Chapter 1: Fundamentals of Ethics

In this chapter, we discussed Socrates and the value of questions that affect

how we should live. We learned why we must examine our life and an “unexamined

life is not worth living” we learned how Socrates made his investigations through a

process referred to today as the Socratic Method. We also defined Ethics as the study

of the methods and principles used to distinguish good from bad, right from wrong

actions.

There are four general reason why we need to study ethics: 1) Ethics makes

clear to us why one act is better than another, 2) Ethics contributes an orderly social

life by providing humanity some basis for agreement, understanding some principles

or rules of procedures; 3) moral conduct and ethical systems, both of the past and of

the present, must be intelligently appraise an criticized; 4) ethics seeks to point out to

men the true values of life.

Ethics has two basic assumptions: 1. That man is a rational being, 2. That man

is free. These basic assumptions affect the degree of our moral responsibility. We

discussed the two object of ethics: physical object or the doer of the act, and the

nonphysical object or the act done by the doer. The nonphysical object of ethics has

two types, the acts of human and human acts. Because it has moral acts or human acts

are said to be formal object of ethics.

This chapter also dealt with the three general classifications of the nonmaterial

object of ethics: moral (ethical), immoral (unethical) and amoral (Neutral).

Components of the moral act were also presented and discussed: the intention, the

means and the end. End and consequence were also differentiated.
 As to the form of ethical analysis, we discussed two: descriptive and

normative ethical analysis. Descriptive Ethics is used in the social sciences, while

most philosophers believed that ethics is, for the most part, normative. Normative

ethics includes the following theories: consequentialist (teleological) Ethics, Non-

consequentialist (Deontological) Ethics, Authoritarian Ethics, Ethical Egoism and

Situational Ethics. Uncertainty or conflicts of opinion about what ought to be done

give rise to the three general forms of Ethics: Practical Ethics, Theoretical Ethics and

oral Skepticism. The difference between social and personal Ethics was also

discussed. But it was pointed out the Personal Ethics is necessarily social because it

can only be understood when put in its proper social context.

Chapter 2: The Nature of Work

In this chapter we discussed the nature history, perceptions and factors that

regulate the performance of work. Work entails conscious and sustained physical or

mental effort. Hun beings perform work for remuneration or as a means of livelihood.

Work is synonymous with such terms as employment, occupation or profession.

Hunting and gathering were the first activities of our ancestors. The discovery

of agriculture replaced simple gathering and, to a certain extent, hunting as a major

source of food supply. Sufficient food supply and the discovery and development of

copper and bronze laid the foundations for the emergence of more complex societies

that could support larger populations. Growing and more complex society’s

necessities the emergence of specialized work such as law, medicine, engineering, etc.
 We also discussed how the introduction of powerful machines gradually

displaced human labor. Efficient use of machines has resulted in the expansion of

markets, which in turn, led to greater specialization and efficiency in work, and to the

multiplication and division of labor.

We also considered the following perceptions concerning work: work as

divine punishment, as a right, as a source of self-pride and self-respect as a

determinant of social class and as a social basis for cooperation.

The importance of some social factors that regulate the performance of work

were also discussed. The following social factors were considered in this chapter:

Personal Values and Morality, Codes of Ethics, Law, Professional Associations,

Policies Enforce in the Workplace, Public opinion and perception and Religion.

At the end of the chapter, we discussed the Holland types of Personality which

include the following: Realistic (R), Investigative (I), Artistic (A), Social (S),

Enterprising (E), and Conventional (C).

Chapter 3: The Workplace

In this chapter, we discussed the nature of the workplace and the nature of the

relationship between workers and employer. The workplace is not only an economic

system, but also, most importantly, a social system. Workplace as the term suggests,

refers to the place of work or the place where work is undertaken. This is

differentiated from work environment – the former connotes a place or a social space

where work is performed, while the latter suggests the condition surrounding the

performance of work.
 Practices in the workplace may be classified as formal, based on formal duties

and responsibilities; or nonformal, based on some unwritten or tacit standard of

conduct. Practices at work vary from one workplace to another. Differences between

domestic and foreign workplaces and the necessity to understand these differences

were also underscored. Practices in the workplace may contribute to the development

of a healthy work environment, or they may become the root causes of frustration and

resentment. Nevertheless, the workplace provides the venue, and with it, the

opportunity for people to develop their full potentials to become productive members

of society.

