Professional Documents
Culture Documents
CONTENTS
1. COMPLETION DESIGN
2. BARRIERS AND CONTAINMENT DEVICES
3. WORKOVER AND POTENTIAL HAZARDS
4. BASIC PRINCIPLES OF HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE
5. WELL KILL PRINCIPLES AND PROCEDURES
6. WIRELINE PRESSURE CONTROL
7. COILED TUBING PRESSURE CONTROL
8. OVERVIEW OF HWO/SNUBBING PRESSURE CONTROL
9. FLANGED END AND OUTLET CONNECTIONS
CONTENTS
1. COMPLETION DESIGN 1
1.1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.2 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS 1
1.3 COMPLETION AT THE RESERVOIR 5
1.3.1 Open Hole (Barefoot) Completion 5
1.3.2 Uncemented Liner Completions 5
1.3.3 Cased and Cemented Completions 5
1.4 PERFORATING 8
1.4.1 Gun Types and Perforation Methods 10
1.5 WELL INFLOW PERFORMANCE 15
1.6 VERTICAL LIFT PERFORMANCE 19
1.7 FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS OF A COMPLETION STRING 22
1.8 COMPLETION COMPONENTS DESCRIPTIONS 27
1.8.1 Re-entry Guide 27
1.8.2 Landing Nipple 28
1.8.3 Tubing Protection Joint 29
1.8.4 Perforated Joint 29
1.8.5 Sliding Side Door 30
1.8.6 Flow Couplings 32
1.8.7 Side Pocket Mandrels 32
1.9 SAFETY VALVES 34
1.9.1 Types Of Sub-surface Controlled Safety Valve 34
1.9.2 Surface Controlled Safety Valves 37
1.9.3 Annulus Safety Valves (ASVs) 41
1.9.4 Tubing Hanger 41
1.9.5 Xmas Tree 44
1.9.6 Production Packers 47
1.9.7 Seal Assemblies 52
1.9.8 Expansion Joints 55
1.9.9 Tubing 56
1.9.10 Sub-sea Wellheads 59
1.9.11 Examples of Single String Completions 61
1.10 DUAL COMPLETIONS 68
1.10.1 Examples of Dual String Completions 68
1. COMPLETION DESIGN
1.1 INTRODUCTION
In simple terms, the term ‘well completion’ refers to the methods by which a newly drilled
well can be finalised so that reservoir fluids can be produced to surface production facilities
efficiently and safely. In general, the process of completing a well includes the following:
• A method of providing satisfactory communication between the reservoir and the
borehole
• The design of the tubulars (casing and tubing) which will be installed in the well
• An appropriate method of raising reservoir fluids to the surface
• The design, and the installation in the well of the various components used to
allow efficient production, pressure integrity testing, emergency containment of
reservoir fluids, reservoir monitoring, barrier placement, well maintenance and
well kill
• The installation of safety devices and equipment which will automatically shut a
well in the event of a disaster.
In general, a well is the communication link between the surface and the reservoir and it
represents a large percentage of the expenditure in the development of an oil or gas field. It is
of utmost importance that the well be ‘completed’ correctly at the onset, in order that
maximum overall productivity of the field may be obtained. The ideal completion is the lowest
cost completion which will meet the demands placed on it during its producing lifetime.
MECHANICAL CONSIDERATIONS
• Functional requirements
• Operating conditions
• Component design
• Component reliability
• Safety.
Figure 1 shows an example of a north sea drilling and casing schedule the main features are as
follows:
1. The installation of a 30 ins conductor to approx 500 ft. Conductor pipe provides
structural strength, covers soft formations just below the sea bed and is the largest
diameter pipe installed in a well. The hole required to accommodate conductor pipe can
be drilled (onshore) of pile driven (offshore).
2. The installation of 20 ins surface casing which terminates at 1,000 ft total vertical depth.
Surface casing pipe provides protection against shallow gas, seals off shallow water
bearing sands, and provides a base for the BOP stack and the wellhead assembly.
Surface casing is always cemented back to surface.
3. The installation of 133/8 ins intermediate casing which terminates at 4,000 ft total
vertical depth. Intermediate casing pipe is used to protect weak formations; helps
prevent lost circulation of drilling fluids, and hole caving. (In a deep well, more than one
intermediate casing string may be set.) Intermediate casing is usually cemented to a few
hundred feet above the casing shoe of the surface casing string.
4. The installation of 95/8 ins production casing which terminates approx 7,500 ft total
vertical depth. Production casing pipe is used to provide control of the completed well
and is the main string that reaches down to the producing interval(s). Production casing
is usually cemented to a few hundred feet above the casing shoe of the intermediate
casing string.
NOTE: Drilling operations may be resumed to deepen the well and liner casing
installed and hung off from the lower end of the production casing.
Bottom Hole
Completion Advantages Disadvantages
Technique
• No perforating, no production • Liable to ‘sand out’
casing, no cementing expense • No selectivity for production or
• Minimum rig time stimulation
Open Hole • Full diameter hole in the pay • Ability to isolate is limited to the
zone improves productivity lower part of the hole.
• No critical log interpretation is
required.
• No perforating or cementing •
No selectivity for production or
expense for the production stimulation
casing • Cost of slotted liner or pre-
• Assists in preventing sand packed screen
Slotted Liner
production • Difficult to isolate zones for
• No critical log interpretation is production control
required. • Slightly longer completion time
than for open hole completion.
• Introduces flexibility allowing • Requires critical log
isolation of zones and selection interpretation to specify actual
of zones for production or perforation zone
Cased and
Cemented
injection. • Cost of casing/liner and
cementation
• Cost of rig time for longer
completion period.
Table 1 - Bottom Hole Completion Techniques - Advantages And Disadvantages
1.4 PERFORATING
It will be necessary in most cases to perforate a hydrocarbon bearing zone in cased hole
completions in order to realise optimum production. Some wells can flow open-hole but,
where a formation is relatively unconsolidated, flow rates are expected to be high and for
reasons of safety, perforated cased hole completions are usually considered preferable.
Perforating is an operation whereby holes are made through the production casing (or liner)
and its cement sheath into the reservoir to permit oil or gas to flow into the wellbore.
Nowadays, virtually all perforating is performed with shaped charge perforators. Bullet
perforators are occasionally used for particular applications.
As far a completion design is concerned, the following comment cannot be overstated.
‘The fate of a well hinges on years of exploration, months of planning, and weeks of
drilling. But ultimately it depends on perforating the optimal completion, which begins
with the first millisecond of perforating. Profitability is strongly influenced by the critical
link between the reservoir and the wellbore.’
Perforations must provide a clean flow channel between the producing formation and the
wellbore with minimum damage to the producing formation. The ultimate test of the
effectiveness of a perforating system, however, is the well productivity. The productivity of a
perforated completion depends significantly on the geometry of the perforations. The major
geometrical factors (Refer to Figure 4) that determine the efficiency of flow in a perforated
completion are:
• Perforation length
• Shot density
• Angular phasing
• Perforation diameter.
The relative importance of each of these factors on well productivity depends on the type of
completion, formation characteristics, and the extent of formation damage from drilling and
cementing operations. The method of perforating a well must be meticulously planned.
An example of VLP curves for various pipes IDs is shown in Figure 12.
Figure 12 - Typical Vertical Lift Performance (VLP) For Various Tubing Sizes
Matching the VLP curve to the IPR curve (nodal analysis) will identify which ID will be
appropriate for the production required from the well (Refer to Figure 13). Tubing selected on
this basis will optimise flow from the reservoir to production facilities. When depletion of a
reservoir occurs, VLP curves are utilised to determine the new conduit size to match its new
IPR curve.
A completion string that fulfils these functional requirements is illustrated in Figure 14. It is
important to realise this example design is only a solution and not the solution. This design is
called a single zone single string completion.
The completion design of Figure 14 also addresses the other functional requirements of:
• Suspension the tubing
• Compensation for expansion or contraction of the tubing
• Internal erosion of the tubing
• Protection of the reservoir during well kill operations
• Pumping operations for well kill
• Well intervention operations out of the lower end of the tubing
• Pressure integrity testing
• Reservoir monitoring
• Installation points for well barriers.
The component selection for this completion is shown in Table 2.
NOTE: This completion design utilises a permanent packer and tailpipe that will
be installed by wireline techniques or hydraulically via a work string, prior
to running the completion string. (Packer systems will be discussed later.)
Component Function
Tubing support
Tubing hanger Tubing to casing seal
Barrier installation point
Sub-surface safety valve (SSSV) Emergency containment
Flow couplings Tubing protection against internal erosion
Upper side pocket mandrels (SPMs) Unloading annulus liquids
Lowest side pocket mandrel (SPM) Point of gas injection
Tubing to annulus circulation
Sliding side door (SSD)
Barrier installation Point
Pressure testing of tubing string
Landing nipple
Barrier installation point
Protect the casing from well fluids
Retrievable packer
Ensure retrievability of all components
Pressure testing of tubing string
Landing nipple Barrier installation Point
Installation point for plug to set packer
Allows flow of fluid when monitoring reservoir
Perforated joint
performance
Installation point for pressure/temperature gauges
Landing nipple (No-Go)
Catches fallen well intervention tools
Allows unrestricted re-entry of well intervention
Re-entry guide
tools into the tubing
Table 3 - Component Selection For Completion Example 2
NOTE: This completion utilises a retrievable packer that will be run and set in
the casing by the application of pressure to the tubing. (Packer systems
will be discussed later.)
NOTE: In highly deviated wells, it may not be possible to use landing nipples at
inclinations greater than 70°. Wireline operators commonly use landing
nipples for depth references.
NOTE: As with all communication devices, the differential pressure across SSDs
should be known prior to opening.
NOTE: In some areas, the sealing systems between the concentric sleeves are
incompatible with the produced fluids and hence alternative methods of
producing tubing to annulus communication is used (e.g. side pocket
mandrel, tubing perforating).
NOTE: In multi-zone completions, blast joints are commonly used to prevent loss
of tubing string integrity due to external erosion resulting from the jetting
actions directly opposite producing formations.
In most oil operating areas the installation of a safety valve is governed by law.
There are numerous types of safety valves in field operation, but in our case we are going to
concentrate on only four types. Two subsurface controlled, and two surface controlled valves.
NOTE: Both examples are known as ‘Direct Acting’ valves and are classed as
pressure activated devices.
NOTE: Completion strings may also be set in tension to compensate for thermal
expansion of the tubing due to production. Setting a completion in
tension requires pulling the tubing in tension prior to production and
closing rams around a hanger nipple. The hanger nipple is run an
appropriate distance below a ram type tubing hanger (Refer to Figure 27)
and the tension applied to the tubing string to remove tubing from the
well equivalent to that expected from thermal expansion. Setting a
completion in tension requires that the tubing-to-packer arrangement be
appropriate. (Packer systems will be discussed later.)
NOTE: The Xmas Tree is normally connected directly to the tubing hanger spool
that sits on the uppermost casing head spool. The whole assemblage of
Xmas Tree, tubing hanger, and uppermost casing head spool is
sometimes referred to as the wellhead.
A Xmas Tree may be a composite collection of valves or, more commonly nowadays,
constructed from a single block (Refer to Figure 28). The solid block enables the unit to be
smaller and eliminates the danger of leakage from flanges.
Typically, from bottom to top, an Xmas Tree will contain the following valves:
Lower master gate valve Manually operated and used as a last resort to shut in a well.
Upper master gate valve Usually hydraulically operated and also used to shut in a well.
Flow wing valve Manually operated to permit the passage of hydrocarbons to
the production choke.
Kill wing valve Manually operated to permit entry of kill fluid to into the
tubing.
Swab valve Manually operated and used to allow vertical access into the
tubing for well intervention work.
NOTE: Modern Xmas Tree valves are of the gate-valve type that allows full bore
access.
A typical surface wellhead and Xmas Tree are shown in Figure 29.
NOTE: By no means are all wells completed with production packers. However,
for the purposes of this course, only those packers used in well
completions will be discussed.
NOTE: Both the above methods provide a disconnect mechanism from the
setting device. The setting device is removed from the well after the
packer has been set. The completion string is then run into the well and a
seal assembly stabbed into the polished bore of the packer.
NOTE: The tubing may be disconnected from the packer by rotation of the latch
system or by utilising an expansion joint located in the completion
directly above the latch assembly.
NOTE: Seal assemblies of this type can be used without the locating No-Go
shoulder.
