CHAPTER II

Intellectual Revolutions that Defined Society

Objectives
At the end of the topic, the students/readers are expected to:
1.) Define intellectual revolution.
2.) Identify the intellectual revolutions that created paradigm shift.
3.) Determined the components of personality.
4.) Explain the stages of psychosocial development.
5.) Compare the different civilizations and identify their greatest contributions to the society.

KEY CONCPETS

Revolution – a wide reaching change in the way something works, organized or change in people’s ideas about
it.
Natural Selection – process that results in the adaption of an organism on its environment by means of
selectively reproducing changes in genetic constitution.
Personality – combination of characteristics or qualities made by individuals.
Behavior – range of actions and mannerisms made by individuals
Artificial Intelligence – intelligent behavior by machines rather than the natural intelligence of humans and
other animals.
Civilization – complex human society in which people live in groups of settled dwellings.

Intellectual Revolution
- is the term used to Greek speculation about “nature” in the period before Socrates (600-400 BCE). It is
also known as the “Pre-Socratic” or “non-theological” or “first philosophy”. There are three characteristics
features of this form of philosophy:
1.) the world is a natural whole (i.e., supernatural forces do not make things “happen”);
2.) there is a natural order (i.e., there are “laws of nature”); and
3.) humans can discover those laws.

Copernican
Nicholas Copernicus (1473-1543) was a mathematician and an astronomer who proposed the sun was
stationary in the center of the universe and the Earth revolved around it (Khun, 1985). Before the work of
Copernicus, the principles of classical astronomy and the four elements (earth, water, air, fire) were followed.
These put the Earth at the center of the universe and the elements below the moon, its closest celestial body
(Lawson, 2004). Aristotle believed that the Earth is the true center of all orbs carrying the heavenly bodies
around it and all motions are ‘uniform’ and unchanging (Kuhn, 1957).

Between 1508 and 1514, Copernicus adopted the ‘heliocentric model’ proving the sun is the center of the
solar system. During that time, it was a radical idea and most of contemporary astronomers were adopting the
Greek Earth-centered model.

Darwinian
Darwin’s Theory of Evolution is the widely held notion that all living organisms are related and have
descended from a common ancestor. According to his theory, the development of life from non-life stresses a
purely naturalistic descent with modifications. Complex creatures evolve from more simplistic ancestors
naturally over time. As random genetic mutations occur within an organism’s genetic code, the beneficial
mutations are preserved because they aid survival – a process known as “natural selection” and these mutations
are passed down from one generation to the other. It accumulates and result in an entirely different organism.
Not a variation of the original but a different creature.
 He also figures out that variations in a population help different species to survive. Some are suited for
the environment which increases the organism’s ability to survive and reproduce. The animals that do survive
and reproduce are better adapted than other organisms. “Survival of the Fittest” – the better adapted a species,
the more fitted it is to reproduce.

Freudian
Sigmund Freud is the father of psychoanalysis and one of the 20 th century’s most influential thinkers. He
believed that when people explain their behavior to themselves or other, they rarely give a true account of their
motivation, not because they deliberately lying, but because they are more adept at self-deception.
Rationalizations of people’s conduct are therefore disguising the reasons. (Mannoni, 1917).

Freud’s structural theory of personality emphasizes the role of unconscious psychological conflicts in
shaping behavior and personality. Human behavior is the result of the interactions among three component
parts of mind: id, ego, and superego. (Friedman and Schustack, 2011). Freud believed that the id, ego, and
superego are instant conflict and that adult personality and behavior are rooted in the results of these internal
struggles throughout childhood.
A. Id – is made up of unconscious psychic energy that works to satisfy basic urges, needs, and desires. It is
the only part of the personality that is present at birth and that is primitive component of personality
existed wholly within the unconscious. For example, you saw someone eating a cake, you would most
likely take the cake form that person, not considering that it is rude to take something belonging to
someone else. What would just matter is that you wanted the cake (Carlson, 2000).

B. Superego – is composed of people’s internalized ideals acquired from parents and society. The superego
work to suppress the urges of the “id” and tries to make “ego” behave morally, rather than realistically.
Aside from the morals and values that people have learned from their parents, the ideals that contribute
to the formation of the “superego” also include ideals of right and wrong that they acquire from society
and the culture in which they live in. (Meyers, 2007). If the “superego” will work, one would not take the
cake because it would know that it would be rude. However, if both id and superego were involved, and
id is strong enough to override the superego’s concern, one would still take the cake, but later realizes the
shame over one’s actions.

C. Ego – mediates the demands of the “id”, the “superego” and the reality. It prevents people from acting on
their basic urges created by the id, and works to achieve a balance and moral and idealistic standards
created by the superego (Noam et al., 1987). The “ego” operates based on the reality principle, which
works to satisfy the id’s desire in a manner that is realistic and socially appropriate. It is less primitive
than the id and is partly conscious and partly unconscious. So, if you see someone with a cake, your ego
would mediate the conflict between your id and superego, and decide to go and buy your own cake. Your
ego will mediate between the id and superego, your urge to satisfy your desire for the cake, while also
avoiding the shame on getting somebody’s cake.

Information Revolution
Information revolution accompanied the history of mankind and began as early as 3000 BC with
Sumerian pictographs. These includes Gutenberg’s invention of printing press (1455), Agusta and Babbage
Analytic Engine (1830s), invention of telephone (1870s), and Turing’s work during WWII (Newman, 1955).
Information revolution triggers profound changes both in the way we conduct our lives and, in the way, perceive
ourselves as human beings.

Alan Turing (1912-1954) is a British mathematician who considered information revolution as the 4 th
revolution following Copernican, Darwinian, and Freudian. He refined the concepts of algorithm and
computation which his fundamental contribution to computer sciences. Turing developed the “Turing Machine”
and also contributed the Turing test concerning the possibility of developing conscious and thinking machine in
A.I. It is a test of a machines’ ability to exhibit intelligent behavior equivalent to, or indistinguishable from that if
a human (Beavers, 2013).
Mesoamerican Civilization
It is a region and cultural area in the Americas, extending from Central Mexico to Belize, Guatemala, El
Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Norther Costa Rica and was where pre-Columbian societies flourish before
Spanish colonization (15th and 16th centuries). Archeologists have dated human presence in this area to possibly as
early as 21,000 BCE. 11,000 BCE hunting and gathering communities occupied most of the New World.

Mesoamericans greatly contributed in the field of agriculture as early as 7000 BC with the cultivation of
cacao, corn, beans, tomato, squash, and chili. They also domesticated turkeys and dogs which lead in the
transition of Paleo-Indian hunter-gatherer grouping to the organization of sedentary agricultural villages. “The
Three Sisters” - a triad of food sources in Mesoamerica composed of beans, corns, and squash where widely
planted in their fields and aided in retaining the nutrients in the soil. Cacao was also considered as another
culturally crop as it was used in rituals and trade currency (Carmack, Gasco & Gossen, 1996).

Textiles with vibrant colors was created from domesticated cotton and became an evidence that
Mesoamericans where fascinated and adored the cultural value they placed on appearance while rubber balls
were used in performance games.

Due to lack of usable land and poor soil condition, Mesoamerican farmers pioneered the use of combined
crop rotation and slash-and-burn techniques to retain as many nutrients as possible was done. Terraces were also
formed along the slopes of mountain valleys. These terraces were made of stone walls, while other were created
by cutting down large trees, and mounding soil around them. Plots of mud and soil placed on top layers of thick
water vegetation known as “chinampas” were also created. They were also the first to use irrigation techniques.

Aside from agriculture, Mesoamericans were known to be the first one to create the calendars and they
used three calendars, all of which worked extensively in groups of 20:
1. Civil calendar of Haab - had 18 months of 20 days each, a total of 30 days for each cycle.
2. Tzolkin calendar - primarily for ceremonial purposes, contained 20 months of 13 days each for 260
days in each finished cycle.
Combined, they helped in the creation of complicated long calendar that tracks both planetary and
constellation movement. (Pacheco, 2003).
3. Aztec calendar – a calendar that consisted of a 365-day agricultural calendar and 260-day sacred
calendar.

Asian Civilization
Asia bore two of the world’s great early civilizations: one from Indian and the other from China. About
4000 years ago, civilization arose in the Indus River Valley. Bronze and copper were used to create weapons and
utensils. Shops were also established around Mohenjo-Daro, its major city. In addition, the region served as
birthplace of two world’s known religions, Hinduism and Buddhism.