The chapter also discussed significant transformations in the workplace from

the machine age to the advent of information technology. Some of the significant

changes include: information technology, gender, safety and insurance, privacy and

family. Discussions on basic duties of workers towards their employers, and

employers towards their employees, were also provided in the chapter.

Disagreement in the workplace are unavoidable, as both workers and

employers bring with them their different, and conflicting expectations, interests,

values and attitudes to the workplace. Workers participate in work to earn a decent

wage, while employers participate for profit. Causes of disputes may include any of

the following: Wages and salaries that are not fair and commensurate to the

difficulties of the job and the responsibilities inherent to it, poor working conditions,

unreasonable personnel policy, lack of job security and stability of employment, lack

of opportunity for advancement and self-improvement, and inconsiderate supervisors

or managers.
 Amidst these expected disputes and disagreements, some people hope there is

a chance for cooperation since both workers and employers need each other to

survive. The employer needs the workers, as the worker equally needs the employer

for any of them to prosper. This chapter also discussed the reason for disagreements

among workers. The result of the TMC Worldwide study on annoyances in the

workplace was also presented and discussed.

Chapter 4: Ethical Standards in the Workplace

In this chapter, we discussed that the workplace adopts and enforces ethical

standards which are generally unwritten, tacitly observed and which provide basis for

identifying what behaviors or practices are considered ethical and unethical. Ethical

standards basically presuppose certain theories of Ethics. As we pointed out, ethical

standard is not necessarily the same as common practices or tacit rules of conduct

observed by an organization, because common practices of the organization are not

necessarily moral.

Distinctions are made between ethical and legal standards. Both pertain to

rules of conduct on how a person ought to behave himself in relation to others. But

ethical standard sets what actions are “ethical” and “unethical”, while legal standard

sets what actions are “legal” and “illegal”. Unlike rules which are generally written,

clear and definite, ethical standards are largely unwritten, and the basis for their

observance is mostly tacit or implied. Authority and force guarantee the enforcement

of legal standards, while ethical standards are enforced through man’s sense of guilt

and shame.
 Comparing ethical standards with other standards, we may observe the

following differences. Ethical standards are not laid down by authoritative bodies.

Ethical standards override self- interests. Ethical standards are also usually associated

with emotions like guilt and shame. Ethical or moral standards also serve two social

functions they establish a mutually beneficial system of conduct and provide

acceptable justifications for actions and policies.

Three major forms of ethical standards were discussed in this chapter: ethical

standards based on utility, ethical standards based on moral rights, and ethical

standards based on justice.

Ethical standards based on utility evaluates policies, institutions and behaviors

in terms of the net social benefits and costs they produce.

Ethical standards based on moral rights evaluate institutions, policies acts or

behaviors in terms of the protection they provide for the rights and freedoms of

individuals. In this section, we discussed the meaning of rights, the types and class of

rights, and the relationship of rights and duties. The following are classes of rights

which individuals enjoy: moral- natural rights, constitutional rights, and statutory

rights. We also discussed the right to life as the most fundamental moral right and

rights as they are exercised in today’s workplace.

Ethical standards based on justice evaluate institutions and behavior in terms

of how equitably they distribute benefits and burdens among the members of the

group (i.e., the firm, society, humanity).

 Other forms of ethical standards were also discussed, ethical standard that

rests on a contemporary theory of morality called Situation Ethics and ethical

standards based on religion or religious doctrines.

Issues and problems concerning ethical standards were identified. They

include the following: Ethical standard is not laid down by authoritative bodies and

not imposed through the use of force; Ethical standard rests on ethical theory, but no

fixed, common or universal theory can provide basis for a fixed, common or universal

ethical standard; and people tend to use ethical standards to justify their actions in

pursuit of their various interests.

In case we are faced with the dilemma of what standard to prioritize, the

following hierarchy among the major forms of ethical standard was suggested. Moral

rights, the Justice, and the least is Utility. This hierarchy applies to ethical theories.