Locator seal assemblies do not permit the tubing to be landed in tension. At most the full
tubing weight can be hung off at the tubing hanger. However, when the well is producing, the
temperature of the tubing will increase and the tubing will expand longitudinally. With the
locator seated on the packer, and top of the tubing string fixed in the tubing hanger,
expansion can take place only at the expense of buckling. By using a series of seal subs below
the locator, the tubing can be pulled back a calculated distance (space-out) and then landed,
leaving the locator the same distance above the packer, but with the seal assembly still within
the packer bore. This will allow for tubing expansion or contraction. A completion string may
also be spaced out appropriately if overall cooling of the tubing string will occur e.g. in a water
injection well.
1.9.9 Tubing
Although tubing is the last string of tubulars to be run in the well, its requirements often
dictate the whole well design. Tubing is run mainly to serve as the flow conduit for the
produced fluids. It also serves to isolate these fluids from the ‘A’ (Production) annulus when it
is used in conjunction with a casing packer.
The basic tubing string design criteria are:
• Size, appropriate to producing operations
• Tensile strength
• Stress
• Corrosion resistance.
The American Petroleum Institute (API) identifies, assesses and develops standards for oil and
gas industry goods. Tubing is considered appropriate to API standard if the following
conform to certain specifications:
• Weight per foot
• Length ranges
• Outside diameter
• Wall thickness
• Steel grade
• Method of steel manufacture.
and API standards also specify:
• Physical dimensions of the thread connections
• Performance for burst, collapse and tensile strength of the pipe body and thread
connections.
An API type connection is shown in Figure 36.
API tubing steel grades are identified by letters and numbers which dictate various
characteristics of the steel. For each grade, the number designates the minimum yield strength.
Thus J-55 grade steel has a minimum yield strength of 55,000 psi. In other words, it can
support a stress of 55,000 psi with an elongation of less than 0.5%. The letter in conjunction
with the number designates parameters such as the maximum yield strength and the minimum
ultimate strength which for J-55 pipe is 80,000 psi and 75,000 psi respectively. Table 4 shows
the yield values for various API tubing grades:
Minimum Ultimate
Grade Minimum Yield (psi) Maximum Yield (psi)
Yield (psi)
H-40 40,000 80,000 60,000
J-55 55,000 80,000 75,000
C-75 75,000 90,000 95,000
L-80 80,000 95,000 95,000
N-80 80,000 110,000 100,000
P105 105,000 135,000 120,000
Table 4 - Yield Values For Various API Tubing Grades
Grade C-75 is for hydrogen sulphide service and where a higher strength than J-55 is required.
In addition to API grades, there are many proprietary steel grades which may conform to API
specifications, but which are used extensively for various applications requiring properties
such as:
• Very high tensile strength
• Disproportionately high collapse strength
• Resistance to sulphide stress cracking.
Many tubing strings are run which contain these non-API tubulars. This pipe is made to many
but not all API specifications, with variations in steel grade, wall thickness, outside diameter,
thread connections, and related upset. Due to these variations, the ratings of burst, collapse,
and tensile specifications are non-API.
The type of tubing connections selected for a completion will depend mainly on the well
characteristics. The connection must be able to contain the produced fluids safely and at the
maximum pressures anticipated. The basic requirements of a tubing string connection are:
• Strength compatible with the operational requirements of the string during, and
after running
• Sealing properties suitable for the fluid and pressures expected
• Ease of stabbing during make-up, and safe breakout when pulling the tubing
• Resistance to damage, corrosion, and erosion.
There are two types of thread connection, API and Premium.
Premium connections are proprietary connections that offer premium features not available
on API connections. Most offer a metal-to-metal seal for improved high pressure seal
integrity. Premium connections exist with features such as flush connections, recess free
bores, and special clearance. An example of a premium thread is shown in Figure 37.
CONTENTS
NOTE: Current philosophy requires that two mechanical barriers (for both the
annulus and the tubing) and one fluid barrier be considered as the
minimum.
NOTE: There are several barriers which prevent flow up the annulus:
NOTE: There must be procedures in place for each of the three phases of a
workover.
After a while, this may change as the completion fluid escapes from the annulus and the well
bore fluids will then be prevented from leaving the well by the production casing, annulus
valves and the tubing hanger seal.
The well can now be produced. The plug of course remains in the completion and would have
to be removed to run coiled tubing, for example. Some of these plugs are called ‘Pressure
cycle plugs’. With this design, the over balance pressure above the plug must be cycled from
zero to a pre-set value (perhaps 2,500 psi for example) a fixed number of times before the
plug opens. Cycles can be pre-set to anything up to 20. The pressure cycle plug offers more
flexibility and security before the plug is opened.
This applies to any down hole or surface barrier. With down hole plugs, etc. it is usually not
possible to apply pressure below the barrier to test that it is holding pressure. In this case, the
best solution is to inflow test the device.
This is done by bleeding off the pressure above the downhole device and watching for a
pressure build up that would show that the device is leaking. It is normal in this situation to
bleed down to approximately 100 psi or any suitable amount that can still seen on the surface
pressure gauge. It is then much easier to see a small build up on the pressure gauge if the
device is leaking.
Occasionally it may not be possible to pressure test from below or to inflow test, in which
case the only option is to pressure test the device from above.
With all mechanical plugs, consideration must be given to the method of pulling the device if
there is a danger of debris, etc. settling out on top of the plug. If there is a danger of this
happening, mandrel extensions are available which leave room for a certain amount of sand,
scale, debris etc. The well pressure containment envelope is shown in Figure 1. This consists
of:
• The production casing below packer
• The packer
• The production tubing
• The tubing hanger seal
• The production Xmas Tree.
NOTE: Testing barriers from above can be limited by the shear pin rating of
pump-open plugs (if used) and can also be limited by the pressure rating
of the wireline lock mandrel to pressure from above.
The procedure for testing the upper barrier from above will be to pressure up the Xmas Tree
and tubing above the barrier to the test pressure using the cement pump or surface pump unit,
shutting in on surface and then monitoring for pressure fall off. When testing a plug or
dummy SCSSV in an SVLN, the plug should first be tested by pressuring up on the SCSSV
control line to the operating pressure of the SCSSV; this will test both seal stacks on the
dummy valve. Testing from above will only test the top seal stack.
The term ‘Back pressure valve’ is often used to describe any kind of pressure control device
that is set in the tubing hanger profile. In fact, this term should only be applied to the check
valve type devices which hold pressure from below only and which cannot be tested from
above. A test dart may be installed in the back pressure valve to allow testing from above
during Xmas Tree installation or repairs. Even if this is the case, the test from above will not
test the mechanical sealing device inside the valve, but only the seal between the device and
the tubing hanger profile. In general, backpressure valves, if being used, will not be inflow
tested.
CONTENTS
1.2.3 General
It may not always be possible, or desirable, to perform a workover immediately, if for
example, the means are not readily available. In this case the well may be:
• Shut-in, if there is no safety problem, e.g. this may be the case of high water cut.
• Temporarily suspended, if there is a safety problem, such as a tubing leak. This
involves installing the required number of mechanical and fluid barriers so that
the well is rendered safe.
• Abandoned, if the problem is so severe that it is not safe or economical to
perform a workover. This may occur if there are major well performance
problems or irretrievable junk in the well. In this case, permanent barriers such as
cement plugs will be placed in the well, perhaps along with other requirements
such as removing the Xmas Tree.
NOTE: Typically the pressure rating of BOPs will be the same as that for the
Xmas Tree, unless there has been considerable reservoir pressure
depletion during the life of the well.
1. Permit to work
Well handover certificate sharing status of the well. heavy lift.
Isolation and de-pressurisation of wellhead prior to plugging well.
Close liaison with production and clear lines of communication.
2. COSHH
Safe handling of corrosive brines.
Protection against biocides and other additives.
3. Well control
Kill procedures either by bullheading and reverse circulation; communicate via sliding
side door or punch holes in the tubing.
Displace tubing contents to test separator for disposal.
At this stage, the well may be secured by installing plugs which fit specific landing
nipples or bridge plugs which can straddle the hole and secure it at any depth in the
tubing. To install plugs, a wireline well intervention method will be necessary.
4. Pressure test wireline intervention equipment
Cordon off wireline work area between wireline unit and the wellhead.
Tool string picked up by air tuggers. Ensure appropriate signalling system being used to
aid those positioning tool string on Xmas Tree.
No barriers are in place in the tool string but we do have several containment devices if
for any reason the well starts to flow:
Stuffing box Containment device
Safety check union Containment device
Lubricator Functional device
Tool trap Functional device
Wireline BOP Containment device
NOTE: Three plugs have been installed i.e. In tailpipe, in SCSSV profile, and in
tubing hanger profile (BPV).
Figure 4 - Sub-sea Well - BOP Installed - Tubing Hanger Running Tool In Place - Prepare To
Rig Up Wireline
Figure 9 - Sub-sea Well - Plugs Removed - Prepare To Pull Tubing On Tubing Hanger
Running And Orientation Tool
Figure 12 - Sub-sea Well - New Tubing Run On Tubing Hanger Running And Orientation
Tool
Figure 14 - Sub-sea Well - BOP And Drilling Riser Pulled Tree Run On Workover Package
CONTENTS
NOTE: When calculating hydrostatic pressure the true vertical depth (TVD) is
used. Measured depth (MD) is used only to calculate capacities and
volumes. Figure 1 shows that measured depths will be greater than true
vertical depths if the hole is deviated.
Figure 1 - TVD v MD
Examples:
Fresh water has a density of 8.33 ppg
To convert the density of fresh water 8.33 ppg into a pressure gradient:
8.33 ppg × 0.052 = 0.433 psi/ft.
So the gradient of fresh water is 0.433 psi/ft.
To convert a fluid density of 10 ppg into a pressure gradient:
10 ppg × 0.052 = 0.52 psi/ft.
So the gradient of a fluid density of 10 ppg is 0.52 psi/ft.
NOTE: The reference fluid for all liquid pressure calculations is fresh water.
It there for follows that to convert a gradient of fresh water back to a density in ppg the
calculation below should be used.
To convert the gradient of fresh water into a density:
0.433 psi / ft
= 8.33 ppg
0.052
NOTE: The constant 0.052 is probably the most useful constant used in pressure
calculations.
In the container shown in Figure 2 the weight of the water may be expressed as a pound force
(lbf). The water in this container weighs 62.4 lbf. This force, however, is distributed over a
square area of 144 square inches. The force per square inch is given by the formula below:
Where
F = lbf
A = Area
F 62.4 lbf
= 2
= 0.433 lbf / ins 2 or psi
A 144 ins
Now consider another container with the same volume but with a base of 6 inches by 24
inches and a height of 12, again filled with fresh water. The force per square inch is given by:
F 62.4 lbf
= = 0.433 lbf / ins 2 or psi
A 144 ins 2
In fact, provided we keep the height of each container the same then the force per square inch
on the base remains 0.433 psi regardless of the dimensions of the sides of the base.
Now consider another container of the same volume but with a base of 12 inches by 48 inches
and a height of 3 inches, again filled with fresh water. The weight of water in such a container
is still 62.4 lbf. The force per square inch is given by:
F 62.4 lbf
= 2
= 0.108 lbf / ins 2 or psi
A 576 ins
Clearly, the force per square inch is less because the containers height is less than that of the
previous containers.
Since the (imperial) unit of depth in the oilfield is the foot, we will re-consider the container of
1 foot cubed to generate important quantities relating to fluids at rest.
For fresh water of density 62.4 lbf/ft3:
• The hydrostatic pressure exerted at on the base of a container 1 foot in height is
0.433 psi
• The hydrostatic pressure exerted at on the base of a container 2 feet in height is
0.866 psi
• The hydrostatic pressure exerted at on the base a container 3 feet in height is
1.299 psi.
Thus, for every 1ft increase in TVD the pressure increases by 0.433 psi. This increase in
pressure per unit increase in depth is called the pressure gradient, and as shown for fresh
water is 0.433 psi/ft.
The hydrostatic pressure for a well will be its gradient multiplied by the TVD, i.e. Thus for a
10,000 ft well filled with fresh water the hydrostatic pressure would be:
Hydrostatic pressure = Gradient × Depth
= 0.433 ×10,000
= 4,330 psi
For a liquid of density 77 lbf/ft3:
• The hydrostatic pressure exerted at on the base of a container 1 foot in height is
0.535 psi (77/144)
• The hydrostatic pressure exerted on the base of a container 2 feet in height is
1.069 psi
• The hydrostatic pressure exerted on the base a container 3 feet in height is 1.604
psi.