Hinduism was based on the 4 sacred books called Vedas which hold the records of Indian history and
beliefs and were written by the “Aryan” people who invaded the region (around 1500 BCE). The caste system, a
division of people under Hinduism composed of Brahamans (ranked as highest) and “untouchables” (ranked as
lowest). Buddhism embraces followers who praise Buddha (meaning “The Enlightened One”), a wanderer who
believed that human greed and selfishness lead to human pain. Buddha is in the person of Siddharta Gautama.

Another Asian civilization developed along the Huang Ho riverbanks in Northern China (around 1500
BCE). Different dynasties ruled the region on after the other. It also had its own religion known as Confucianism
which is based from the teaching of Confucius. People also built the Great Wall of China to protect themselves
from the invasions of “barbarian” from other parts of Asia.

Middle East Civilization

It is considered as the “Cradle of Human Civilization” where many world’s oldest cultures and civilization
were seen. The history started from the earliest human settlements continuing through several major pre- and
post- Islamic Empires to the modern collection of nation-states covering the Middle East today (Cleveland &
Bunton, 2016).

The first to practice intensive year-round agriculture and currency-mediated trade as opposed to barter.
Developed the first writing system, invented the potter’s wheel and vehicular and mill wheel, created the first
generalized law codes and governments, birthplace to city-states with high degree of division of labor, and as
well as the laying foundation for astronomy and mathematics. However, its empires also introduced rigid social
stratification, slavery, and organized warfare (Wawro, 2008).

The invention of writing was considered as one of the most important inventions between the advent of
agriculture and the age of steam engine. Writing was preceded by the invention of clay cylinder seals, on which
little pictures of objects could be recorded. Pictures formed from baked clay tablets, which were turned into
symbols and gradually transformed in to phonetic elements (Mitchell. 2012).

African Civilization
According to some historians, Africans were nothing more than savages whose only contributions to the
world were farming and slaves. On the contrary, the history of ancient Africa is just as interesting, complex, and
sophisticated as any other ancient civilization (Williams, 1987).

In terms of Astronomy, a structure known as African Stonehenge in present-day Kenya which is

constructed around 300 BC was remarkably accurate calendar. The Dogon people of Mali have various
astronomical discoveries wherein they knew of the Saturn’s rings, Jupiter’s moon, the spiral structure of the
Milky Way and the orbit of the Sirius star.

Advances in metallurgy and tool making were also made that includes steam engines, metal chisels and
saws, copper and iron tools and weapons, nail, glue, carbon, steel and bronze weapons and art. Advances in
Tanzania, Rwanda and Uganda (1500 and 2000 years ago) surpasses the Europeans and learn that ancient
Tanzanian furnaces could reach 18000 C, 200-4000C warmer than those of the Romans (Asante, 1983).

The Empire of Egypt developed a vast array of diverse structures and great architectural monuments
along the Nile, the Great Pyramid and Great Sphinx of Giza. Hundreds of great cities in Zimbabwe and
Mozambique with castle-like compound existed (12th century). The Empire of Mali boasted impressive cities of
Tumbuktu with grand palaces and mosques and universities (13th century).

Treatments used today were employed by several ancient people throughout Africa. Medicine in Nigeria
and South Africa was more advanced than of Europeans and before their invasion on them. The use of plants
with salicylic acid for pain, kaolin for diarrhea, and extracts that were confirmed in the 20 th century to kill Gram
positive bacteria. Other plants used had anticancer properties, caused abortion, and treated malaria. Medical
procedures performed in ancient Africa before they were performed in Europe included vaccination, autopsy,
limb traction and broken bone setting, bullet removal, brain surgery, skin grating, filling of dental cavities,
installation of false teeth, anesthesia, and tissue cauterization (Ackerknecht, 1982).
 CHAPTER III
Science and Technology and Nation Building

A. THE PHILIPPINE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY AGENDA AND DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMS

Objectives
At the end of the topic, the students/readers are expected to:
1.) Discuss the role of science and technology in Philippine nation building.
2.) Describe the organization of the Philippine science and technology agenda.
3.) Explain how major development programs of the Department of Science and Technology have
contributed to national development.
4.) Cite the importance of science-related programs and projects in the development of the Philippine
economy.

KEY CONCEPTS

Philippine Science and Technology agenda – or research and development agenda, have five sectors,
namely: National Integrated Basic Research Agenda; Health Research and Development Agenda;
Agriculture, Aquatic and Natural Resources; Industry, Energy and Emerging Technology; and Disaster Risk
Reduction and Climate Change Adaptation.
Philippine major development S&T programs – science-related programs and projects spearheaded by the
Department of Science and Techonlogy.

Philippine Government Science and Technology Agenda

Science and technology plays an integral part in human development and the society because it can end
ignorance, increase perception of fact or a situation, and awaken ability to utilize resources and improve quality
of life and have a sustainable environment which is significantly achievable through strong science foundation.
Changes in Philippine society setting is brought about by science and technology. Let’s have a closer look.

The Harmonized National R&D Agenda (HNRDA) 2017-2022 was prepared by the Department of Science
and Technology (DOST), with the collaboration of the government and private agencies to make sure that all
S&T endeavors are directed toward economic and social benefits of mankind. Its line AmBisyon Natin 2040:
matatag, maginhawa at panatag na buhay para sa lahat has three pillars: Malasakit (enhancing social fabric),
Pagbabago (reducing inequality) and Kaunlaran (increasing potential growth).

The HNRDA is organized into five sectors:

1.) National Integrated Basic Research Agenda
To express support in the Philippine Development Plan, National Security Plan, and the Science for
Change Programs led by DOSST, the NIBRA focus on basic principles of research and programs:
 Water Security – TUBIG Program (Tubig ay Buhayin at Ingatan)
 Food and nutrition Security – SAPAT Program (Saganang Pagkain Para sa Lahat)
 Health Sufficiency – LIKAS Program (Likas Yaman sa Kalusugan)
 Clean Energy – ALERT Program (Alternative Energy Research Trends)
 Sustainable Community – SAKLAW Programs (Saklolo sa Lawa)
 Inclusive Nation-Building – ATIN Program (Ang Tinig Natin)

2.) Health research and development program

The collaborating agencies for health research and development agenda are the Philippine Council for
Health Research and Development (PCHRD) under the DOST and the National Unified Health Research
Agenda (NUHRA). It prioritizes diagnostics, drug discovery and development, functional foods, hospital
 equipment and biomedical devices, information and communication technology for health, nutrition, food
quality, and safety, disaster risk reduction, climate change, adaptation, and molecular technologies for
health.

3.) Agriculture aquatic and natural resources

The research priorities for agriculture, aquatic and natural resources include crops, livestock,
aquaculture,
forestry, natural resources and environment, technology transfer, socio-economics, and policy research.

4.) Industry, energy and emerging technology

The Philippine Council for Industry, Energy and Emerging Technology Research and Development
(PCIEERD-DOST) is responsible for research priorities on food and nutrition security, countryside
development, competitive industry, delivery of social services, intelligent transport solution, renewable
energy and energy storage solutions, and human security.

5.) Disaster risk reduction and Climate Change Adaptation

Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology (PHIVOLS) and Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical
and Astronomical Services Administration (PAGASA) are the two research institution that are directed
toward and monitoring networks, technology development, application for monitoring, modelling and
simulation for improvement of monitoring and forecasting; hazards, vulnerability and risk assessment;
warning and communication of information; technology development and application for climate change
mitigation and adaptation; technology development and application for disaster risk management; and
policy.

Government Policies Pertaining to Science and Technology

 Republic Act 10055 (Philippine Technology Transfer Act of 23009) – aims to provide a framework and
support system for the ownership, management, use and commercialization of intellectual property
resulting from research and development funded by the government.
 Republic Act 2067 (Science Act of 1958) – focuses on the integration, coordination, and intensification of
scientific and technological research and development and fostering inventions, to provide funds and for
other purposes.