Chapter 5: Ethical Theories

This chapter tried to show why the study of ethical theories indispensable to

the study of work ethics and why the knowledge of ethical theories is indispensable to

a good worker. We discussed three major theories applicable to the conduct of work:

Utilitarianism, Categorical Imperative and Situational Ethics.

Utilitarianism is a theory of Ethics by which actions are judged to be right or

wrong solely according to their causal consequences – actions are right if they

promote the greatest happiness or pleasure to the greatest number of people; wrong,

if they produce unhappiness or pain.

 There are two general forms of pleasure: physical and mental. Physical

pleasures are sensual indulgences or bodily gratifications that include, among others,

sexual intercourse, eating, drinking, rest, etc. mental pleasures refer to intellectual,

spiritual, and moral pleasures, man’s noble feelings, imaginations and moral

sentiments. It is a higher, more superior form of pleasure, more desirable and more

valuable, compared to that of mere sensation.

Specific rules of morality based on the general principle of utility were

formulated. Rule one: If the end of an act promotes unhappiness, even if it has

intended to promote the greatest happiness, the act is considered morally wrong:

Rule two: If the end of an act is the greatest amount of happiness of the greatest

number of people, whatever means the act employs is morally justified; and Rule

three: If an act unintentionally produces the greatest amount of happiness, the act is

still considered morally good.

The second ethical theory is the Principle of Categorical Imperative. Unlike

Utilitarianism, this principle does not rest on some interest; thus, it binds

unconditionally and morally. This moral theory focuses on the motive of an act and

the means employed by an act.

Two formulations of Categorical Imperative were presented and discussed:

Universalizability is as follows: “Act only on maxims that you can and at the same

time, will become a universal law.” A major moral implication of Universalizability is

the Respect for Persons and it is expressed as follows: “Act always so as to treat

humanity, in your own person, or in that of another, as an end in itself, never merely

as a means. These formulates are categorical in meaning, they are unconditional. If an

act violates them, regardless whether it will result or it has promoted noble
consequences, the act is still morally wrong and the doer morally liable. The last

theory of morality discussed in the chapter, Situational Ethics, is a form of particular

– case intuitionism and is opposed to Utilitarianism and Kantianism. It claims that the

morality of action depends on the situation and not on the application of any

categorical law or principles of morality to the case.

One significant feature of Situational Ethics is its different conception of duty.

All duties are conditional; that is, they are relative and dependent on the other morally

significant conditions of situation. There are two types of duties. One is “prima facie

duty” or conditional duty, and the facie duty. Prima facie duty involves six divisions:

duties of fidelity, reparation, gratitude, justice, beneficence, self- improvement and

duties of nonmalevolence.

The chapter also discussed the reasons why Categorical Imperative is

considered the model theory of morality. Practical guides in making moral decisions

were also presented towards the end of the chapter.

Chapter 6: Codes of Ethics

With the specialization of knowledge and skills, the need for developing and

maintaining high standards of conduct becomes a necessity. The greater the

specialization of work, the lesser the knowledge of the public on how work is

performed. The lesser the public knowledge, the greater the possibility of abuse.

These standards of conduct that aim to regulate professional workers are imbedded in

codes of ethics. These codes are not rigid and static. As social morality changes, these

codes of conduct also continuously evolve, ceaselessly adapting to social

transformations, to the changing needs of the time. Codes generally consist of a set of

ethical principles accompanied by disciplinary rules. For every trade or business,

there is usually a business code, and for every profession, there is an enforced

professional code. Each profession subscribes to a set of ethical codes, because the

practice of profession cannot be regulated entirely by law and legislation.

The following Professional Codes of Ethics were presented and discussed in

this chapter: Legal Code of Ethics, Medical Code of Ethics, Social Research Ethics

and The Moral Code for the Public Service. Business Code of Ethics aims to regulate

the activities of the business organization. Business codes which intend to develop

and maintain good employer- employee relations usually tell about the observance of

the following: adequate pay for the employees, opportunity for advancement (e.g.,

promotions and career fulfillment), recognition for good work, reasonable security

and safety in the place of work and recognition and respect for individuals as human

beings.

Professional and business codes pronounce ideal statements. In the real world,

these ideal statements are seldom observed. Nevertheless, the formulation of these

codes is significant, for the society is furnished with a standard upon which it can

judge professionals and businessmen whether or not they perform their respective

work in ways that are expected to be performed.