Thus, for every 1 ft increase in depth the pressure increases by 0.534 psi. This increase in
pressure per unit increase in depth is called the pressure gradient, and is 0.534 psi/ft for
this liquid of density 77 lbf/ft3.
The hydrostatic pressure for a well will be its gradient multiplied by the TVD, i.e. Thus for a
10,000 ft well filled with a liquid of density 77 lbf/ft3 the hydrostatic pressure would be:
P = Fluid gradient × TVD
= 0.534 × 10,000
= 5,340 psi
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
141.5 141.5
SG = = = 0.835
131.5 + °API 131.5 + 38.0
Hydrostatic pressure = SG × 0.433 × TVD
= 0.835 × 0.433 × 5,500 = 1,989 psi
Step 3 Calculate hydrostatic pressure due to fresh water column
Method 1
If the SITHP, gas SG and TVD are known, the gas correction factor table can be used.
Example:
A gas well has a TVD of 5,000 ft, a shut-in surface pressure of 2,000 psi and has a SG of 0.6.
Calculate the pressure at the base of the column (BHP):
1. Find the depth in the left hand column of the correction factor table (Refer to Table 2)
2. Find the gas gravity column corresponding to 0.6 SG along the top of the table
3. Where the two converge this is the correction factor required.
Gas correction factor from the table = 1.1098 × SITHP (2,000psi) = 2,220 psi
Method 2
If the correction factor table is not available the following equations can be used. The first
equation is an accurate alternative to the correction factor table. The second is a drilling
estimation which has a built in over balance of approximately 30 psi in this case:
1.
Surface Pr essure 1
Ratio = 0.000034 × SG × D
BHP 2.718
= 0.000034 × 0.6 × 5,000 = 0.102
= 2.718 0.102 = 1.107
1
Which Gives = = 0.903
1.107
2000
= = 2, 214 psi
0.903
2.
2,000 5,000
BHP = Surface Pr essure + (2.5 )
100 1,000
= 2,000 + (2.5 ) × 20 × 5
= 2, 250
NOTE: These equations are useful where the gas in question has an SG out-with
the scale of the correction factor table
Method 3
If the SITHP, gas gradient and TVD are known, we can simply multiply the gas gradient by
the TVD and add the SITHP to find the pressure at the base of the column
Using the well example above, the difference between the pressure at the base of the column,
and the SITHP is:
2,220 psi – 2,000 psi = 220 psi. The pressure difference between the two values, must be the
pressure exerted by the gas itself. We can therefore calculate the gas gradient in psi/ft.
Gas gradient = 220 psi divided by the length of the column (5,000 ft) = 0.044 psi/ft.
Once the gradient is known, we simply multiply by the depth, and add the SITHP to find the
total pressure exerted at the base of the column. For the above example:
0.044 (gas gradient) × 5,000 ft + 2,000 psi = 2,220 psi
Solution for 1
1. Calculate the pressure exerted at the bottom of the gas column:
= 2,480 × 1.0954 = 2,717 psi
2. Calculate hydrostatic pressure due to the oil column:
141.5 141.5
SG = = = 0.862
131.5 + °API 131.5 + 32.6
Oil gradient = 0.862 × 0.433 = 0.373 psi/ft
P = Gradient × TVD
= 0.373 × 4280 = 1,597 psi
3. Calculate the hydrostatic pressure due to the formation water column to the top of the
perforations:
P = 9.6 × 0.052 × TVD
= 9.6 × 0.052 × 2,440 = 1, 218 psi
4. Total pressure exerted at the top of the perforations (reservoir pressure):
BHP = 2,717 gas + 1,597 oil + 1, 218 water = 5,532 psi
Solution for 2
Calculate hydrostatic pressure in tubing at SPM:
The hydrostatic pressures for the gas and oil columns have already been calculated.
1. The formation water hydrostatic pressure inside the tubing, down to the ports on the
SPM is:
= 9.6 × 0.052 × 2,390 = 1,193 psi
= 2,717 + 1,597 + 1,193 = 5,508 psi
2. Calculate the hydrostatic pressure to SPM ports in the annulus:
9.85 × 0.052 × 10230 = 5, 240psi
3. Calculate differential pressure from tubing to annulus.
5,508 − 5, 240 = 268 psi
Solution for 3
Calculate the formation gradient
5,532 psi /10,280 ft TVD = 0.54 psi/ft (or 10.38 ppg)
Solution for 4
Calculate the kill fluid gradient
5,532 psi + 200 psi = 5,732 psi / 10,280 ft TVD = 0.56 psi/ft (or 10.77 ppg)
Solution for 5
Calculate the formation fracture gradient
7,000 psi / 10,280 ft TVD = 0.68 psi/ft (or 13.08 ppg)
Solution for 6
Equalisation of pressures may be achieved by applying approx. 268 psi to the annulus.
NOTE: To calculate circulating volumes and times the circulating device is the
datum.
Solution For 1
We can calculate the annulus volume in two ways, either by equation or table
Method - By Calculation:(XSA cross sectional area)
XSA of annulus =
(
π ID ca sin g )
2
−
(
π OD tubing ) 2
4 4
=
π
4
[( ) (
ID ca sin g 2 − OD tubing )]
2
=
3.141
4
[
6.154 2 − 2.875 2 ]
= 23.25 ins 2
Annulus volume = Annulus area × SSD depth ( MD )
23.25
= × 8, 210
144
= 1,325.57 ft 3
1,325.57
Annulus volume = = 236 bbl
5.615
Method - By Table
Table 3 shows data on outside tubing diameter, inside casing diameters and annular volumes.
Locate for 7 inch casing that with an inside diameter of 6.154 inches. The annular volume in
barrels per linear foot is 0.0288 bbl/linear ft.
Annulus Volume = 0.0288 × 8, 210 = 236 bbls
Solution For 2
Method - By Calculation:
The area corresponding to the inside of the tubing is given by:
XSA =
(
π ID tubing )
2
=
3.141 × 2.4412
4 4
4.68
= × 8, 210
144
= 266.8 ft 3
266.8
Tubing volume = = 47.5 bbl
5.615
Method - By Tables:
Table 4 shows data outside tubing diameters and tubing capacities. Locate the tubing capacity
in barrels per linear foot for 2,875 inch tubing with a weight per foot of 6.4 lbf/ft. This is
0.0058 bbl/linear foot.
Tubing Volume to SSD = 0.0058 × 8, 210
= 47.6 bbl
Solution For 3
Method - By Tables
Total volume = (Annulus cap lin / ft + Tubing Cap lin / ft ) × depth to SSD
= (0.0288 + 0.0058 ) × 8, 210
= 284 bbl
Solution For 4
Calculate the pumping time
Pump Rate = 0.75 bbl/min
284
Pump time = = 379 minutes or 6.3 hours
0.75
CONTENTS
NOTE: Often the condition of the various components of the completion string is
not known and in certain cases plugs that have been set cannot be
pressure tested.
An effective surface injection pressure can then be determined which should be within the
burst pressure rating of the tubing.
NOTE: Burst pressure ratings for tubing and casing at the time of well kill will
usually be different from that of new tubing. A typical safety margin used
is 80% of their initial burst pressure ratings.
During pumping operations, the static surface pressure should decrease to zero as the tubing
contents are displace into the formation.
In practise this may not occur for the following reasons:
• The formation’s ability to accept fluid is decreasing indicating that perforations
are becoming plugged; this can be minimised by ensuring that workover fluids are
correctly filtered.
• Gas is migrating up through the kill fluid pumped into the tubing. The factors
affecting gas migration rates are relative fluid densities, viscosities, and tubing size.
To reduce the effects of gas migration a viscous polymer pill (such as HEC) can
be pumped ahead of the kill fluid.
Figure 2 illustrates an example of a kill graph generated for a bullhead well kill.
If the integrity of the tubing is in question, e.g. through excessive corrosion or erosion,
pressure should be applied to the annulus as a preventative measure against tubing burst.
However, it is also important to first determine the casing burst limits to ensure that they are
not exceeded.
NOTE: Bullhead well kill in essence only kills the production side of the well.
Further circulation may need to be performed to install kill fluid in the
annulus side.
Disadvantages:
• No protection from damaging fluids and/or debris
• Higher tubing pressure (as compared to reverse circulation)
• Pumping operations may cause accidental fracture of the formation
• Cannot kill all wells (especially tight formations and some gas wells).
NOTE: Prior to opening the circulation device or punching holes in the tubing,
caution should be exercised when there is a differential pressure across
point of circulation. This can cause, for example, wireline well
intervention tools to be pushed up the tubing, and bypassing the wire.
The overall result may be a wireline ‘fish’ in the tubing.
NOTE: Even if a tubing plug is in place, the surface pressure step-down plan
should still be followed to minimise the differential pressure across the
plug.
An example of a well kill by reverse circulation and the development of the kill graph is
illustrated in Figure 3 to Figure 10. A tubing plug has been installed in the tailpipe below the
packer but it has been assumed that the plug leaks and constant bottom hole circulation
pressure exists.
The surface tubing pressure is reduced to follow a step down plan. Annulus pressure increases
as the lighter kill fluid circulates out the heavier existing packer fluid. The maximum annular
pressure is reached in Figure 10 when the tubing is full of packer fluid and the annulus is full
of kill fluid.
Figure 5 - Well Status With SSD Open And THP Bled Down
NOTE: The forward circulation kill method may not be practical as the migration
rate of gas in the tubing can be higher than the velocity of kill fluid being
pumped into the tubing.
A forward circulation kill graph is illustrated in Figure 11. The initial conditions of the
previous well and well conditions have been assumed.
NOTE: It has been assumed that no segregation of fluids occur in the annulus
during pumping operations.
Disadvantages
• Less safe as hydrocarbons will be brought to surface through the hanger spool
outlets and disposal may be more difficult
• Hydrocarbons will be in contact with the production annulus
• Hydrocarbons will mix with the original packer fluid, and will migrate up the
annulus at different rates
• High circulation pressures will be seen in the annulus
• Slow pump speeds may allow gas slippage to occur and gas will be present at
surface in the tubing throughout the operation
• No advantage over reverse circulation.
NOTE: It is important that the kill fluid be given enough time to fall through the
gas inside the tubing. No kill fluid should be bled off from surface.
The process of pumping kill fluid into the tubing and bleeding down the tubing pressure
continues until the tubing is full of brine. It must be stressed that all the steps in the lubricate
and bleed method must be calculated, as the volume of brine that can be pumped will become
progressively smaller when the contents of gas in the tubing becomes less. Practically when
the volume of kill fluid pumped into the tubing becomes small and attempts to fill the entire
tubing should be discontinued. Gas may be bled off the tubing depending on circumstances.
We must be certain that the final static column of kill fluid exerts an is overbalance on the
formation.
Disadvantages
• Very slow
• Tubing surface pressure variation between maximum and minimum may be small
if the formation fracture pressure is low and further influxes are to be avoided
• Requires higher surface pressures than circulating methods.
A lubricate and bleed kill chart is illustrated in Table 2. The initial conditions of the previous
well and well conditions have been assumed.
The lubricate and bleed kill graph is shown in Figure 12.
NOTE: The Lubricate and Bleed well kill method may be used if the production
tubing contains an obstruction which prevents the running of well
intervention tools to open a circulation device, or bullheading is not an
option. Killing a well by this method is time consuming.
NOTE: The lubricate and bleed method may also be used to equalise across
circulation devices.
1.2 HYDRATES
Hydrates are crystalline water structures filled with small hydrocarbon molecules. In oil/gas
systems they occur when light hydrocarbons (or carbon dioxide, CO2) are mixed with water at
the correct pressure and temperature conditions. Hydrates will only form if there is free water
present. The formation of such crystalline structures can interfere with work over operations
during well kill and well intervention operations and, as such, preventative measures must be
taken.
A very open, cage-like structure of water molecules is the backbone of hydrates. This
structure, which bears some resemblance to a steel lattice in a building, can theoretically be
formed in ice. The crystal framework is very weak and collapses if not supported by molecules
filling the cavities in the structure. Methane, ethane, CO2, and H2S are suitable molecules to fill
the cavities. Propane and iso-butane may fill the larger cavities. Normal butane and heavier
hydrocarbons are too large and tend to inhibit hydrate formation.