B. MAJOR SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMS IN THE PHILIPPINES

- “Balik Scientist Program” was launched to motivate well-trained overseas Filipino scientist/experts to
come home to the Philippines and share their expertise for the acceleration of the scientific agro-
industrial and economic development of the country. This program was developed in 1957 and still on of
the strategic programs of DOST.
- Through the collaboration between nuclear scientists and agriculturists, PCAARRD has funded a program
that has produced an “irradiated carrageenan fertilizer”. This program is recognized to boost the
resiliency of rice plants increasing its yield by 65%.
- The “Electric Train Project in 2015” by DOST R&D was already complete up-to-date. This was created to
enhance the efficiency of public mass transport system. It was adopted by the Department of
Transportation and Communications (Philippine daily Inquirer, 2015).
- Through the collaboration of PAGASA, PHIVOLS and Advance Science and Technology Institute (ASTI),
DOST also developed a more accurate and responsive disaster prevention and mitigation system which
was named “Project NOAH (Nationwide Operational Assessment of Hazard). It is the primary disaster
risk reduction and management program of the Philippines. In partnership with the UP National
Institute of Geological Science and the UP College of Engineering, the project began in 2012 and almost
completed in 2015. This project has the following components:
 Coastal Hazards and Storm Surge Assessment and Mitigation (CHASSAM).
  Disaster Risk Exposure Assessment for Mitigation – Light Detection and Ranging (DREAM-LIDAR)
Project.
 Distribution of Hydrometeorogical Devices in har-hit areas in the Philippines (Hydromet).
 Enhancing Geohazards Mapping through LIDAR technology.
 Flood Information Network (FloodNET) Project.
 Landslide Sensors Development Project.
 Local Development of Doppler Radar Systems (LaDDeRS).
 Weather Hazard Information Project (WHIP).

C. SELECTED INDIGENOUS SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGIES

Objectives
At the end of the topic, the readers are expected to:
1.) Compare indigenous science with indigenous technologies
2.) Analyze the importance of some indigenous knowledge and science in our lives.

KEY CONCPETS

Indigenous science – a product of indigenous knowledge perfected by man through life experiences.

Indigenous technology – product or process resulting from continuous pursuit of indigenous science.

Indigenous Science
A product of indigenous knowledge perfected by man through life experiences. Old knowledge may
connote traditional and scientific knowledge because it includes superstitious beliefs and practices which may be
products of human imagination. However, these products may also the foundation of people’s creativity,
originality and inventiveness in defining the world where we live in. Indigenous science covers the areas of
metaphysics, philosophy, and practical technologies usually accomplished by people then and now (Snively &
Corsiglia 2000; Pawilen, 2013). The following are some examples of indigenous science:
 Knowledge in observing animal behavior to predict weather conditions and seasons.
 Traditional health habit practices
 The use of herbal medicines
 Knowledge on preserving foods
 Preservation and selection of good seed for planting
 Building irrigation system
 Classifying different types of soil for planting
 Making wines and juices from fruits
 Local methods of growing vegetables in the yard
 Indigenous method of calculating or estimating
 Knowledge on mineral resources found in the community
 Making products such as vinegar, cheese and nata de coco

Philippine Indigenous Technologies

The following are the indigenous technologies that have emerged out of Filipino’s creativity, originality
and inventiveness:

1.) Yoyo
This is a toy consisting of an axle connected to two disks and a string looped around the axle. Played by
holding the string bun inserting on finger into know at its free end. This was used by people then, to fight
against intruders and Spaniards. Pedro Flores, an undergraduate law student at that time, is the one behind
 this product but it was the Americans who mass produced the product and became one of the most distinct
toys in the history.

2.) Medical Incubator

Invented by Fe del Mundo, the first Asian student at the Harvard University School of Medicine. It is
made out of two laundry baskets which were placed one inside the other. This was provided with hot water
all around between the baskets to make warmth available and this was purposely invented to regulate the
body temperatures of newborn babies (John, 2009).

3.) Erythromycin
In 1949, Dr. Abelardo Aguilar discovered the antibiotic erythromycin produced by the bacterium
Streptomcyes erytherus found in the soil from his own province in Iloilo. He sent this to his employer in the
U.S to sperate the strain but unfortunately did not get the credit for the discovery.

4.) Patis or fish sauce

Ruperta David (Aling Tentay), accidentally discovered patis in the 1940s when she noticed that some of
the salted fish she stored in a jar turned into fragments and these fragments turned into liquid which tasted
like the patis we are using today. The business started but was officially registered in 1949 as Tentay Food and
sauces, Inc.

5.) Banana Catsup

After the discovering of tomato catsup, Maria Orasa y Ylagan focused on creating another flavor of catsup
using bananas. Filipinos love this condiment for every fried food.

6.) Anticancer Cream

Due to the increasing incidence of cancer, Rolando de la Cruz developed an anticancer cream from
cashew nuts and other local herbs to treat basal skin carcinoma (BSC) which is considered to be the most
prevalent type of skin cancer all over the world. The DeBCC anticancer cream gave Rolando a gold medal
award in the International Inventors’ Forum in November 2005.

7.) 16-bit Microchip

For a much faster computer works, Diosdado Banatao developed the first single chip graphical user
interface accelerator. This chip allows the computer users to make graphical presentation using graphics for
commands. Data processing is made much quicker using small chip instead of large board.

8.) Mole Remover

Another invention was made by Ronaldo de la Cruz in 2000. This is called more remover which is a cream
formulated to remove warts and moles on the skin.
 CHAPTER IV
Technology and the Evolution of the Human Society

Objectives
At the end of the topic, the students/readers are expected to:
1.) Describe how human society has evolved through time.
2.) Classify the various technologies.
3.) Explain how technologies can be replaced and passed on from individual to individual.
4.) Explain how science and technology serve as keys in the economic development of the country.

KEY CONCEPTS

Technology – the application of scientific knowledge to solve a problem.

Evolution of Human Society
1.) Hunters and gatherers
2.) Shifters and farmers
3.) Manufacturing and processing
4.) Future man-made world
Classification of society based on concept of waves (Alvin Toffler) – first, second, and third wave.
Classification of technology according to process
1.) Energy technology
2.) Equipment technology
3.) Information technology
4.) Life technology
5.) Material technology
Technology Substitution – replacement of technologies.
Technology Diffusion technology transfer from one individual to another.

Evolution of Human Society

The society has undergone evolutionary changes brought about by the development of different
technologies. The following are the evolution of human society:

1.) Hunters and Gatherers

The most primitive of all societies whose members depends on the resources available in nature. They
used tools which they made themselves such as stones, wood, bone and ivory.

2.) Shifters and Farmers

After they learned how to tame animals and grow crops, people became shifters and farmers. This shift of
human society became the marked in the beginning of agricultural society. They also learned the process of
mining using metallic hand tools.

3.) Manufacturing and Processing

When people discovered coal, gas and oil which they used in cooking, people begun manufacturing the
materials they use which opened the door for industrialization.

4.) Future man-made world

 The last stage of human society where people uses technology for recycling resources and for producing
synthetic food to satisfy increasing human needs and increasing human population.

Classification of Society According to Alvin Toffler

Alvin Toffler is an American writer and futurologist who focused his writing on technology expansion and
its impact on the society which he called information overload (Zakaria, 2001). In his book entitled “Third Wave”,
he classified societies based on the concepts of waves where each wave propels the older societies and cultures
aside.

The First Wave – is the society that replaces hunters and gatherers after the agrarian revolution where people
during this time used small technologies through trial and error.

The Second Wave – occurs where society is on the industrial revolution until World War II. They used
technologies based on mass production, consumption, distribution, and weapons of mass destruction combined
with standardization, centralization, and synchronization. Their foundations came from Newton’s physics,
biology, and chemistry.

The Third Wave – was described as the post-industrialized society after the World War II where people used
modern technologies based on the advent of science including computers, robotics and the like. Associated with
scientific-technological evolution (King, 1994; New Scientist. 1980).

Classification of Technology According to Process

1.) Energy Technology

This involve processes that create or generate, convert and distribute energy with the main purpose of
yielding high efficiency without causing negative effects to human and environment. Examples: oil, wind
water, geothermal, hydroelectric, nuclear fusion, and solar energy.

2.) Equipment Technology

This involves the design, fabrication, and invention of instruments, tools, gadgets, and machines.
Examples: motor, engines, plow, mills, spinning wheels, robots, fermenters, and computer-controlled
machines.

3.) Information Technology

Technology primarily concerned with the tools and gadgets including computer systems and their
application to manage, process and distribute information. Examples: typewriter, books, newspapers,
television, cellphones, radio, and laser.