Chapter 7: Prevalent Moral Issues and Dubious Practices in the Workplace

 In this chapter we discussed some ethical issues and unethical practices that

pervade work environments. We presented unethical practices of employers as well as

unethical practices of workers.

On the part of the employers, the following practices were discussed: sexual

harassment, bribing government officials, paying employees below the minimum

wage, tax evasion, resisting and interfering with trade unions, cutthroat competition,

employing children, double standards, favoritism, entertaining gossip and insulting

employees in public.

In our discussion of cutthroat competition, we discussed issues on business

espionage, infringement, negative advertising and pirating employees.

The ethical issues on gender discrimination, age discrimination, disability

discrimination, discrimination against gay and lesbian worker and religious

discrimination were discussed under the subject of discrimination as an unethical

practice.

On the part of the workers, the following issues were considered: lagay, lusot,

lakad, palakasan, discourtesy, improper use of office materials, pilferage, and

gossiping. We claimed that these practices are hard to break, as they have already

become cultural givens – partly because of the wrongful perception of many that they

are inherent in the practice of work. We tried to show that this wrongful perception

must not be tolerated and it should be corrected.

We also discussed in detail other important issues like strikes, buffing and

whistle-blowing. Strikes, as this chapter aimed to show, is a necessary tool for

workers in protecting and advancing their important interest in the workplace.

Bluffing is a form of deception and it is unethical. In our discussion of whistle-

blowing, it was pointed out that there is a procedure to be observed and other things to

be weighed and considered (e.g., adequate proofs, etc.) before it could be morally

performed.

We also discussed health and safety in the workplace. We presented data

relating to work-related deaths, injuries and diseases, and some special groups that

engage in unsafe and hazardous work. These special groups include children,

immigrant workers, aged people and women. A checklist of duties and roles of both

employers and employees was also provided towards the end of the chapter.

Chapter 8: Moral Responsibility

We endeavored to discuss in this chapter the nature of moral responsibility.

We learned that for a person to be held morally responsible for his act, it is important

that his act be deliberate or voluntary, that is, the act must be knowing and free. These

are two prerequisites that must be satisfied before a person can be held morally

responsible for his/her actions. Absence of either one will absolve that person from

any moral responsibility. Therefore, even if a person is aware that he or she should be

doing something to amend a given situation, if that person is not free to do so, he or

she cannot be held morally responsible. The opposite also holds that even if a person

has the freedom to take actions but he or she is not cognizant of that fact, he or she

cannot also be held morally responsible.

A moral act that is not performed with adequate knowledge and freedom

exonerates a person from moral responsibility. However, one is not always exempted
from morally responsibility for results he/she does not directly intend. This involves

situations wherein a person’s action results in harming another in any manner even

though there was no intention to do so. Such cases include vehicular accidents,

wherein the action is the result of circumstances beyond the driver’s control. It may

not be his or her fault that he or she injured another person, but it is his moral morally

responsibility to provide the professional medical aid that injured party deserves.

Peter French’s Principle of Responsiveness Adjustment states that we must

adopt our behavior in order not to commit the same mistake again. Meanwhile, there

are acts with double-effects, one good and one evil, wherein the pursuit of the

intended (good) results to an unintended (evil) outcome. A case-in-profit is that of a

doctor who is forced to abort a fetus (evil) to save the mother’s life (good).

There are four conditions which the act in question must satisfy: the action

which produces double-effects must be good in itself, or at least morally indifferent;

the good effect must not come from the evil effect – to do evil in order to achieve

something good is not justified; the motive of the doer must be towards the attainment

of the good – the evil is permitted only as an incidental result; and the good effect

must overweigh the evil result in its importance.

Chapter 9: Rights of Labor and Capital

This chapter dealt with the legal rights of workers vis-à-vis the rights of

employers as provided by the Constitution and Labor Code. Reorganizing and

respecting the rights of both Labor and Capital is important in maintaining industrial

peace. Industrial peace is a condition characterized by the absence of disputes

between Labor and Capital. Labor conflicts are devastating, not only to workers and

employers, but to the public, and to the national economy as well.