Various tests indicate that hydrate formation is comparable with normal crystallisation. ‘Under
cooling’ is possible, but the slightest movement within an under cooled mixture, or the
presence of a few crystallisation nuclei, will cause large scale crystallisation. Once the
crystallisation process has begun, hydrates may block a flow line completely within seconds.
In general, the crude composition, water composition, pressure and temperature governs
hydrate formation. In most cases, the crude composition cannot be changed. However,
hydrates can be dissolved/prevented by a temperature increase and/or a pressure decrease.
Hydrate formation may be prevented chemically by altering the water content.
At high pressures, hydrates may form at relatively high temperatures e.g. at 3,000 psi they can
begin to form at about 25°C.
Hydrates do not require a pressure drop to form. However, the refrigeration effect from a
small pressure drop, such as a stuffing box leak, may be sufficient to produce optimum
pressure and temperature conditions for hydrate formation. Hydrates can form under static
conditions and flowing conditions.
A hydrate plug in the tubing string under flowing conditions results in being unable to run or
pull wireline tools, unable to bullhead or circulate the well dead, and unable to flow the well to
remove hydrates. Also, hydrates may prevent vital equipment from functioning correctly. A
down hole hydrate plug may give rise to a potentially dangerous situation and must be avoided
at all costs.
The present techniques for the prevention and removal of hydrates are mainly related to wells
with gas caps. This allows injected methanol to gravitated down to the hydrate level and act
directly on top of a hydrate plug should one occur. If the well does not have a gas cap (above
the bubble point at surface), injected methanol will simply dissolve into the oil at the point of
injection and, therefore, will not reach the area of the possible hydrate plug.
To minimise the risk of hydrate formation in the well bore and surface equipment, the
following guidelines are recommended:
1. Prior to flowing a well, methanol injection should be started at the maximum rate at the
Xmas Tree upstream of the choke until the flow line temperature becomes high enough
to prevent hydrate formation at the flowing tubing head pressure.
2. During wireline operations, care must be taken to avoid hydrate formation in the cold,
highly pressurised tubing/riser from the sealed lubricator. During such operations
glycol/methanol may be injected continuously at the Xmas Tree or chemical injection
sub.
3. Prior to pressure testing with pure glycol or glycol mix, the glycol density should be
measured for water content. An acceptable specific gravity range for pure MEG (mono-
ethylene glycol) and TEG (tri-ethylene glycol) are:
Disadvantages
• Critical flow calculations must be performed to ensure surface tubing head
pressure is not controlling the well
• Wireline work is involved for the installation and removal of the choke
• The downhole choke bean is an expensive item
• An adjustable choke will be required at surface to re-instate production after a
shut-in period to control the well, gradually bleeding off the pressure above the
downhole choke until it has control of the well. The surface choke would then be
opened fully.
NOTE: It is hazardous to bleed down pressure on only one side of a hydrate plug
in tubulars or pipe work. The risk is that if pressure is bled from one side
of a hydrate it will begin to dissolve. As the hydrate dissolves, pressure
from the other side may dislodge the plug at a considerable velocity.
Bleeding down can be effective, if done gradually from both sides
ensuring a large differential pressure across the hydrate is avoided.
NOTE: Methanol is a hazardous liquid and special precautions are required when
handling, rigging up and injecting methanol.
Only suitable pumps, hoses and hose connections should be used for methanol injection.
Health and safety data documentation should be thoroughly read and all precautions complied
with. Proper protective clothing should be used and skid trays used to avoid spillage. An
appropriate chemical identification tag should be affixed to the methanol drum and pump
system. If a pump is to be left unattended, a suitably set PSV should be installed. A foam type
fire extinguisher should be kept near the worksite.
1.3.1 Questions That Should Be Asked Regarding Well Status Before Planning A Workover
1. Are proper drawings and information available detailing the present state of the well?
2. What type of well is to be worked over? (oil, gas, injector, gas lift, pumping, etc.)
3. What is the reason for work over?
4. What is the present reservoir pressure?
5. Have any wells in the same field been worked over and identify any problems that might
be pertinent to the current well?
6. What is the mechanical status of the well?
7. What is the density and condition of the completion fluid in the annulus?
8. Are reliable well intervention records available?
2. This requires the well to be ‘killed’ with a ‘kill’ fluid of the appropriate density to balance
or slightly overbalance the reservoir pressure.
Care ! Calculations Required
3. Thus the density of kill fluid and the method of killing must be such that the bottom
hole pressure is only marginally greater than the formation pressure at all times during
the kill procedure.
Care ! Calculations/Simulation Required
4. If bottom hole pressures are excessive, losses of kill fluid might occur which may result
in near well bore formation damage.
Care ! Non Damaging Kill Fluid
Brines are naturally weighted but are solids-free only up to a given saturation. The type of salts
used therefore needs to be selected with density (weight) requirements in mind. Density
ranges of various brines are as follows:
Brine density is a function of temperature. The density of all brines decrease as the
temperature increases. Brine densities are usually quoted for temperatures of 60°F (15°C).
The disadvantages of using brines are:
• No fluid loss control
• Crystallisation out of some solid salts
• Cost, especially of additives used to remove some of the undesirable properties
• Handling hazards, especially calcium bromide and zinc bromide.
The most common additives used in brines are density materials, viscosifiers, bridging agents,
and corrosion control chemicals. Fluid loss control is important because fluid loss, even if
solids-free, can affect subsequent production due to gross flooding. In addition, the loss of
large volumes of brines can result in excessive fluid costs. Fluid loss can be controlled by:
• Increasing the brine viscosity using polymers
• Adding controlled particle systems that temporarily seal off the formation face.
Increasing viscosity by the addition of breakable polymers has proved to be an acceptable way
of controlling fluid loss. The technique is to spot a pill of thickened completion fluid across
the formation face. Most of the polymers are cellulose based. Following completion
operations, various acid, oxidative, and enzyme polymer degrading viscosity breakers are used
to remove the pill.
Further fluid loss reductions can be achieved by adding a controlled particle system which
forms a temporary impermeable filter cake to seal off the formation face. These solid particles
cover a distribution range to stop fluid loss to the reservoir while also promoting rapid clean-
up. Calcium carbonate is an example of a sized acid-soluble particle system. Siderite (iron
carbonate) is also used. Both provide additional weighting to fluid loss control. Calcium
carbonate is the most common because of its availability in various controlled size
distributions and good acid solubility properties.
Density Range
Brine Relative Cost Handling Considerations
(lbs/gal)
KCl 8.5 - 9.7 Low Slight Irritant
NaCl 8.5 - 9.9 Low Slight Irritant
CaCl2 8.5 - 11.6 Low/Medium Mild Irritant
CaCl2/CaBr2 11.7 - 15.1 Medium Strong Irritant
CaCl2/CaBr2/ZnBr2 15.0 - 18.0 High Strong Irritant
Table 5 - Relative Cost And Handling Considerations
NOTE: The skin factor may be a mechanical skin (due to formation damage or
other factors, e.g. turbulence) or a skin factor due to the completion
geometry.
The following table illustrates how skin factor can influence well productivity.
NOTE: The skin factor can be from zero to infinity, and negative to about - 6. The
skin factor is a measure of how good the well performance is - the lower
the skin factor the better the performance.
There is no skin factor that is optimum. The following table shows some typical skin factors.
CONTENTS
Carbon Steel
As the improved plow steel has high ultimate tensile strength, good ductility, and relatively
low cost, it is the most popular material for carbon steel.
Experience indicates that the IPS wire usually perform better than other types of wires, under
the same category. IPS wire is generally used in sweet service production wells. At times some
service companies may use IPS wire in H2S service wells.
To protect the wire from the corrosive effects of H2S, it has to be inhibited with approved
chemical.
For IPS wire used in H2S service wells the maximum concentration should not be more than
30 ppm with a small percentage of CO2.
Stainless Steel
Due to the high H2S content of some wells special materials such as 0.108” Nitronic 50 of
stainless are used.
Although these are not as strong as IPS carbon steel wire they have an excellent resistance to
H2S corrosion.
If standard operational procedures are not adhered to during a wireline operation, the bending
stresses that the line is subjected to may cause wire breakage.
To avoid wire breakage the following recommendations should be considered:
• Minimise bending stresses
• Proper care of wire
• Correct handling of wire
• Unsatisfactory wire testing
• Incorrect method of wire spooling.
Figure 2 - Re-spooling
Slickline is manufactured in a variety of sizes and materials. The common ones are shown
below.
Nominal
304 316 18/18/2 Supa 70 Supa 75 Supa 80
Diameter
lbf lbf lbf lbf lbf lbf
ins
0.108 2,100 1,920 1,720 2,100 2,030 2,175
0.125 2,700 2,500 - 2,600 2,560 2,775
Table 2 - Minimum Breaking Load
1.9.2 Jars
Jars impart a hammer action. A telescopic device permits a short amount of axial free travel,
which allows the wire tension to accelerate one part of the tool while the other is stationary.
Both mechanical and hydraulic jars are available. With a set of mechanical jars below the stem,
the weight of the jars and stem can be used to jar up or down by pulling and then releasing the
wireline. Hydraulic/spring jars are designed to provide upward jarring action in wells where it
is difficult to obtain a good jarring action.
Hydraulic jars are usually run just below the weighted stem and above the mechanical jars.
CAUTION: DO NOT USE lead filled stem for jarring as the lead will tend to
creep downwards and split the outer barrel.
CAUTION: Roller and axles should be inspected for wear before use. Tools to be
run should have a larger OD than the roller stem.
Hydraulic Operation
The EXD electric motor drives an Abex Denison double vane pump, delivery at setting of
1,760 rpm. 32 imperial gallons minimum at P1 (wireline unit draw works supply) and 6.5
gallons per minute at P2 (re-spooling cat head or auxiliary equipment supply). The pump has
two relief valves P1 set at 2,200 psi and P2 set at 2,000 psi.
A suction stop valve is provided to isolate the hydraulic oil reservoir when servicing pump etc.
Relief valve P2 is fitted with a vent valve to allow the low volume section of the pump to be
unloaded when not in use. Hydraulic oil cooling is by the return oil heat exchanger installed at
the rear of the electric motor. Air is drawn through the oil cooler by the motor blower fan.
A 70 gallon hydraulic reservoir fitted with filler/breather and fluid level gauges.
The 125 micron suction strainer is located within the hydraulic oil reservoir. The return fluid is
through a 25 micron filter.
NOTE: Before starting the electric pump, the hydraulic system must be looped or
connected to the wireline unit.
NOTE: Even if the fuel is shut off, the engine could continue to run on the
flammable gas entering the inlet manifold if the inlet manifold is not
closed off.
The diesel engine of a diesel power pack, should be regularly maintained. Exhaust/spark
arrester should be cleaned regularly, (if neglected, soot may form and render it ineffective).
Hydraulic filtering systems must be checked and cleaned regularly. Starter motor should be
either air or hydraulically driven.
The power pack requires to be positioned and operated only in areas designated as safe, in
accordance with IP ‘model code of safe practise in the petroleum industry’ which classifies
areas as:
Zone 0 In which flammable atmosphere is continuously present or present for
long periods (More than 1,000 hours per year).
Zone 1 In which a flammable atmosphere is likely to occur in normal operation
(About 10 to 1,000 hours per year).
Zone 2 In which a flammable atmosphere is not likely to occur in normal
operation, and if it occurs will exist only for a short period (less than 10
hours per year).
WARNING: In general unions that cannot be loosened easily indicate that high
pressure may be trapped inside. If this pressure is not bled off first
unscrewing the union could cause a sudden release of pressure
projecting equipment parts at lethal speeds.
The collar of the union will make up by hand when the pin end, with the ‘O’ ring has been
shouldered against the box end. When the collar bottoms out, it should be backed off
approximately one-quarter turn to eliminate any possibility of it sticking due to friction when
the time comes to disconnect it.
Rocking the lubricator to ensure it is perfectly straight will assist in loosening the quick union.
In addition, make sure that tugger lines and hoists are properly placed to lift the lubricator
assembly directly over the wellhead.
Description
A lubricator allows wireline tools to enter or be removed from the well under pressure. It is a
tube of selected ID, and can be connected with other sections to obtain the desired length.