4.) Life Technology

This type of technology is to make technological advances that benefit human race in terms of health and
food security. Primarily for preservation, maintenance, treatment and reproduction of living things and
these include animal breeding, herbal medicines, surgery, vaccine, antibiotics, artificial and organ
transplant, and genetic engineering.

5.) Materials Technology

Technology concerned with the extraction, fabrication, and synthesis of materials specifically for the
benefit of mankind. Examples: steel, plastics, brass, iron, copper, ceramics, aluminums, polymers and
synthetics.

Technologies keep on changing and these changes are through (Schilling. 2009)

Substitution
 It happens when technologies which may have been used for a long period of time are replace by the new
and better version especially with the respect to the performance. Technological substitutions such as stereo type
radio to cassette tape recorder, then with component. Video Home System (VHS) to Digital Versatile Disc (DVD)
and another example is the telephones to cellular phones which is gradually replaced by more sophisticated
ones.

Diffusion
It happens when technologies are being adopted by individuals even after innovations come. The more
individuals even after innovations come. The more being adopted to the technology innovation, the greater the
measure of diffusion process and it could affect diffusion of technology in such a way that adaptation increases if
the technology is just within the reach of the individual.

National Development through Science and Technology

S&T are instruments of a country’s rapid development, economic stability and a nation’s success depends
on the strict implementation of programs based on S&T. Nations that do not invest much in S&T would not
prosper and remain underdeveloped and left behind that would lead to unsustainable lives of its people and may
have to solely depend on other nations for their basic requirements (Chetty, 2012).

Life has become easier with discovery of tools and gadgets and each sector of society has benefited mush
on S&T. Transportation for example, has been modernized and can take man even faster to its destination.
Communication has been made easier with the development of several brands of cell phones which can open
communication among loved ones even from afar. In the field of medicine, infrastructure. Electricity, and
industry have equipment to be used for modern day people.

Developed countries such as Russia, Japan, Brazil, China and India have a strong foundation of S&T
(Sunami et al., 2013). World Bank estimated that 7 out of 10 largest economies of the world by 2020 would be in
Asia, China, Japan, India, Thailand, Indonesia, South Korea, and Taiwan. At first, these countries have little
advancement or no advancement at all in S&T but when it was introduced, a boom was evident across the globe.

Life has become easier and better through S&T especially when it comes to medical development and
aside from this, a lift in education, communication, agriculture, industry, etc. has contributed much in the
elevated economic output in the 20th century. But despite the advent of technologies, problems on hunger,
pollution,
poverty and illiteracy still prevail.
 CHAPTER V
The Good Life

Objectives
At the end of the topic, the students/readers are expected to:
1.) Identify intellectual virtues
2.) Define public good
3.) Compare and contrast the politico-ethical and politico-economic concept of public good

KEY CONCEPTS

Virtue – trait or quality that is deemed to be morally good and thus, is valued as a foundation of principle.
Pleasure – positive, enjoyable, or worth seeking mental state.
Happiness – state of well-being that encompasses living a good life with a sense of meaning and deep
satisfaction.
Ethics – concept of human morality such as good and evil, right and wrong, justice and crime.
Good – an object or product that is useful.
Common good – refers to what is shared and beneficial for all or not members of a given community.

Intellectual Virtues
This concept are the excellent personal traits or character strengths which are deemed to be morally good
for thinking and learning and are often associated with knowledge and cognitive ability (King, 2014). Good
thinkers know a lot of things; they have high reasonable intelligent quotient. However, a person with wise and
knowledgeable can become lazy, irresponsible, arrogant, careless, dishonest or close-minded at the same time.
These characteristics prevent him/her to think and learn things easily. Good thinking and learning require being
intellectually careful, honest, with humility, and being attentive. These are considered intellectual virtues.

Intellectual virtues have the following:

1.) They are acquired.
No one is born with intellectual virtues. Intellectual courage, perseverance, or open-mindedness are
obtained through practice guided by instructions.

2.) They are excellent character traits.

A person has an excellent mathematical ability but this is not considered a virtue. Intellectual virtue is
possessed by a person with excellent disposition in life whether this could be about decision making or
accepting criticisms.

3.) They involve human emotions, intensions, motivations, and values.

A person with intellectual virtue does not rejoice with falsehood but loves the truth. Even if it will mean
hurting one’s friend, the truth is still prioritized to be free. If people are motivated by truthfulness and
honesty, their intentions will also be for the greater good and this reflects that people value in life.

4.) They are aimed at cognitive goods.

 The goals of intellectual virtues are knowledge, truth and understanding which are the common goods
and which unify intellectual virtues and differentiate them from moral virtues.

5.) They are means between two extremes

This means that intellectual virtues serve as a means between the excess and deficiency. That is, courage
stands between rashness and cowardice, while humility bridges belittling oneself and being arrogant.

Pleasure
It is a positive, enjoyable, or worth seeking mental state that gives a feeling of satisfaction and enjoyment.
A satisfying feeling like when one anticipates replacing his/her existing cellular phones with a new one despite
the good running condition of the former. A sensational feeling experienced by one when eating chocolates even
they knew that this is not god for the health. Satisfying wants gives people so much pleasure, however, this
pleasurable feeling also subsides. This feeling is subjective, such that individual person may experience different
pleasure intensities given the same situation. Biological needs and various life activities are associated with
pleasure but these feelings do not last a lifetime and when are gone, we do not feel pleasure anymore.
Biological Needs – sleeping, eating, and sex.
Various life activities – sports, music, shopping, and getting what you want.

Happiness
It is a state of well-being and contentment that encompasses living a good life with a sense of meaning
and deep satisfaction. A feeling that people experience when they believe that life is at its best and emanates
from one when he/she is satisfied with what life brings and offers. Aristotle describes happiness as a product of
two aspects: pleasure and a life well-lived. Happiness can be achieved by eliminating negative pain and
displeasures to allow an individual to pursue engagement and meaning. Experiences which seem to be
pleasurable can give temporary feeling of happiness, but this does not last long since it only depends on external
events like having more alcohol, more food, more sex, and having other things. Due to this seeming addiction on
external things, people crave for more to have a short-lived feeling of happiness.

In comparison with pleasure, happiness can be considered as a higher level of satisfaction. Simple
pleasure cannot make people happy in the long run. It is not the things that people have that ae them happy but
experience of having those. What gives them happiness are actions like kindness, generosity, and love. The more
people experience these actions, the happier they become.

Public Good
`It is an item or service that may be consumed without reducing the amount available for others, and
cannot be withheld from those who do not pay for it. The government pursues it with a service orientation while
private corporations pursue it with profit organization. A public good is non-excludable and non-rivalrous.
Example, radio and television broadcast does not exclude anyone from receiving from the broadcast over the air.
The cost of broadcast is not affected by the number of people receiving the signal. However, cable and satellite
transmission are not a public good since it excludes non-payers.

The Public Good from the Politico-Ethical Sense

National People and the Public Good

A public good benefit the communal or national public as it is used by a greater number of the local
population and it exemplifies the philosophy of utilitarianism, an ethical theory implies a morally good action is
the one that helps the greatest number of people (Gripaldo, 2009).
Example:
Necessary public good and services/goods
- National defense,
- Education
 - Public health
- Public ports and highways
- Social services

Communal People and the Public Good

National good is considered synonymous to communal good. However, in some cases, a community or
group of communities may believe that their communal public good does not jibe – or may conflict with – the
national public good (Cowen, 2002).

Example:
A massive dam that would irrigate vast tracts of land and provide thousands of megawatts of electricity would
become a national public good but the communal people of the place where the dam would be constructed may
oppose it as it would mean loss of their ancestral lands and abandonment of their traditional means of livelihood.

This would lead to the delays or cancelation of the construction of the dam due to the cost of communal
rebellion or resistance that could make it economically nonviable or politically inexpedient.

The Public Good from the Politico-Economical Sense (Gripaldo, 2009)

Microeconomy
The economic concept of the public good pertains to the benefits that may accrue an individual or a firm
in pursuing a project that will offset possible losses or adverse effects and that will likewise benefit the general
public. A lamppost is costly but if the light it will provide will make one’s store visible to customers, it will
contribute in the increase of profits and decrease the cost of electricity, then the lamp post will be built. The
noncustomers would also be benefited by the light the lamp post gives then this makes the lamp post a public
good.