The following rights of workers were presented and discussed, right to self-

organization, right to collective bargaining, right to collective negotiation, right to

peaceful and concerted activities, right to security of tenure, right to just and

humane conditions of work, right to a living wage and right to participate in policy

and decision making.

The rights of employers were presented and discussed in this chapter as

follows: right to decide on matters essential to the interest of the business, right to

reasonable returns of investment and right to expansion and growth. Since right

imply duties and responsibilities, both workers and employers have duties and

responsibilities, in light of their rights, to perform.

Workers have, among others, the following duties: to protect the rights of

others, to fulfill obligation to contracted service to employers, to protect and conserve

materials, to observe terms and conditions of employment and to observe peace and

order during collective actions.

Employers on the other hand, have the following duties to their workers;

provide workers with just and fair remuneration for their labor or services, provide

workers with just and healthy working conditions, respect rights of workers to self-

association, observe collective bargaining agreement and address grievances of

employees.

We also discussed the importance of trade unions as tools for the workers to

pool their strengths and resources for the protection and advancement of their
common interests in the workplace. Trade unions pursue two general objectives:

political and economic. Since unions have legal-constitutional existence, they enjoy

sets of legal rights. Unfair labor practices of employers and workers were also

presented and discussed in this chapter.

Chapter 10: Legal Liability of Workers

In this chapter we discussed the importance of knowing the extent of a

worker’s criminal liability. Hence, we focused on the nature of law, types of law and

the concept of legal liability. There are three general sources of law: the Constitution,

Legislation (statutory laws), and the Common Law. The two general types of Law

are; public law and private or civil law. A crime is an act in violation of public

(criminal) law and punishable by fine or imprisonment, and even death.

A criminal act can be considered either a felony or a misdemeanor depending

on the gravity of the offense. Felony is a crime against person and property of a

serious nature, while misdemeanor is an offense of a less serious nature. Felonies are

acts punishable by law and they may be committed not only by means of deceit, but

also by means of fault. There are three classes of felonies consummated, frustrated

and attempted.

The law classifies persons criminally liable for felonies into: principals,

accomplices and accessories. Five circumstances could affect the extent of a person’s

criminal liability: justifying circumstances, exempting circumstances, mitigating

circumstances, aggravating circumstances and alternative circumstances.

 Unlawful practices in the workplace discussed in this chapter are the

following: criminal negligence, physical injury, sexual harassment, acts of

lasciviousness, grave scandal, defamation, misdemeanor, theft or larceny and graft

and corruption.
PORTFOLIO

IN

ETHICS
Aliah Cyril M. Hernandez

1BSA-1

Medical Code of Ethics

Includes the codes promulgated by medical associations and generally, the

Hippocratic Oath.
Pays special attention to the moral issues and problems that arise in the context of the

practice of medicine.

- to his patients

- to his community

- to his colleagues

- to the medical profession

- to the allied profession

GENERAL PRINCIPLES

1. The primary objective of the practice of medicine is service to mankind irrespective

of race, creed, or political affiliation.

2. Upon entering his profession, a physician assumes the obligation of maintaining the

honorable tradition that confers upon him the well-deserved title of “friend of men”.

3. In his relation to his patients, he shall serve their interests with the greatest

solicitude, giving them always his best talent and skill.

4. In his relation to the State and community, a physician should fulfill his civic

duties, conform to the laws, and endeavor to cooperate with the proper authorities in

the due application of medical knowledge for the promotion of the common welfare.

5. With respect to the relation of the physician to his colleagues, he should safeguard

their legitimate interests, reputation and dignity – bearing always in mind the golden

rule.

6. The ethical principles actuating and governing a clinic or a group of physicians are

exactly the same as those applicable to the individual physicians.

“greatest legacy of Hippocrates”

Hippocratic Oath

- not really an oath, rather, an ethical code or ideal

- embodied in Corpuz Hippocratum (Hippocratic Collection)

- Refers to the importance of confidentiality and the need to treat patients with

dignity and respect.

- Furnishes rules of conduct and pledges the practitioner to live an exemplary

personal and professional life.

Portfolio
 in
Ethics

Clarise S. Aquino

1BSA – 1
Portfolio
in
Ethics
Erica P. Mailig

1BSA - 1