The following factors govern the selection of Lubricators:
• Shut in wellhead pressure
• Well fluid
• Wireline tool diameter
• Length of wireline tools.
The lowermost lubricator section normally has one or more bleed off valves installed; a
pressure gauge can be connected to one of the valves to monitor pressure in the lubricator. If
the lubricator has no facility to install valves then a bleed off sub, (a short lubricator section
with two valves fitted), should be connected between the wireline valve and lubricator.
Quick unions connect lubricator sections together and to the wireline valve these unions have
ACME type threads and seal by means of an ‘O’ ring, there by requiring only tightening by
hand.
Construction
Lubricators for normal service (up to 5,000 psi) can be made of carbon or manganese steel.
Over 5,000 psi, consideration should be given to sour service as quantities of H2S can be
absorbed into the steel of the lubricator body and heat treatment becomes necessary.
All lubricator sections must have full certification from the manufacturer or test house. A
standard colour code identifies different pressure ratings of lubricator.
Some companies implement a colour coding system. The colour coding system uses one or
two bands of colour to identify the service. The pressure rating is identified by the base colour
of the item (e.g. lubricator) or accessory and should satisfy the following:
Figure 14 - Lubricator
Some time ago Bridon introduced Dyform cable. Around the single centre core are nine
thinner right-lay wires.The outer wires are also right lay, but thicker. The finished cable is
pulled through a die. By doing so, the following improvements are made:
20% increased in breaking load, because there is more steel in the same diameter.
Smooth external periphery and closer tolerance of outside diameter, reducing leakage at the
stuffing box.
Higher crush resistance because of the increased steel content of the cable. Low twist
tendency because of the Dyform Process.
Table 6 gives wireline date relating to Dyform braided line.
Minimum Breaking Load
Size Rec Min
Flow Tube Weight 316 Supa 70
Dia Pulley Dia Galvanised Supa 60
Bore (ins) (lbs/1,000 ft) Stainless /Supa 75
(ins) (ins) (lbs) (lbs)
Steel (lbs) (lbs)
3
/16 0.196 85.21 12 6,170 4,930 4,560 4,960
7
/32 0.228 111.4 14 8,370 6,500 5,990 5,990
1
/4 0.263 147.6 16 11,200 8,640 7,830 8,530
3
/4 0.330 231.5 20 17,540 13,550 12,080 13,380
Table 6 - Relative Strengths of Various Dyform Braided Wireline Sizes
The optional differential pressure regulator valve, when used, controls the flow of grease to
the control head which is supplied by the grease supply system. In all cases, the grease is
delivered at a pressure of 350 psi to 400 psi greater than the wellhead pressure.
The system is designed to deliver grease as demanded under continuous operation within the
parameters of a single pump unit.
There are two circuits on the unit for control/drive air and grease and both described below:
a) Grease system
The system pump draws grease from the grease reservoir through the pump section
tube and it is pumped to the outlet port which is split into two lines. One line delivers
grease to the control panel vent valve which allows the operator to vent grease pressure
to atmosphere via a short hose into an alternate grease reservoir which is not in use (this
is normally permissible as grease from this source should be clean; however, care should
be taken to isolate grease from airborne contamination). The other line is the grease
supply line plumbed via a rotary valve to hose storage reels and then to the appropriate
grease head.
The grease return line via the hose reel, rotary valve, and system pressure gauge leads to
a system pressure control vent valve from which the vented grease flow rate is
controlled. This grease is plumbed (now at atmosphere pressure) through a short
flexible hose to a waste grease container and should not be re-used as this may be
contaminated. Excessive grease returns will indicate incorrectly size flow tubes.
NOTE: If a 5/16” line is used, the supply pump must be fitted with at least a 3/4”
ID hose to ensure adequate supply to retain seal.
b) Pneumatics
The driver air enters the unit via a bulkhead quick connect to a pressure control valve
which is pilot controlled from the control panel and also acts as a stop/start control. A
separate supply is plumbed to the control panel into a three way valve. Position one is
where the supply is blocked with the reservoir vented to atmosphere. Position two is
where the supply is directed to the reservoir via the reservoir lid pressure controller.
Both allow the operator an auto pre-set reservoir pressurisation or vent to atmosphere
in one control valve.
WARNING: HIGH PRESSURE - Never allow any part of the human body to
come in front of or in direct contact with the grease outlet.
Accidental operation of the pump could cause an injection into the
flesh. If injection occurs, medical aid must be immediately
obtained from a physician.
So that the HMV does not have a differential pressure across it when opening, when pulling
out the shut-in sequence should be:
1. Swab valve
2. HMV
Check that the correct number of turns have been used to open and close the swab valve.
When conducting slickline logging it is sometimes difficult to detect a loss in weight on the
weight indicator if the tool string is being pushed up the well by the producing fluid. With
braided line the tool position can be monitored by means of the CCL to give a positive
indication of movement.
The required tool string weight should be estimated during pre-job planning to determine if
well flowing conditions will impede the tool string descent. Most service companies have
software packages to calculate flowing conditions and alter tool string design accordingly.
When pulling plugs, etc. it is important to ensure that the device is equalised, i.e. has the same
pressure above and below. If the pressure above is too high, it may be impossible to pull the
prong/device, perhaps eventually leading to a broken wire. If the pressure below is too high,
the surge may cause the prong/device to be blown up the well, also leading to tangling and
possibly broken wire.
When conducting wireline operations on gas wells the following additional points should be
noted:
• The probability of hydrate formation is much increased in comparison to oil wells.
Monitor line tension closely when pulling tools through tree valves in case hydrate
plugs have formed, causing a restriction in ID.
NOTE: That the construction of braided line means that some gas migration is
possible through the core, even though the grease seal equipment is
functioning perfectly.
NOTE: That tree valve are not always able (or designed) to cut the wire, and the
valve to be used for this should be determined before the job. Then close
the tree valves as above
Otherwise, the stuffing box will have to be repaired by replacing the packing. Normally this
repair is made by cutting the wire. To do this:
1. If possible stop cable movement immediately or move tool string to a position where
the cable can be held stationary
2. Close both sets of wireline BOPs and bleed down lubricator pressure
3. Inflow test BOPs to ensure they are sealing. This is done by observing that the
lubricator pressure stays at zero after closing the bleed valves after bleeding down
4. Open the bleed screw in the stuffing box to ensure that no pressure remains
5. Unscrew the gland nut completely to expose the packing elements
6. Clamp and cut the wire
7. Withdraw the packing elements and remove them from the wire
8. Ream the new packing element with a piece of scored wire and place them on the wire
9. Rejoin the wire.
Normally in slickline operations it is perfectly acceptable to cut the wire, however there may
be a reason not to do so. In this case, a temporary repair may be made by splitting the
packings with a knife to allow them to be placed on the line without cutting it. Before pushing
the new elements into the stuffing box it is essential to rotate each packing element to ensure
that the diagonal splits do not line up. This will prevent selective wear and a keyseat appearing
on one side of the packing. This should be considered a last resort emergency measure only,
and this temporary packing should be changed as soon as the tool is retrieved.
Leaks are potentially serious in gas wells. If acted upon early enough, it may be possible to re-
establish the grease seal in the following ways.
NOTE: That the time available is short in gas wells and contingency plans should
be well developed for this:
NOTE: That when the stuffing box is closed, flowing well fluid may be diverted
down the grease return hose, and it should be securely tied down before
the job. In this case:
If none of the above actions helps to abate the leak the cable may have to be cut to allow the
seal assembly to be inspected and repaired/reconfigured. There are a number of possibilities
which become possible once the cable has been cut:
• Worn flow tubes replaced, or smaller ID inserts used
• More flow tubes added
• Additional grease injection points added.
The procedure for cutting the cable is as given below.
NOTE That a knotted cable cannot be pulled over sheaves, and that the
operation is considerably speeded up if the cut and knot is made far away
from the top of the lubricator at the winch drum after slacking some
cable:
If this problem is identified early enough, before a birds nest is formed, it may be possible to
cut the broken strand back in such a way that it will pass through the flow tube. To attempt
this operation:
• Pump open the head catcher to spread the fingers
• Attempt to go down a few feet to check if the broken strand is caught. Do not go
down too far, as the strand will foul the BOPs
• Close BOP rams, bleed down lubricator pressure and inflow test BOPs
• Pump the head catcher open to withdraw the fingers
• Open the lubricator and clamp the cable above the BOPs
• Lift up slowly and check that:
1. The wire is not being stripped through the BOPs
2. Cable tension limits are not being exceeded
• Once it has been established that the cable is being dragged up, lift the lubricator
up as far as possible
• Open the lubricator at a second point below the head catcher
• Using a second tugger line lower the free middle section of the lubricator back
down onto the BOPs, revealing the broken strand at the top
• Cut the broken strand back without bending it and replace it into the lay of the
cable.
• It may be necessary to file down the OD of the cable slightly to ensure the broken
strand is not snagged again when attempting to pass it through the injection head
• Pull tension on the cable, lower grease injection head, checking that the cable
underneath does not slack
• Equalise pressure and open BOPs
• POOH and replace cable drum.
a) High WHP
In this situation it is not recommended to strip through the BOPs therefore the cable may
have to be cut and knotted twice to bring it through the grease injection head. Proceed as for
broken strand case to the point of checking if the wire is stuck.
If the birds nest is completely stuck inside the riser, it should be possible to strip a short
section of cable (1 - 2 ft) through the BOPs to gain access. To prepare the BOPs for stripping:
• Close bottom BOP ram tightly
• Close upper BOP ram lightly and inject grease to a pressure at least 500psi above
WHP
• Apply sufficient pressure on upper BOP rams to just stop the leak of grease
• Reduce pressure on bottom BOP ram to the same as upper
• Monitor for grease leaking and adjust upper BOP pressure accordingly.
To recover from the stuck birds nest:
• Install first clamp and reconnect the lubricator at the bottom. Open the lubricator
at the top one section below the ball valve
• Cut cable below birds nest and allow the cut end to fall into the lubricator
• Lay down the lubricator and remove a single section, then lay the grease injection
assembly down and remove birds nest
• Prepare the cut end to pass more easily through the injection head by filing it
down
• Pick up lubricator and pass a rope down from the bottom to be able to pull the
cut end back up
• Thread cut end through injection head.
NOTE: That since the injection head is usually shorter than riser sections,
removing one will give sufficient slack to allow the cable to be passed
through to the top
It is good practice to include one more section of riser than required to accommodate the
tool, to avoid having to cut the wire twice in this situation. Also, the riser and lubricator
together may be able to accommodate the tool, or the DHSV may be used to temporarily
close the well to allow the tool to be recovered.
If not, the missing lubricator sections will have to be replaced. In this case, it may be
expedient at the time of making the first cut to remove all the lubricator sections except one,
which will provide enough slack to pass the free end over both sheaves before knotting. To
make the second cut:
• Pull sufficient cable to move knot securely onto cable drum
• Close BOP rams and bleed down lubricator pressure
• Break out lubricator, install clamp and cut cable leaving sufficient length to install
original lubricator sections and leave cable end free of lower sheave
• Re-install lubricator sections, knot cable and remove clamp
• Re-connect lubricator, pressure test, equalise pressure and open BOP rams
• Pull out of the well and change out cable.
Low WHP
In this situation it may be possible to strip cable through the BOP rams and simplify the
operation. After cutting the cable below the birds nest as before:
• Knot the free cable ends together without the lubricator and injection head
• Pull the cable to strip through the BOP. Be ready to close the second BOP if
required. Monitor cable tension closely
• Once enough slack has been pulled, re-clamp the cable, cut off the knot, and
thread cable through lubricator and injection head as above.
If space constrictions do not allow for any additional height to install a riser section then
reducing tool string length is the only option. There are tools available that combine tubular
jars, hydraulic jars, weight bars and rope socket in one short section thus providing a tool
string short enough to allow the wireline BOPs to be closed above it.
The most likely location for the wire to have parted downhole is at the rope socket. The well
bore pressure will be acting such as to force the line out of the stuffing box, but this will be
counteracted by the weight of the line in the well. It is therefore recommended to:
• POOH, using increased stuffing box and/or grease injection pressure, to a point
where stripping becomes necessary. However be careful not to clamp the cable
too tightly, or it will kink
• Close the rams lightly (one set only)
• Strip the wire out of the hole.
Caution should be exercised as the end of the line comes through the BOP rams. If the
stuffing box/grease injection head does not contain a ball valve then there should be someone
ready by the wellhead to close the tree in as the wire passes.