Macroeconomy
There is distinction between service and profit orientations. Industrial and business firms are profit-
oriented while governmental agencies are service-oriented. Government-owned corporations are basically
service-oriented but they are encouraged to be self-liquidating and when the subsidiaries increase, the losing
corporation is privatized. Given the case, the annual subsidiaries used to be given to that corporation can now be
channeled to more productive projects while the same service can be provided by the newly privatized
corporation.

Types of Public Good

“Public” Public Goods

These are goods that were non-rival and non-excludable in the that participation of one does not
diminish or exclude other from participating in it and does not only in the interest of the individual but rather
the entire nation (Musgrave, 1969). The government consider it as essential and necessary such as the national
security, education, health services, trade and industry, and the like and certain departments are created to
address and manage these public goods.

“Private” Public Goods

These are goods set up by the private sector either solely or in participation with the government since
the private sector sees these as profitable, and the public benefits from them, either customers or free riders. The
participation of one private company in a line of business necessarily diminishes the chances of profitability of
other in that same line. This has rivalry and excludability, and for an instance, if you sell different products which
are not consumable for all, then only those who have money can avail them (Cowen, 2002).

“Mixed” Public Goods

 These are undertaken by private organizations/societies for the common good of the communal or
national public and basically service-oriented. It is mixed in the sense that the undertakers are private groups
and yet they seek no profits. Once these groups make primarily considered making profits, then they become
private corporations or cooperatives (Gripaldo, 2009).

Public “Bads”
These are negative goods which the general public scorns, being avoided, not tolerated by both private
and public sectors. These includes corruption, pollution, crimes, and be like. In the early stages of economic
development, these public “bads” existed and were generally tolerated or taken for granted by the national
public, the private sector, and the local/national government. When the national public began to feel a threat to
its personal security or health, then it starts to clamor for laws and regulations curbing or eradicating these
public “bads” (Hoppe, 1989).

Eudaimonia and the Common Good

Humans are inclined to seek a deeper sense of happiness than mere notions of pleasure and the absence
of pain (Annet, 2016). This is eudaimonistic notion of happiness, centers on human flourishing, prioritizing living
well and actualizing one’s potentials through personal development. Eudaimonia focuses on living in accord with
what is intrinsically worthwhile to human beings – purpose, meaning relationships, good health, and
contribution to the community (Deci & Ryan, 2008).

A key aspect of the Aristotelian view of happiness is that good life is a life of relationships. Human beings
seek good life not only for themselves, but a good life with others (Maboloc, 2010). This sense of mutual
flourishing is embedded in the notion of the common good.
 CHAPTER VI
When Technology and Humanity Cross

Objectives
At the end of the topic, the students/readers are expected to:
1.) Explain the relationship between technology and society.
2.) Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of modern technology.
3.) Relate human rights and the emerging technological dilemmas.

KEY CONCEPTS

Technology started as human civilization develop tools necessary for their survival. It can be defined as
the application of scientific knowledge on different processes that aids as the application of scientific
knowledge on different processes that aids in making life easier. Both advantages and disadvantages are
present despite the good intentions of technological development and advancement.

Technology and its Importance to Human Society

Technology, the application of scientific knowledge on techniques and processes, is used mainly in
industries. It has practical impact in the community’s agriculture, health, education, and transportation sectors.
It started when human civilization developed tools as they learn complex human behavior associated with
survival in the course of evolution.

Constant change occurs and the society today is very much different with the society in the past. Recent
generations of human being posses’ characteristics such as the willing ness to transformation, desire to transmit
and dominate information. As the society become technology dependent, life is cannot be imagines without is as
it brings ease and comfort into our lives.

Advantages of Modern Technology

1.) Improved communication, easy access to information and social networking

Man has communicated with each other differently over the past centuries and during human
development, advanced communication tools were invented to make the transmission of information faster and
easier. From spoken word stories of great ancestors 5 – 7 million years ago to the Morse code in 1836, humans
learned to use more understandable equipment like the typewriter in 1867 to write stories and office
communications and an online content communication in 2011 which includes software, web technology and
social media connections.

2.) Improved housing, lifestyle and entertainment

Materials used to build modern facilities compared to what is used in the past was more sophisticated
than ever. Equipment used for home activities and entertainment purposes are automated and more versatile. A
smart TV can now perform both television and computer functions.
3.) Convenience in Education
With the advent of modern technology, education is not only limited to a classroom setting. Distance
education through online course and other web-based seminars serves as avenue to reach almost every corner of
the world.

4.) Convenience in Travelling

Development and progress of one’s society is attributed to the efficiency of modern-day public transport
the gives easy access for merchandise and tourism. Singapore and Japan, two of the world’s advance countries,
have invested a lot for the improvement of their rail and airport system.

5.) Change in Health Industry

Technological advancements have changed the medical field as it introduces more sophisticated
equipment for diagnosis and treatment and recent breakthroughs have allowed for the discovery and
development of new treatment procedures and medicines such as the following:
INNOVATION DESCRIPTION
Star Trek Style Tricorder A multifunction hand-held device used for sensor
Scanning, data analysis and recording. It helps the
doctors detect diseases and collect vital information
about a patient’s condition.
Interoperability between Health Systems A system created for a workflow that allows the
transfer of information between healthcare facilities
for ease and accuracy of treatment of the patients.
Robotic Nurse Assistant There are robots designed to help nurses in
lifting/moving patients around without causing
injuries to the health care worker.
Artificial Retinas These are retinas intended to replace the retina of
individuals who lost their vision mainly as a result of
retinal degenerative diseases.
Advanced Prosthetics Neutral control is being used to move the prosthetics
with a challenge of creating an interphase that is
compatible to our nervous system to prevent latency
of movement.
Remote patient Monitoring A portal device use to aid the monitoring of all health
parameters to allow doctors to perform diagnosis
even without visiting a clinic.
Anti-aging Drugs This drug has entered trials in the hope of slowing
down the aging process to reduce the burden of
treating diseases such as cancer, diabetes and
dementia.
Tooth Regeneration It uses low-powered laser to active stem cells in
stimulating the growth of teeth. Other studies have
also identified the gene necessary for tooth activation.
Disinfecting Lightbulbs It uses visible light in health care facilities to
continuously disinfect and prevent infection. The
mechanism involves targeting porphyrins in bacteria
to produce “Reactive Oxygen Species” that will
reactivate bacterial reproduction in the area.
Electronic Underwear Preventing Bed Sores It creates electric charge for the patients to activate
the muscle and blood circulation in the area every ten
minutes.
Long Lasting Batteries Batteries with fast charging capabilities. It supports
the needs of power-hungry devices and equipment.
6.) Efficiency and Productivity
New technologies provide different industries to increase production, and reduce labor cost to meet the
demand of the growing society.

7.) Initiates creativity and innovation

It allows entrepreneurs to start up with their online business thereby opening an avenue for a more
creative and innovative approach. This would also enable the business to operate while the owner is attending to
other important activities.

Disadvantages of Modern Technology

1.) Job loss and human displacement

Unprecedented breakthrough in technology in the recent years has led a possible shift in economies that
use human labor as a main work force but these has cause companies to adopt new innovation little by little
leading to redundant functions between technologies and humans. It caused excitement towards the
development of products with globally accepted quality but raised some concerns over the possible massive job
lost. In the Philippines, about 49% of the total waged workers are at high risk of technological innovations and
automation lower than Indonesia with 56%, Cambodia with 57% and Vietnam with 70%. The noted differences
are dependent on the major industries that support employment most especially those that are in the sales,
garments, and landscaping industries.

2.) World destruction weapons

From spears, bow and arrows to developed machineries and armaments, damaged communities and
death among countries at war in history was been destructive than ever. In these field includes drones, fly-by-
wire technologies, submarines, various missiles, and stealth technology in aircrafts, space and nuclear weapons.

3.) Increased loneliness

As technology develops, physical social isolation is seemingly increasing in which interactive
relationships among family members and friends is at stake. The youth today were almost focus their attention
on the available gadgets and rely mainly on social technology. Through social connection exists, studies
suggested that this kind of connection or relation makes an individual feels isolated leading to as superficial and
less rewarding relationships.

