1. Name _____________

2. Are you

Male 


Female

2. Age group (please tick which applies)


︎  20- 25


26 -30 


31- 35

3. European Nationality _____________

4. Can you collocate and describe Sicily geographically?





___________________________________________________________


___________________________________________________________


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STEP II. Guided Questions
5. Which are the first 5 words that come in your mind when you think
about Sicily?
1. ______________


2. ______________


3. ______________


4. ______________


5. ______________


6. How do you know Sicily? Can you remember which is your source of
Information?
__________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

7. Can you describe me your mental picture when you think about Sicily
and Sicilians?
________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

8. Would you like to visit Sicily?

___________________________________________________________


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STEP III. Photo- Elicitation

9. Shows of picture n.1 “Taormina Greek Theatre ”

fig 1 . Architecture and Culture (source: taormina.it , 2015))

- Which are the first 5 words that come in your mind when you see this
picture?

1. ______________


2. ______________


3. ______________


4. ______________


5. ______________

- How far does this photo match your mental picture of Sicily?

Closely match
Somewhat match
Do not match

- Does this picture arise on your mind memories or willingness to visit?

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 10. Shows of picture n.2 “Volcano Etna Eruption”

Nature and geographic scenery (source: Go-Etna , 2015)

- Which are the first 5 words that come in your mind when you see this
picture?

1. ______________


2. ______________


3. ______________


4. ______________


5. ______________


- How far does this Photo match your mental picture of Sicily?

Closely match
Somewhat match
Do not match

- Does this picture arise on your mind memories or willingness to visit?


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11. Shows of picture n.3 “Favignana, Cala Azzurra ”

Seaside Destination
(source: http://www.siciliadagustare.com/vacanze-in-sicilia-luoghi-da-non-perdere/ )

- Which are the first 5 words that come in your mind when you see this
picture?

1. ______________


2. ______________


3. ______________


4. ______________


5. ______________

- How far does this Photo match your mental picture of Sicily?

Closely match
Somewhat match
Do not match

- Does this picture arise on your mind memories or willingness to visit?

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12. Shows of picture n.4 “Catania”

Urban Areas (source: http://www.dimensionesicilia.com/sicilian-secrets-tour-sicilia/)

- Which are the first 5 words that come in your mind when you see this
picture?

1. ______________


2. ______________


3. ______________


4. ______________

5. ______________


- How far does this Photo match your mental picture of Sicily?

Closely match
Somewhat match
Do not match

- Does this picture arise on your mind memories or willingness to visit?


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13. Shows of picture n.5 “Acitrezza harbor”

Tradition and Heritage (source: http://bittadvisor.it/Port/Aci%20Trezza.html )

- Which are the first 5 words that come in your mind when you see this
picture?

1. ______________


2. ______________


3. ______________


4. ______________


5. ______________


- How far does this Photo match your mental picture of Sicily?

Closely match
Somewhat match
Do not match

- Does this picture arise on your mind memories or willingness to visit?

The interview is now over, thank you for your collaboration! 


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 Appendix 2. Semi-Structured Interviews

List of interviews participants

Reference in text Gender Age group Nationality

Respondent A Female 26-30 Portuguese

Respondent B Female 26-30 Spanish

Respondent C Female 20-25 German

Respondent D Female 31-35 Lithuanian

Respondent E Male 31-35 Turkish

Respondent F Male 20-25 Swiss

Respondent G Female 26-30 Spanish

Respondent H Male 26-30 Rumanian

Respondent I Female 31-35 Portuguese

Respondent J Female 31-35 Rumanian

Respondent K Male 31-35 Polish

Respondent L Male 20-25 Dutch

Respondent M Female 26-30 British

Respondent N Female 20-25 Spanish

Respondent O Male 20-25 Danish

Respondent P Female 26-30 Bulgarian

Respondent Q Female 20-25 Greek

Respondent R Female 20-25 British

Respondent S Female 31-35 Hungarian

Respondent T Male 20-25 Portuguese

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