NOTE: That spliced cables are unacceptable for all operations involving pressure
control equipment.
CONTENTS
Workovers Stimulation
Cleanout wellbore debris Removal of wellbore skin damage
Acid washing Spotting diverter agents
Spotting cement plugs Clean out un-displaced fracture proppant
Setting straddle packers/bridge plugs
Fishing
Production Services Drilling Operations
Gas Lifting Freeing stuck drill pipe
Small bore permanent strings Drilling out flash set cement
Cementing
Drilling slim hole
Side tracking
Logging Operations Testing Operations
Stiff wireline (horizontal wells) Gas lifting
Wellbore cleanup
Pressure capacity
Dimensions Weight Load
OD ID psi
(ins) wall lbs/ft capacity
yield min lbs Burst
Tested
nom nom nom nom yield
0.875 0.087 0.701 0.737 14,455 10,624 13,280
1.00 0.067 0.866 0.688 12,982 7,056 8,820
1.00 0.075 0.850 0.741 14,505 7,952 9,940
1.00 0.087 0.826 0.848 16,738 9,296 11,620
1.00 0.095 0.810 0.918 18,191 10,192 12,740
1.00 0.102 0.796 0.978 19,262 10,864 13,580
1.00 0.109 0.782 1.037 20,492 11,648 14,560
1.25 0.075 1.100 0.941 18,409 6,362 7,952
1.25 0.087 1.076 1.081 21,301 7,437 9,296
1.25 0.095 1.060 1.172 23,194 8,154 10,192
1.25 0.102 1.046 1.250 24,595 8,691 10,864
1.25 0.109 1.032 1.328 26,210 9,318 11,648
1.25 0.125 1.000 1.506 29,375 10,573 13,216
1.25 0.134 0.982 1.597 31,583 11,469 14,336
1.25 0.156 0.938 1.840 35,867 13,261 16,576
1.50 0.095 1.310 1.425 28,197 6,795 8,493
1.50 0.102 1.296 1.522 29,928 7,243 9,053
1.50 0.109 1.282 1.619 31,928 7,765 9,707
1.50 0.125 1.250 1.836 35,862 8,885 11,107
1.50 0.134 1.232 1.955 38,620 9,557 11,947
1.50 0.156 1.188 2.245 44,004 11,051 13,813
1.75 0.109 1.532 1.910 37,645 6,656 8,320
1.75 0.125 1.500 2.190 42,350 7,552 9,440
1.75 0.134 1.482 2.313 45,657 8,192 10,240
1.75 0.156 1.438 2.660 52,140 9,472 11,840
2.00 0.109 1.782 2.201 43,363 5,824 7,280
2.00 0.125 1.750 2.503 48,837 6,608 8,260
2.00 0.134 1.732 2.671 52,694 7,168 8,960
2.00 0.156 1.688 3.072 60,277 8,288 10,360
2.375 0.125 2.125 3.010 58,568 5,565 6,956
2.375 0.134 2.107 3.207 63,250 6,036 7,545
2.375 0.156 2.063 3.710 72,482 6,979 8,724
Table 2 - Sizes, Dimensions, Pressure Ratings and General Information about Commercially
Available Coiled Tubing.
In order to more accurately track fatigue loading conditions in the field, most coiled tubing
companies have developed computer based systems to quantify and record the historical job
exposure of each string. Depending on the internal pressure present in each section of the
coiled tubing while reeling, unreeling or travelling over the gooseneck, varying factors are
applied to the cycle count to adjust the cycle life of that section. Past and present job data are
merged and kept on file to maintain up-to-date records for each string.
The calculation and table below serve to demonstrate how coiled tubing is stressed beyond its
elastic limit each time it is run over the gooseneck or spool. Yield strength is reduced
considerably when stressed with internal pressure.
The minimum bend radius for coiled tubing around the reel or gooseneck can be calculated
using:
R = E (D/2) / Sy (answer in inches)
E = 30 × 106 psi (modulus of elasticity for steel)
D = OD of coiled tubing
Sy = material yield strength
for 70,000 psi coiled tubing:
Beyond this minimum bending radius the steel will be stressed beyond its elastic strain limit.
When coiled tubing is initially spooled plastic deformation will take place. There are six
bending and straightening cycles. (Refer to Figure 4)
1&6 Pipe is pulled off or spooled on by the injector head. The reel hydraulic motor
resists placing the coiled tubing in tension and straightens the primary bend in the
coiled tubing.
2&5 Around the gooseneck the coiled tubing is bent around a similar radius to the reel.
3&4 The pipe is straightened again as it passes through the injector and into or out of
the well.
Buckling can also be a problem when running coiled tubing. If upward drag forces are greater
than downward injector forces then the coiled tubing will be in compression, and helical
buckling can occur. A contributory factor is the material microstructure due to the spooling
process.
Injector head weight indicators are the main source of information on downhole coiled tubing
performance and as such are the single most important instrument on a coiled tubing unit.
Strain gauge instruments are the most accurate type and are becoming more prevalent.
Conventional Design
The conventional stripper packer uses an hydraulic piston operating from below, to compress
a polyurethane element to effect a seal around the outside of the coiled tubing.
Wear bushings made of brass are run above and below the sealing element to centralise the
tubing before entering the packer insert. A Teflon non extrusion ring above the packing
element is required to minimise extrusion for maximum packer seal life.
For changing out packer inserts and wear bushings with the coiled tubing in situ, a split cap at
the top of the stripper packer is removed allowing the consumable parts to be replaced.
Dual Strippers
The use of two strippers in one stack of coiled tubing pressure containing equipment is
becoming increasingly popular. The lower element is not energised and therefore kept in
reserve. Should the upper element become worn, the lower element can be energised and
either:
• The operation continued utilising the lower element as the primary seal
• The upper element can be replaced and the lower element de-energised. (Refer to
Figure 9)
Used to seal the well bore off at surface when well control is lost. Sealing of
Blind the blind rams is achieved when the elastomeric elements in the rams are
rams compressed against each other. For the blind rams to seal correctly the tubing
must be removed. The rams are designed to hold pressure from below only.
Used to cut coiled tubing in an emergency. Rams have replaceable blades
specifically for coiled tubing applications. As the shearing plates are closed on
Shear
the coiled tubing, the forces imparted mechanically yield the body of the tube
rams
to failure. The cut will leave the tubing open ended so that circulation is still
possible.
Designed to hold the tubing and prevent upward or downward movement.
Rams have replaceable inserts for changing tubing size. To prevent damage of
the tubing, by the slips, longer inserts are available adding 75% to the contact
Slip rams
area. In order to break up the stress risers (caused by circumferential slip
marks) the teeth have vertical grooves cut to interrupt the slip marks on the
tubing.
The pipe rams are equipped with elastomeric seals sized to the diameter of the
Pipe tubing in use. When closed on the tubing they isolate the well annulus below
rams the rams. Guide sleeves fitted to the ram assembly centralise the coiled tubing
as the rams close.
BOPs are available in 5,000, 10,000 or 15,000 psi ratings. The bore range is 2.5 to 6.4 inch.
The blind rams and shear rams are separated from the slip rams and pipe rams by a flanged
outlet in the BOP body which is used as a kill line during well control. This line can be used to
reverse circulate fluids however it is not recommended as the pipe rams and slip rams would
be exposed to debris which could impair their operation. Returns should either be taken via
the Xmas Tree or through a flow-tee mounted directly below the BOPs.
NOTE: Some operators prefer not to function slip rams unless absolutely
necessary. The extent of slip ram damage cannot be easily quantifiable by
visual inspection.
The blind ram and pipe ram compartments of the BOP stack body are equipped with ports,
which when activated, equalise pressure within the ram body. Since the rams are self-actuating,
the pressure above and below must be equalised before they are opened. It is good practice to
monitor the opening and closing hydraulic pressure. A high opening pressure could indicate
that the riser pressure is not equalised. In this case the surge an opening can cause buckling or
other damage.
Should a situation arise where the tubing has to be cut, the order of operation should be:
• Close the slip & pipe rams
• Cut the coiled tubing with the shear rams
• Using the injector pull the remaining coiled tubing above the blind rams
• Close the blind rams.
Circulation down the coiled tubing is then possible via the circulating port in the BOP body
and into the cut end of the coiled tubing. (Refer to Figure 12)
There are six ways of closing the BOP:
• Hydraulic pressure from the BOP control circuit
• Accumulator pressure from the BOP control circuit
• Haskel pump
• Manual override for Haskel pump
• Manual hydraulic hand pump
• Manual handles on the BOP rams.
Hydraulic Disconnect
The hydraulic disconnect is similar in design to the BOSS tool, but does not rely on a ball for
activation. The tool is operated by applying a differential pressure inside the coiled tubing. It
requires a much larger differential pressure because the surface area on which it is acting is
much smaller.
Tension Disconnect
These are simply two components pinned together such that they will separate upon
application of a straight pull on the coiled tubing, leaving a standard fishing neck looking up.
It is not generally recommended to use the tension disconnect as part of the down hole tools
because of the lack of control over down hole tension forces and the possibility of premature
release.
NOTE: Applying too much stripper pressure may damage the coiled tubing.
5. Pipe Rams
With pressure still maintained from the stripper test close the pipe rams. Bleed the
pressure from above via the BOP circulating port. Observe the pressure which is now
being applied to the underside of the pipe rams for the prescribed time. Equalise the
pressure above the rams via the equalising valve on the BOP. Open the pipe rams.
(Refer to Figure 22(5)).
6. Check Valves
Attach the valves to the coiled tubing in the reverse direction including a bleed off
manifold. Position as close to deck as possible. Pressure up in 500 psi increments. Hold
for the prescribed time. Bleed pressure off at both ends of the reel. Reinstate the check
valves in the string the correct way round. (Refer to Figure 22(6)).
Alternatively, after the pipe ram test, bleed off the coiled tubing pressure to 1,000 psi
and monitor the check valves are holding the pressure still inside the BOP body. This is
assuming the string is good for a differential equal to at least the test pressure being
used.
NOTE: Ensure that when running coiled tubing into a riser, and the well is closed
in, that a vent is open to prevent pressure build up which could result in
pipe collapse.
Wash fluids must be capable of transporting solids out of the well. Lack of hole cleaning can
lead to getting stuck and being unable to circulate, thereby compromising our primary means
of well control.
If circulation rates will achieve annular velocities exceeding terminal particle settling velocity
(TPSV), Newtonian fluids are generally adequate. It is important to bear in mind the different
annular capacities when the coiled tubing is washing inside the production tubing or below the
tailpipe.
It is common practise to use brine or water and to circulate non-Newtonian viscous pills
periodically to assist in solids removal. With a Newtonian fluid solids will settle out when
circulation is below the TPSV, therefore a gel wash fluid may be considered more desirable.
Hole deviation has a great affect on solids removal. With wells of 45 degrees deviation the
annular velocity should be twice the TPSV. In horizontal wells the ratio should be at least
10:1. TPSV calculations are possible for Newtonian and non-Newtonian fluids, the latter
being more complex. Computer programmes are made available by service companies at the
planning stage of coiled tubing operations.
Compressible fluids are more difficult to design and use than incompressible fluids. They can
be used on wells with low reservoir pressures or to lift solids when annular velocities will be
too low with liquid fluids. Compressible fluids consist of a single gaseous phase or a liquid and
gaseous phase (nitrogen) as foams. In the annulus the gas fraction of the foam will expand as
it is circulated out of the well. This assists with solids removal but does create higher annular
pressure losses as compared with liquids.
Friction pressure losses in coiled tubing and coiled tubing/tubing annulus can be predicted
using computer programmes. Annular pressure losses are of the order 10 psi/1,000 ft whereas
internal pressure losses are of the order 100 psi/1,000 ft. These figures are quoted to
demonstrate the difference in order of magnitude; exact figures would vary depending on
individual cases.
Formation fluid can influence a wash programme. If the system becomes underbalanced and
the formation flows, this can help the removal of solids. If a gas well is being worked on,
under balance will lead to a gas influx. Whilst this could also assist with solids removal it is
advisable to be prepared for an increase in return flow rate. Additionally, as the gas expands, it
will displace the wash fluid either at surface or into the reservoir. A large influx of gas into the
annulus will reduce the solids carrying capability. An influx of oil may degrade the foam and
cause the same problem.