4.) Competency
Increased dependence on modern tools and technologies that create innovations and changes in the
society may reduce human creativity and intelligence.

Emerging Technological Ethical Dilemmas

Exploring concept, ethics, and policy issues of the society where modern technological advancement
interacts promotes advancement of S&T for the common good. It should be clear that recent technologies and
innovations should not hinder any individual from enjoying any of the rights stated in the Universal Declaration
of Human Rights. In 2015 and 2016, Reilly Center for Science Technology and Values at the University of Notre
Dame released some of what it considers as emerging policies in relation to S&T.

1.) Real-time Satellite Surveillance Imagery

The adv0ancement of technologies brought down the price of acquiring satellites and made them smaller
and more sophisticated. Some companies launched these satellites such as Planet Labs, Skybox Imaging and
Digital Globe to record the status of the entire Earth in real time or near real-time. Satellite generated images are
said to be helpful in planning for and solving humanitarian problems, solve crimes and disaster risk reduction
but if these data would reach the hands of potential lefties, this might clearly violate the privacy of human life.

2.) Colonizing Mars: An Astronaut Bioethics

 The NASA and a private company, Mars One, worked together for a space mission to colonize the planet
Mars. In 2018, Mars One is planning to launch a robotic mission to Mars and by 2025 four humans will be sent on
a one-way mission with the goal of establishing the first community outside Earth. This is a big breakthrough of
mankind but there is still a big need of risk assessment in establishing such colony outside the habitable zone.

3.) Wearable Technology

Companies have developed several wearable technologies to suit human behavior and activities and still
continues to develop. It has a beneficial function in the field of education and health but their capabilities to
expose the private details of our lives could be a big problem.

4.) State-sponsored Hacktivism and “soft war”

Soft was is an unarmed force using cyber war and hacktivism with the aim of transforming cultural values
and identities of the society to achieve political ends. It also progresses to cultural invasions and psychological
operations and these will pose many threats to any government agency around the world.

5.) Enhanced pathogens

Researches about the functions of influenza, Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS), and Middle East
Respiratory Syndrome (MERS) have beneficial impacts such as understanding the virus, its mode of transmission,
and treatment but was suspended in the U.S because of biosafety concerns such as the increase of mammalian
transmission and virulence which outweigh its benefit. A potential avenue exposing the virus to the general
public.

6.) Non-lethal weapons

From the name itself, these weapons are not designed to kill but they remain to be and emerging ethical
and policy dilemma. Non-lethal weapons may be used more liberally in situations that could be diffused by
peaceful means but indiscriminate use of such could be used as a means of torture. Laser missiles, blinding
weapons, pain rays, sonic weapons, electric weapons, gases and sprays, and all weapons alike are all considered
force multiplier when combined with lethal weaponry.

7.) Robot Swarms

The risk of this technology is the tendency of these robots to malfunction and cause harm and accidents.
The development of “kilobots”, a group of robots capable of communicating with each other and perform simple
tasks without human intervention. This technology was inspired by the swarm behavior of social insects with a
goal of using them in environmental cleanups or in responding to disasters.

8.) Artificial lifeforms

An emerging field of science known as synthetic biology is focused on the custom-building of synthetic
life forms by introducing synthetic DNA to an existing organism. This is a biological breakthrough and still safety
issues and risk factors are connected with the possible release of these artificial life forms into our environment.
There are synthetic organisms that becomes cure for diseases, this may also be used in developing biological
weapons in the future.

9.) Resilient social-ecological systems

The need to build resilience both in the social and ecological systems of each nation is necessary most
especially in facing societal problems brought about by poverty, economic globalization, and natural phenomena
as climate change and natural disasters.

10.) Brain-to-Brain interfaces

Researchers at the University of Washington have started Brain-to-Brain Interfaces experiment as early
as. A direct communication form one brain to another without speech but using an Electroencephalography
(EEG) machine that detects brain activity in the sender and a trans-cranial magnetic stimulation coil that
controls movement in the receiver thereby performing the act as directed by the sender. Ethical issues were
 arising which concerns the kind of neurosecurity that can be used to prevent accidental sharing or removal of
information form an individual brain, intellectual property rights and liability between the sender and receiver if
one commits a mistake.

CHAPTER VII
Why Does the Future Not Need Us?

Objectives
At the end of the topic, the students/readers are expected to:
1.) Trace the stages of technological history on earth.
2.) Discuss human displacement possibilities due to technological advancement.
3.) Explain how technology leads human beings to extinction.

KEY CONCEPTS

Technological Stages - there are four stages of technology and these includes:

A.) Proto – technology

B.) Classical technology
C.) Modern technology
D.) Postmodern technology

Technological effects include ozone layer, depletion, climate change, nuclear war, waste problems and
habitat destruction.

The existence of human race and its role in this evolving world has been questioned as year progresses
and as humans become more aggressive in developing technologies. These have cause adverse effect in the
environment which lead our own species in the brink of extinction. The desire of having technological world and
automation may remove the roles of human in the society, making people useless and dispensable.

Brief History of Technology

According to Schultz (2016), there are four stages of technology and these are:

A. Proto – technology – focusses on the time when early tools were developed before civilization.
B. Classical technology – concentrates on the rise of agricultural technologies and the establishment of
communities and cities that enabled the survival of civilization and considered and act of supplying means
for some pre-existing ends.
C. Modern technology – fueled by science concepts and principles which date back 500 years ago.
D. Postmodern technology – replaces naturally occurring products with technologically developed ones. Some
are even highly toxic, most especially petroleum and its derivatives, gasoline-powered automobile including
jet engines, synthetic fertilizers, plastics (Bakelite), PVC (polyvinyl chloride), PCBs (polychlorobiphenyl,
banned 1979), chlorofluorocarbons (discontinued 1994), synthetic detergents, nylon, insecticides
(organochlorine compounds; DDT banned 1973) and plastics (polystyrene and polyesters).
 Modern technology is willing to treat anything as a resource. Heidegger, a German philosopher stated
that it is an independent force in human existence which builds a new incompatible order on top of what was
there. Being a potential resource, forest is regarded as “timber recourse” and humans as a “human resources”
whether they become “consumers” or “supply” in certain facilities.

Technology-driven Extinction and Displacement

Like any other species of this planet, human beings will have the tendency to become extinct either
gradually or suddenly. Two scenarios exist for the gradual extinction of humans. One is usual course of life as
individuals age and replaced by other species more adapted to the changing world. The other one is the
disappearance of ecological niche due to the abrupt changes man has inflicted in the ecosystem. Example: the
capacity to reproduce might be hindered by the effect of pollution in the environment until the entire population
reaches zero reproductive rate. Sudden extinction may happen due to phenomena outside human control like
volcanic eruptions, major earthquakes, tsunamis, and possible collision with asteroids and comets.

Human beings contribute to both kinds of extinction. The continuous development and industrialization
of nations lead to accumulation of greenhouse gases that stay in the atmosphere. Modern technology has almost
neglected the role of ecosystems in human survival. Understanding whether its implementation poses a threat to
human survival should always be considered. The following are some of the modern technological advancement,
the impact of its implementation and the possible threats to extinction.

1.) Ozone layer depletion through chlorofluorocarbons

According to Baum (207), chlorofluorocarbons were considered to be safe for use, but scientists were not
able to predict their possible impact in the upper atmosphere and it destroyed the ozone layer. Nations have
come together and assured the public that the use of CFCs will be banned as stipulated in the Montreal Protocol.
With this effort, the ozone layer is expected to recover fully form all CFC damages by 2050.

2.) Usage of fossil fuel leading to global warming and climate change
Top climate scientists have predicted and projected that an average increase of 2 0C would be felt by 2050
and will lead to drastic weather and climate [phenomenon across the regions of the globe. The most recent
extinction occurred during the Permian period which was caused by the rapid increase of terrestrial and ocean
surface temperature. In 2014, Kolbert classified that this scenario was caused by the presence of carbon-based
greenhouse gases in the atmosphere originating from melting permafrost. Permafrost in several regions such as
Arctic lakes in Alaska, Siberia, and Canada were slowly melting due to increasing global temperature and if is this
not stop, humans will face the same extinction happened during Permian period.

3.) Nuclear war and nuclear contamination

Nuclear reactors have been used in different industries as a source of energy in spite of the known threat
of contamination when they malfunction. The United States Nuclear Energy Institute (2008) and Nuclear
Regulatory Commission (2013) revealed that in 1986, the Chernobyl nuclear power facility accident in Ukraine
causes death and leaving thousands of people exposed to harmful radiations. Human error and technical lapses
caused the said event that resulted to about 7,000 cases of thyroid cancer among individuals below 18 years old.

In August 6, 1945, during World War II, the first nuclear bomb was dropped in Hiroshima and Nagasaki,
Japan causing massive casualties and devastation n the city immediately after explosion. Cancer rates among
those who survived the explosion have increase (Nishiwaki & Kamada, 2007). The last nuclear disaster happened
in March 11, 2011, when the “Great East Japan Earthquake” generated a tsunami that later damaged the
Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant causes a minor nuclear meltdown. The event was not severe as the
Chernobyl accident, but people were exposed to radioactive isotopes that caused some environmental and health
impacts. These events may not be extinction by itself but succeeding accidents of this kind may then be
considered a road to the end of human population (Sasakawa Peace Foundation, 2011).

4.) Plastics
 This material was regarded as one of the most versatile and useful products in history as they were non-
toxic to humans but later, they were found toxic to the environment, as they do not enter the natural process of
recycling. The great Pacific Garbage Patch is an area in the Northern Pacific Ocean that contains the highest level
of decomposed plastic on Earth. Decomposition happens but at a very slow pace and before if happens, plastics
in the oceans have already killed about 100,000 marine animals as they have mistakenly considered plastics as
food. On the other hand, plastic components enter the food chain and accumulates in higher order consumers
(Amaral, 2003).

5.) Petroleum-based fertilizers

These fertilizers are non-toxic especially when they are used solely to increase crop yield and income but
continuous use of such fertilizers, however, pollute nearby rivers and other bodies of water. These fertilizers
compose of nitrogen and phosphorus cause eutrophication where algal blooms result to oxygen depletion,
cloudiness and foul smell of the bodies of water. This negative effect is expected to have slow and indirect
extinction consequences (www.enironingenuity.com).

6.) Habitat destruction

According to Kolbert (2014), Anderson and Wilson (2002), the interdependency of each life form cannot
be recreated once it is destroyed. Habitat destruction like land alteration, deforestation and some agricultural
practices contributed to global warming as these increase CO 2 level in the atmosphere. These conditions are
observable around the globe. Inadvertently disrupting the natural way how the ecosystem functions or by
eliminating the essential parts of the ecosystem affect human survival.
 CHAPTER VIII
The Information Age (Gutenberg to Social Media)

Objectives
At the end of the topic, the students/readers are expected to:
1.) Explain the importance of the social media sites to modern day living
2.) Explain the importance of information for communication process
3.) Be familiar with the important key element in the communication process

KEY CONCEPT

“Technology has the power to transform society. The most famous example of
this is German craftsman Johannes Gutenberg’s invention of the printing press
in the fifteenth century”.

The period of human history typically described by the change from traditional industry to an
economy based on information computerization is known as the Information Age, Digital Age,
or New Media Age.

The Information Age

Before the rise of computers, information was being spread using print out materials. Johannes
Gutenberg, a German blacksmith and publisher who introduced “movable type printing” in Europe, established
what we called Gutenberg era which is responsible for shaping the nature of society and its underlying
institutions. In this period of time, where Gutenberg principle was formed and that principle is stated as “the
massive distribution of information in an expensive manner because it is institutionalized”

The Pre-Gutenberg World

During the time when printing press was not yet available, information could be processed in a tendinous
manner. Books were written and produced by hand. They were made in surfaces of clay, wax, papyrus and
parchment. The hand-produced books and other reading materials were restricted only to those people who can
afford to buy these materials, called as the “elite group of people”. Information was only relayed to other through
a word-of-mouth channels (Stacy, 2008).

The Gutenberg Revolution

It begun with the introduction of printing, specifically the movable printing press, by Gutenberg. His
principle existed in such a way that information could be passed on to every individual, but the access was
expensive. Books printed in the Gutenberg era were called incunabula (meaning cradle or birthplace). This
technology eventually diffused form Mainz to Subiaco in Italy, Paris and then London. Most books that was first
printed were that of religious texts of the medieval period that were initially written in Latin but as time passed
by, some books are written in local language which made them available and understandable to common people.
Scientific and geographic discoveries spread at a fast rate as well as medical books were also published.

The rise of institutionalized and mediated channels was evident during this time and its best example
was the “media” which can pass information through to people from all walks of life and this opened the door to
exceptional mass communications. But during this period of history, to distribute information to a lot of listeners
or viewers, one must have a ton of money at is was very costly. The unprecedent discovery of printing press has
contributed a lot to the world that was way impossible to books or document written by hand making Johannes
Gutenberg a man of mystery.

The Post-Gutenberg World

This era can be described as the emergence of the internet and the world wide web. This paved the way
to the possible uploading and downloading of all forms of media instruments such as video, audio, and images. It
enabled people to publish or spread the information.

The Rise of Digital Age

With the advent of modern technologies, printing press are not the only tools used in spreading
information. Nowadays, information is readily available to pass form on individual to another from here to even
faraway places.

Computers
Invented by Charles Babbage, an English mechanical engineer and considered the “father of computers”.
This technology was designed for mathematical calculations and simple decision-making capabilities. The ‘main-
frame computers’ were large room-sized computer that provide people data calculation and manipulation faster
than the human brain. Personal computers also available which gave every individual access to computers
(Hughes & Hans, 2017).

The Internet
Developed in California, US in the late 1960 s the internet was mostly used by scientists to communicate
with other scientists. Vinton Cerf and Robert Kahn are the people behind this marvelous piece of technology. It
was a government-controlled project until 1984 and its first countered problem in using it was the speed. The
development of Fiber-optics allowed the billions of bits of information to be received every minute and a
company named “Intel” was one of the companies that developed faster microprocessor like i5 and i7 that can
process any data very quickly.

World Wide Web

Commonly known as ‘www’ was invented by Sir Tim Berners-Lee, a British computer scientist that
started in 1990s and it was basically for commercial purposes. Home pages were made by companies, business
owners or corporation in order to promote and sell their products and eventually, other items could be
purchased online giving ease to shopping. Similarly, online businesses can earn money through online
transactions.

Electronic Mail or E-mail

Several years back, it would take several days to receive a letter and it would also take a big amount of
money to contact and talk to someone very far away. Communication was made easier through ‘E-mail’, the
invention of which was controversially claimed by V.A Shiva Ayyadurai, an Indian-born American scientist and
entrepreneur. He started building the system in 1978 when he was 14 years old. The copyright for the term E-mail
was granted him in 1982. E-mail is an avenue by which messages are exchanged between people from different
locations at a faster rate (Rice & Barman-Adhikari, 2013).
Facebook
A website launched in February 4, 2004 by a computer programmer, Mark Elliot Zuckerberg together
with his fellow students in Harvard College and with other roommates. The membership was first limited to
Harvard students but later, students in Boston area, Ivy League College, and Stanford University were allowed to
get access to the website. Facebook is a social networking website where people could one another and meet on
line to share each other’s thoughts, ideas, experiences, photos, and videos which they feel would be worth
sharing. It can build relationships, can be used in business transactions and could be a source of games (Hughes
& Hans, 2017).

Twitter
Created in march 2006 by Jack Dorsey, Noah Glass, Biz Tone, and Evan Williams. It is another
networking website where people post and interact with message or “tweets” which are restricted only for up to
140 characters and one of the visited websites and is considered the “SMS of the internet” (Rice & Barman-
Adhikari, 2013).

Messenger
Originally developed as Facebook Chat in 2008 but changed its messaging service in 2010. An instant
messaging service and software application. This can be used to sent messages to other people through written
messages, voice calls or video calls. The latter could be in a one-to-one interaction or even in group
conversations (Hughes & Hans, 2017).

YouTube
Today’s on-line largest destination and the third most visited website. This website makes its way
through the social media via the tandem of Chad Hurley and Steve Chen. In 2005, during Valentine’s day, Hurley
registered the logo and domain of YouTube. After three months, a small group of employees launched the site
www.youtube.com, one of the best ways to watch videos that can also be shared. It contains videos about
enormous aspects of life through this website.