Special Precautions
Control of remote actuated well valves, while coiled tubing is in a well, must be removed from
the automatic shutdown system.
Wellhead valves may either be locked open with fuseable discs or control transferred to a
separate control skid. Sub surface safety valves may be removed and sleeved, sleeved only, or
control transferred to a separate control skid. They should not be held open by locking in
hydraulic control pressure at the wellhead as pressure can bleed off over time and allow the
valve to close.
The wellbore fluid and geometry must always be considered before any coiled tubing
operation. The size of the bottom hole assembly in relation to the completion diameter can
have a significant effect on the running in and pulling out weight. In the case of large bottom
hole assemblies in relatively small tubulars, the annular clearance can be such that significant
pistoning effects can occur which resist the movement of the coiled tubing and can cause
swabbing of the well. High viscosity fluids in the annulus can also cause this effect.
High wellhead pressures cause a significant up thrust on coiled tubing, dependent on the cross
sectional area of the tubing. This means that in high pressure wells the weight indicator will
read negative until sufficient weight of coiled tubing is in the well to overcome the effect of
pressure. In these situations the injector head requires a large amount of hydraulic thrust to
‘snub’ the tubing in the well.
The thrust required from the injector reduces as more tubing is in the well and it is important
to reduce the thrust setting on the injector as the tubing is run in the well. This means that in
the event of the tubing hitting an unexpected object (such as hydrate plug), only a minimal
amount of extra thrust will be applied by the injector, reducing the possibility of buckling the
tubing. If at all possible circulate through coiled tubing while run in hole.
Should buckling occur while running in hole the pipe will form a hinge that will in effect
prevent circulation. If pumping liquid this will be noticed by a rapid increase in circulating
pressure. In many instances of buckling failure the tubing has been folded over repeatedly
before the injector has been stopped, resulting in a difficult fishing operation.
Stripper rubbers have a significant effect on apparent coiled tubing weight and low friction
strippers must be used at all times. Correct lubricating oil should be used as required to reduce
stripper friction further in high pressure dry conditions.
NOTE: If it is not possible to establish two mechanical barriers below the leak
normally the well will have to be killed before any repairs are commenced.
Figure 26 - Riser Assembly Leak With Long String Of Coiled Tubing In Hole
Figure 27 - Riser Assembly Leak With Short String Of Coiled Tubing In Hole
NOTE: In this situation, stripping the coiled tubing through the pipe rams is not
an option because if the collapsed section of tubing straddles the BOPs
then they will not be able to seal.
Once it has been established that the coiled tubing is stuck in the stuffing box:
• Hang off coiled tubing in slips
• Kill the well
• Install clamps on the coiled tubing
• Split the stuffing box and open the slips
• Attempt to pull the coiled tubing with the injector head
• If the injector head is unable to pull the tubing, break the connection above the
BOP and raise the injector. Connect to block and pull tubing out of hole to
remove collapsed section leaving 4-6 ft of good coiled tubing sticking up for the
BOP
• Set slips
• Re-connect the injector head, splice the coiled tubing, and pull out of hole.
NOTE: If the tubing is ejected from the well the blind rams must be closed and
injector stopped before coiled tubing passes through the injector chains.
CONTENTS
A stand alone high pressure, high volume skid mounted triplex pump may be included as part
of the rig up and would be used for the following purposes:
• Standby for well kill operations
• Work string fill up
• Conducting work string pumping operations
• Pressure testing the pressure control equipment
• Circulating hydrocarbons out of the work sting before rigging down
• Pumping sand wash fluids during a sand cleanout operations
Being a live well job, well control will be maintained by means of the BOPs at all times.
Whilst running in with the clean out string, the wellhead pressure is sufficiently low to enable
the stripper bowl to be used. The two BPVs in the workstring prevent flow back up through
the tubing.
Once below the tail pipe, the rig cement pump is used to circulate down the tubing, under
reaming down with returns to the rig choke and de-gassers. Well control is initially achieved
by use of the annular BOP and stripper bowl with the stripping BOPs and stripper rubber
being used when the rat hole is reached.
Having finished washing out, it is discovered that the BPVs are both leaking so the pump
down plug is dropped and seated. With full wellhead pressure restored, the pipe is pulled using
the stripper rams for well control.
The BOPs are controlled from 3 locations:
• The work basket
• From the BOP skid
• From a remote panel situated near by
Although in conventional well control terms, a drilling rig uses the kill fluid as it’s primary well
control, the descriptions during live well work applying equally to wireline and coiled tubing
are slightly different.
In live well terminology, we speak of containment devices which are split into primary,
secondary and tertiary well control devices. A containment device becomes a barrier when it
has been operated/closed. (Refer to Figure 4)
Primary well control containment devices/barriers are those used in the minute by minute
performance of the work such as stripper rubbers, annular preventers (bags, spherical, hydrils,
etc.), stripping Rams.
Secondary well control containment devices/barriers are those used back ups to the primary
devices such as pipe rams, variable rams, blind rams, shear rams and blind/shear rams.
Tertiary well control containment devices/barriers are those used solely in an emergency such
as safety heads placed immediately above the Xmas Tree/wellhead, consisting of hydraulically
boosted blind/shear rams capable of cutting large strings of pipe with braided line inside. Also
called shear/seal rams.
1.5.3 Slips
Travelling slips are attached to the travelling head and consist of one bowl for pipe heavy and
one bowl for pipe light. Almost always hydraulically operated, the two bowls are the same with
the pipe light bowl facing down. Similarly, the stationary slips are attached near the bottom of
the jack, but do not move. In high pressure wells, it is normal to use an extra set of stationary
snubbers for safety. (Refer to Figure 8 and Figure 9)
Tertiary well control is provided by shear/seal bop system, primary and secondary inside well
control is shown below:
• For well pressures over 10,000 psi and for one pipe size, a minimum of seven
preventors (Refer to Figure 26). No threaded connections are permitted.
Additional equipment may be required depending on job conditions
• When well pressures exceed 3,000 psi a doubled valve drilling cross should be
used for return and surface kill operations. This may prevent BOP damage and
potentially hazardous situations
• Use a double valve cross for returns when the pressure exceeds 3,000 psi line pipe
connections on wellhead equipment are not permitted when well pressures exceed
3,000 psi
• When well pressure exceeds 3,000 psi a minimum of one set of BOPs for each
pipe size will be rigged up below the return
• A choke bean or choke nipple will be used in the equalising loop and bleed-off
line
• New ring gaskets will be used whenever flanging up BOP connections
• All flanges must be made up using B-7 studs and 2-H nuts
• The opening of hydraulically controlled valves located on the return cross and
exposed to pressure differentials should be avoided. Equalising pressure across
valves prior to opening is preferred to avoid pressure cutting. Inside valves should
only be operated to repair downstream components
• When shutting down at night with pipe in the hole, shut and lock a minimum of
two BOPs. The bottom safety BOP should only be closed when needed for BOP
repairs or in emergencies.
• All side outlets on bottom safety BOPs must be blind flanged
• H2S certified equipment must be used when working on any well that contains
H2S as per NACE MR-01-75. It is the supervisor’s responsibility to make sure all
valves and BOP parts are H2S certified.
Figure 22 - Standard 41/16” 10,000 BOP Snubbing Stack For 0 - 3,000 psi
Figure 23 - Standard 41/16” 10,000 BOP Snubbing Stack For 0 - 3,000 psi And A Tapered String
Of 1” And 11/4” Pipe
After the unit is rigged up on the well, all features are function tested. The stack is then tested
inclusive of all connections, lines, valves and manifolds. To test the rams it is necessary to pick
up one or more joints of pipe and run them into the stack so that the BOPs etc. can be tested.
These joints will have to be plugged either at the top, or bottom, and must be restrained from
being pumped back out of the well.
Before commencing a job, it is important that the following have all been checked:
• There are sufficient spares for the job
i.e. Stripper rubbers, slip dies, BPV spares, BOP seals and elements, pump down
plug seals
• The stabbing or TIW valves are in the work basket
• The unit is rigged up vertically
• The guy wires have equal and sufficient tension
• Tubulars are clean and free of scale - inside and out
• All snubbing unit functions operate correctly
• All BOPs and valves operate correctly
• BOP accumulator skid remote controls operate correctly
• Power pack functions correctly
• A plan has been formulated and understood by all to cover shutdowns and
emergencies.
For the rig up, a typical pressure test sequence might be as follows:
• Surface lines and manifolds
• Inner (manual) and outer (hydraulic) valves at stack connections
• Shear/seal BOP and riser
• After picking up a joint (or 2) of pipe with BPV on bottom, lower pipe ram (this
also tests BPVs)
• Upper pipe ram
• Lower stripping ram
• Upper stripping ram
• Equalising loop and valves (hydraulic and manual)
• Annular
• Stripper bowl
• TIW and stabbing valves, etc.
During pulling out the pipe is full of fluid and since it is not possible to empty the pipe to
reduce its weight, the well pressure can be acted upon. Either:
• Flow the well to increase the length of the ‘heavy’ pipe phase and then shut in
again. The balance point will have been passed
• If conditions permit, a slug of heavy fluid can be circulated round the outside of
the string to reduce CITB.
In some circumstances, usually caused by pressure changes in the well, it may be found that
once the balance point has been crossed it is found again after a few more joints and then
finally for the third time. Each time the same procedures are adopted.
ESD Systems
It is to be noted that if the main hydraulic power pack on a snubbing unit is linked to any
platform shutdown system more problems than advantages will occur.
It is imperative that the well is made safe in an emergency. Just as with a drilling rig, if the
snubbing unit is linked to the ESD system, on a shutdown the pipe can be left up in the air
with no way of closing it in. There is also the possibility that a joint of pipe hanging on the
second winch will start to slip (it is a hydraulic winch) and could cause injury.
Shutdown
The detailed actions will vary from installation to installation and job to job depending on the
level of shutdown and whether abandonment is envisaged.
At the very least, the top of the pipe will be run into the rotary in the work basket so that an
inside BOP or stabbing valve can be installed, with one or more of the BOPs closed and
possibly manually locked.
Abandonment
In the event of abandonment, a plan will have to be formulated to cover whether or not to
close the blind/shear rams and/or the SCSSV (if it is in the well and can be closed).
Although these jobs are special, they have been performed many times with complete safety.
As with all work, planning is paramount.
A typical job might involve drilling out a DST string that has become plugged with sulphur.
Annular
In the case of a leaking annular, it may be necessary to pull back out of the hole, close the
blind rams and rig the jack off the well before being able to open the bonnet of the annular.
The annular should always start a new job with a fresh rubber and it is indeed a rare
occurrence to have to change it during a job.
Shear/Seal
In the case of a leaking shear/seal, safety BOP or riser connection, the only choices are:
• Pull back out of the hole, close or plug the wellhead
• Kill the well.
If the well being worked on is low pressure and the safeties will no longer hold pressure, the
lower stripper BOP (which has seen little or no use) can be used as a replacement safety until
the pipe is out of the hole.
CONTENTS
1.2 DESIGN
1.2.1 Pressure Ratings And Size Ranges of Flange Types
‘6B’, ‘6BX’, and segmented flanges are designed for use in the combinations of nominal size
ranges and rated working pressure as shown in Table 1.
Dimensions
Standard Dimensions: Dimensions for ‘6B’ integral, threaded, and weld neck flanges shall
conform to Table 2, Table 3 and Table 4.
Dimension for ‘6B’ blind flanges shall conform to those referenced in Figure 1.
Dimensions for ring grooves shall conform to Table 5 or Table 6.
Integral Flange Exceptions: ‘6B’ flanges used as end connections on casing and tubing head
connections may have entrance bevels, counter bores or recesses to receive casing and tubing
hangers. The dimensions of such entrance bevels, counter bores, and recesses are not covered
by this specification and may exceed the B dimension of Table 2, Table 3 and Table 4.
Threaded Flanges: Threads shall conform to the requirements of the manual.
NOTE: Due to smaller maximum bore dimensions, ‘6B’ weld neck flanges are not
intended to be welded to equipment in this specification. Their purpose is
to bolt to another ‘6B’ flange and provide a transition to be welded to a
pipe.
Flange Face: Flange face may be flat or raised on the ring, joint side and shall be fully
machined. Flange back face may be fully machined or spot faced at the bolt holes. The flange
back face or spot faces shall be parallel to the front face within one degree and the thickness
after facing shall conform to the dimensions of Table 2, Table 3 or Table 4.
Gaskets: ‘6B’ flanges shall use ‘R’ or ‘RX’ Gaskets in accordance with section 1.3
Corrosion Resistant Ring Grooves: ‘6B’ flanges may be manufactured with corrosion
resistant overlays in the ring grooves. Prior to application of the overlay, preparation of the
ring grooves shall conform to the appropriate dimensions. Other weld preparations may be
employed where the strength of the overlay alloy equals or exceeds the strength of the base
materials.
Ring Groove Surface: All 23° surfaces on ring grooves shall have a surface finish no rougher
than 63 RMS.
Figure 2 - Weld End Preparation for ‘6B’ and ‘6BX’ Weld Neck Flanges
1.3.2 Design
Dimensions
Ring gaskets shall conform to the dimensions and tolerances specified in Table 5, Table 6 and
Table 7 must be flat within 0.2% of ring outside diameter to a maximum of 0.015 inches.
‘R’ and ‘RX’ Gaskets
Surface Finish: All 23° surface on ‘R’ and ‘RX’ gaskets shall have a surface finish no
rougher than 63 RMS.
‘RX’ Pressure Passage Hole: Certain size ‘RX’ gaskets shall have one pressure passage
hole drilled through their height as shown in Table 6.
‘BX’ Gaskets
Surface Finish: All 23° surface on ‘BX’ gaskets shall have a surface finish no rougher
than 32 RMS.
Pressure Passage Hole: Each ‘BX’ gasket shall have one pressure passage hole drilled
through its height as shown in Table 7.
Reuse of Gaskets: Ring gaskets have a limited amount of positive interference which
assures the gasket will be joined into sealing relationship in the flange grooves; these
gaskets shall not be reused.
1.3.3 Materials
• PSL 0 Gasket material for PSL 0 shall conform to appropriate standards.
• PSL 1-4 Gasket material for these levels shall conform to appropriate standards.
• Coating and Platings:
General: Coatings and platings are employed to aid seal engagement while
minimising galling and to extend shelf life. Coating and plating thicknesses shall
be 0.0005 inch maximum.
Metallic: Cadmium, zinc, copper and tin coatings or platings are acceptable for
service temperatures up to 250°F.
Non-metallic: Non-metallic coatings are acceptable if they do not interfere with
the sealing of the ring gasket.
1.3.4 Marking
Gasket shall be marked to conform to appropriate standard.
Approx.
Pitch Height Width of
Width Height of Radius in Radius Distance
Ring Dia. of of Flat of Depth of Width of
of Ring Octagon in Between
No. Ring & Ring Octagonal Groove Groove
Ring Octagonal al Ring Groove made up
Groove Oval Ring
Flanges
P A B H C R1 E F Rl S
R 20 2.688 0.313 0.56 0.50 0.206 0.06 0.25 0.344 0.03 0.16
R 23 3.250 0.438 0.69 0.63 0.305 0.06 0.31 0.469 0.03 0.19
R 24 3.750 0.438 0.69 0.63 0.305 0.06 0.31 0.469 0.03 0.19
R 26 4.000 0.438 0.69 0.63 0.305 0.06 0.31 0.469 0.03 0.19
R 27 4.250 0.438 0.69 0.63 0.305 0.06 0.31 0.469 0.03 0.19
R 31 4.875 0.438 0.69 0.63 0.305 0.06 0.31 0.469 0.03 0.19
R 35 5.375 0.438 0.69 0.63 0.305 0.06 0.31 0.469 0.03 0.19
R 37 5.875 0.438 0.59 0.63 0.305 0.06 0.31 0.469 0.03 0.19
R 39 6.375 0.438 0.69 0.63 0.305 0.06 0.31 0.469 0.03 0.19
R 41 7.125 0.438 0.69 0.63 0.305 0.06 0.31 0.469 0.03 0.19
R 44 7.625 0.438 0.69 0.63 0.305 0.06 0.31 0.469 0.03 0.19
R 45 8.313 0.438 0.69 0.63 0.305 0.06 0.31 0.469 0.03 0.19
R 46 8.313 0.500 0.75 0.69 0.341 0.06 0.38 0.521 0.06 0.13
R 47 9.000 0.750 1.00 0.94 0.485 0.06 0.50 0.781 0.06 0.16
R 49 10.625 0.438 0.69 0.63 0.305 0.09 0.31 0.469 0.03 0.19
R 50 10.625 0.625 0.88 0.81 0.413 0.06 0.44 0.656 0.06 0.16
R 53 12.750 0.438 0.69 0.63 0.305 0.06 0.31 0.469 0.03 0.19
R 54 12.750 0.625 0.88 0.81 0.413 0.06 0.44 0.656 0.06 0.16
R 57 15.000 0.438 0.69 0.63 0.305 0.06 0.31 0.469 0.03 0.19
R 63 16.500 1.000 1.31 1.25 0.681 0.06 0.62 1.063 0.09 0.22
R 65 18.500 0.438 0.69 0.63 0.305 0.06 0.31 0.469 0.03 0.19
R 66 18.500 0.625 0.88 0.81 0.413 0.06 0.44 0.656 0.06 0.16
R 69 21.000 0.438 0.69 0.63 0.305 0.06 0.31 0.469 0.03 0.19
R 70 21.000 0.750 1.00 0.94 0.485 0.06 0.50 0.781 0.06 0.19
R 73 23.000 0.500 0.75 0.69 0.341 0.06 0.38 0.531 0.06 0.13
R 74 23.000 0.750 1.00 0.94 0.485 0.06 0.50 0.781 0.06 0.19
R 82 2.250 0.438 - 0.63 0.305 0.06 0.31 0.469 0.03 0.19
R 84 2.500 0.438 - 0.63 0.305 0.06 0.31 0.469 0.03 0.19
R 85 3.125 0.500 - 0.69 0.341 0.06 0.38 0.531 0.06 0.13
R 86 3.563 0.625 - 0.81 0.413 0.06 0.44 0.656 0.06 0.16
R 87 3.938 0.625 - 0.81 0.413 0.06 0.44 0.656 0.06 0.16
R 88 4.875 0.750 - 0.94 0.485 0.06 0.50 0.781 0.06 0.19
R 89 4.500 0.750 - 0.94 0.485 0.06 0.50 0.781 0.06 0.19
R 90 6.125 0.875 - 1.06 0.583 0.06 0.56 0.906 0.06 0.19
R 91 10.250 1.250 - 1.50 0.879 0.09 0.69 1.313 0.09 0.16
R 99 9.250 0.438 - 0.63 0.305 0.06 0.31 0.469 0.03 0.19
Table 5 - ‘R’ Ring Gasket
NOTE: The pressure passage hole illustrated in the ‘RX’ Ring cross section in
rings ‘RX’-82 through ‘RX’-91 only. Centreline of hole shall be located at
mid point of dimension C. Hole diameter shall be 0.06 inches for rings
‘RX’-82 through ‘RX’-85,0.9 inches for rings ‘RX’-86 and ‘RX’-87, and 0.12
inches for rings ‘RX’-88 through ‘RX’-91.
Approx.
Pitch
Outside Width Height of Radius Radius Distance
Ring Dia. of Width Height Depth of Width of
Dia. of of Outside in in Between
No. Ring & of Flat of Ring Groove Groove
Ring Ring Bevel Ring Groove made up
Groove
Flanges
P OD A C D H R E F R S
RX 20 2.688 3.000 0.344 0.182 0.125 0.750 0.06 0.25 0.344 0.03 0.38
RX 23 3.250 3.672 0.469 0.254 0.167 1.000 0.06 0.31 0.469 0.03 0.47
RX 24 3.750 4.172 0.469 0.254 0.167 1.000 0.06 0.31 0.469 0.03 0.47
RX 25 - 4.313 0.344 0.182 0.125 0.750 0.06 0.25 0.344 0.03 -
RX 26 4.000 4.406 0.469 0.254 0.167 1.000 0.06 0.31 0.469 0.03 0.47
RX 27 4.250 4.656 0.469 0.254 0.167 1.000 0.06 0.31 0.469 0.03 0.47
RX 31 4.875 5.297 0.469 0.254 0.167 1.000 0.06 0.31 0.469 0.03 0.47
RX 35 5.875 5.797 0.469 0.254 0.167 1.000 0.06 0.31 0.469 0.03 0.47
RX 37 5.875 6.297 0.469 0.254 0.167 1.000 0.06 0.31 0.469 0.03 0.47
RX 39 6.375 6.797 0.469 0.254 0.167 1.000 0.06 0.31 0.469 0.03 0.47
RX 41 7.125 7.547 0.469 0.254 0.167 1.000 0.06 0.31 0.469 0.03 0.47
RX 44 7.625 8.047 0.469 0.254 0.167 1.000 0.06 0.31 0.469 0.03 0.47
RX 45 8.313 8.734 0.469 0.254 0.167 1.000 0.06 0.31 0.469 0.03 0.47
RX 46 8.313 8.750 0.531 0.263 0.188 1.125 0.06 0.38 0.531 0.06 0.47
RX 47 9.000 9.656 0.781 0.407 0.271 1.625 0.09 0.50 0.781 0.06 0.91
RX 49 10.625 11.047 0.469 0.254 0.167 1.000 0.06 0.31 0.469 0.03 0.47
RX 50 10.625 11.156 0.656 0.335 0.208 1.250 0.06 0.44 0.656 0.06 0.47
RX 53 12.750 13.172 0.469 0.254 0.167 1.000 0.06 0.31 0.469 0.03 0.47
RX 54 12.750 13.281 0.656 0.335 0.208 1.250 0.06 0.44 0.656 0.06 0.47
RX 57 15.000 15.422 0.469 0.254 0.167 1.000 0.06 0.31 0.469 0.03 0.47
RX 63 16.500 17.391 1.063 0.582 0.333 2.000 0.09 0.63 1.063 0.09 0.84
RX 65 18.500 18.922 0.469 0.254 0.167 1.000 0.06 0.31 0.469 0.03 0.47
RX 66 18.500 19.031 0.656 0.335 0.208 1.250 0.06 0.44 0.656 0.06 0.47
RX 69 21.000 21.422 0.469 0.254 0.167 1.000 0.06 0.31 0.469 0.03 0.47
RX 70 21.000 21.656 0.781 0.407 0.271 1.625 0.09 0.50 0.781 0.06 0.72
RX 73 23.000 23.469 0.531 0.263 0.208 1.250 0.06 0.38 0.531 0.06 0.59
RX 74 23.000 23.656 0.781 0.407 0.271 1.625 0.09 0.50 0.781 0.06 0.72
RX 82 2.250 2.672 0.469 0.254 0.167 1.000 0.06 0.31 0.469 0.03 0.47
RX 84 2.500 2.922 0.469 0.254 0.167 1.000 0.06 0.31 0.469 0.03 0.47
RX 85 3.125 3.547 0.531 0.263 0.167 1.000 0.06 0.38 0.531 0.06 0.38
RX 86 3.563 4.078 0.594 0.335 0.188 1.125 0.06 0.44 0.656 0.06 0.38
RX 87 3.938 4.453 0.594 0.335 0.188 1.125 0.06 0.44 0.656 0.06 0.38
RX 88 4.875 5.484 0.688 0.407 0.208 1.250 0.06 0.50 0.781 0.06 0.38
RX 89 4.500 5.109 0.719 0.407 0.208 1.250 0.06 0.50 0.781 0.06 0.38
RX 90 6.125 6.875 0.781 0.479 0.292 1.750 0.09 0.56 0.906 0.06 0.72
RX 91 10.250 11.297 1.388 0.780 0.297 1.781 0.09 0.69 1.313 0.09 0.75
RX 99 9.250 9.672 0.469 0.254 0.167 1.000 0.06 0.31 0.469 0.03 0.47
RX 201 - 2.026 0.226 0.126 0.057 0.445 0.02** 0.16 0.219 0.03 -
RX 205 - 2.453 0.219 0.120 0.072* 0.437 0.02** 0.16 0.219 0.02 -
RX 210 - 3.844 0.375 0.213 0.125* 0.750 0.03** 0.25 0.375 0.03 -
RX 215 - 5.547 0.469 0.210 0.167* 1.000 0.06** 0.31 0.469 0.03 -
* Tolerance on these dimensions is +0 -0.015
** Tolerance on these dimensions is +0.02 -0
Table 6 - ‘RX’ Pressure Energised Ring Gaskets