Google
Larry Page and Sergey Brin, both PhD students at Stanford University developed Google as a research
project in 1996. The domain “google.com” was registered in September 1997 and now the most used search
engine in the world wide web. It offers us a variety of features beyond searching for words, these may include
synonyms or word meanings, time zones, maps, weather forecasts, sports scores, calculations, etc., and also for
research or journal articles as references for theses and dissertations. Yahoo in Japan is one of the great
competitors of Google.

Instagram
Created by Kevin Systrom and Mike Krieger in October 2010 is a fun photography application that is
gaining fame all over the globe. This can be used to enhanced and give style to your photo which can later be
shared with other using the same application. A user-friendly app but other apps could also provide the same
features.

The social media platforms mentioned above are the most commonly used platforms by people but there
are still other social media platforms which are the following:
- Blab - Snapchat
- hi5 - Bing
- Houseparty - Xing
- LinkedIN - Flickr
- MyLife - Vimeo
- Meerkat - iTunes
- Periscope - MySpace
- Ning
 - Plaxo

Their invention and use became a very significant part of economy and it gave great impact in the
workforce in many different ways. Workers who are not well-versed with automation are forced to look for
automated jobs and they also forced to compete globally competitive jobs and worse, some workers are being
replaced by computers which can make the job much faster and which do not require compensation. On lighter
note, computerization has given much benefit to us. It resulted in high productivity in the workplace. Nowadays,
bills payment, bank transactions, online shopping, and the like are much easier than without computers and
internet.

From Gutenberg to Information Age, evolution of technology has made us realize that modernization of
information and communication process have become the power behind social evolution.

CHAPTER IX
Biodiversity and the Healthy Society

Objectives
At the end of the topic, the students/readers are expected to:
1.) Define biodiversity.
2.) Explain the importance of biodiversity.
3.) Explain and give some examples of the components of biodiversity.
4.) Distinguish habitat from niche.
5.) Enumerate some activities which threaten biodiversity.
6.) Assess the status of Philippine biodiversity.

KEY CONCEPTS

Biodiversity – multitude of living organisms and how they interact with each other and their environment.
Gene – unit of heredity.
Species – group of interbreeding organisms with the same structures.
Niche – the physical environment to which a species has become adapted as well as its role as producer and
consumer of food resources.
Habitat – the area where an organism lives.
Speciation – formation of new organism.
Extinction – the total disappearance of a species.

What is Biodiversity?
From its original term, ‘biological diversity’, is a vast concept, meaning a lot of things. First, living
organisms are numerous, from the minute to the largest creatures and are composed of several or groups; they
interact with one another and with non-living things. Second, living organisms are abundant in habitats
supplying all the foods and requirements that they need. Third, organisms have different growth and metabolic
characteristics unique to a particular group and variable reproductive patterns; some have more species while
others have less. And fourth, that biodiversity is essential to human survival. Without biodiversity, life can be
dull and boring; with scarce resources, there would not be enough food and medicines, and the like.
 The variety of life in the simplest term. It refers to the number, variety and variability of living organisms,
not just species but ecosystems – the multitude of living organisms across all levels and how they interact with
each other and with their surrounding environment – as well. It includes interdependence/interrelationships of
all living things in the areas where they live called habitats, whether artificial or natural. They adapt to the
physical characteristics of these areas and develop their niche, the ecological role they play in the environment.

It serves as sources of food and energy in addition to water and clean air. Through biodiversity, we have
access to natural services like water, purification, soil fertility, waste disposal, pest control, and aesthetics
pleasure. Enabling the discovery and use of plants as medicines, microorganisms as sources of antibiotics, and
marine animals for various compounds of industrial use.

Biodiversity has three components and these are the following:

Genetic Diversity – refers to variation or differences in the genes of a species of individuals. Genes are segments
of DNA which dictate the traits or characteristics of an organism. Considered as a variation in small scale, its
impact however, is on large scale. gene differences contribute remarkably in the adaptive potential of the species
that can more importantly lead to ‘microevolution’. A variation enables one species to adapt to changing
environment, and the likelihood of perpetuation of a new population.

Hogs for example, are the same species but of different breeds. Gumamela (Hibiscus rosasinesis) are
composed of different varieties. Insects belong to different orders. Saccharomyces cerevisiae is a specific group of
yeasts but may exhibit different metabolic characteristics. A fungal pathogen may either infect a specific single
crop or different varieties of it at varying degrees. The virulence genes vary from on organism to another or from
one species to another. A crop may be grouped differentially based on gene markers which is now a trend in
studying genetic diversity. These all happens to boil down to differences in DNA sequence and the percentage of
nucleotides present.

Species Diversity – the number of species, involving a combination of species number (species richness) and
their relative abundance in a particular area (species evenness). The latter is a measure of whether a particular
ecosystem is dominated by a single species or if similar number of individuals is present. Evenness may either be
high (all species are represented by the same number of individuals) or low (some species are represented by
many individuals while others are not).

A group of interbreeding organisms with similar structures and there are around 1.5 million species
known but according to scientists and taxonomists, this is just a fraction of what is currently existing
(Convention of Biological Diversity) and new species are added every day. Insects are the most diverse. A gram of
soil is composed of different species of microbes. A drop of sea water may hold number of planktonic species.
Birds, rabbits, alligators, fishes, dragonflies, and cats are all different species.

Community or Ecological Diversity – it refers to a variety of ecosystems in a given region, a biological

community including all abiotic factors that affect them. Aquatic ecosystem may be freshwater, marine, estuary,
and coastal. Terrestrial ecosystem may be grassland, forest, desert and the like. These ecosystems cater a wide
range of species population that interact with one another forming a community. Their survival and interactions
are mediated and influenced by a variety of nonliving or abiotic factors such as air, water, temperature, humidity,
pH, light intensity, current and many more.

Ecosystem diversity is of huge importance from the point of interesting species and complexity of niches.
An ecosystem also interacts with another ecosystem is a specific overlapping region known as ‘ecotone’, and
thus, may affect each other’s sustainability.

Importance of Biodiversity
It affects humans on various aspects: economy, health, culture, aesthetics, and environmental issues. The
fundamental importance of biodiversity is that it is our source of food, clothing, shelter, and medicines. It also a
source of raw materials for industrial activities. Humans enjoy different products and goods, clean air and water,
soil, and such resources due to biodiversity. Life would be so boring if there is no variation around us.

Two fundamental sciences, taxonomy and ecology, generate knowledge and information to fully
understand the importance of biodiversity for human survival. However, there are some limitations:
1.) Biodiversity conservation strategies focused on research a policy on global scale without too much effect on
local diversity.
2.) Lack of site-specific data on species composition of communities.
3.) Biodiversity studies lacking in taxonomic precision.
4.) Few taxonomists.
5.) Insufficient biodiversity inventory and assessment.

Nevertheless, the benefits of biodiversity still share in the pie of the economy. Tourists come and go to
enjoy diverse Philippine flora and fauna; natural products and medicines from plants and actinomycetes abound;
soil and water resources are conserved and water flow is regulated in various communities.

Status of Philippine Biodiversity

Threats to Biodiversity

1.) Habitat Destruction – loss of biodiversity can be worst end result of numerous anthropogenic activities.
These activities include urbanization, construction, agricultural land development, logging, river damming
and use of pesticides, herbicides and fertilizers. Each of these destroys habitats in one way or another.

2.) Pollution – a condition in which there is an unnatural increase in the concentrations of naturally-
occurring environmental compounds such as heavy metals, radionuclides, nitrates, phosphates, cyanides,
agricultural wastes, sewage, pathogens, gases, particulates and many more. Their high concentrations make
an environment unfavorable for the survival of a particular organism. Even too much light can become a
pollutant and thus can affect biodiversity. For instance, the occurrence of city lights at night may affect the
behavior and activities of nocturnal animals.

3.) Introduction of non-native species and new varieties – or “Invasive Alien Species (IAS)” includes exotic
micro- and macro- species introduced accidentally or deliberately, to a place that is not a part of their
natural habitat or distributional range (De Silva, 1989). The introduction to the local community could
become a threat to other organisms as they become ‘invasive’ especially if they have an ecological niche
similar with nutrients and food leading to the latter’s population decline and extinction at worst. It includes
also rapid proliferation if it does not have any natural predator in the receiving area.
 Some invasive species affecting the aquaculture industry include (Agasen, 2005; Guerrero, 2002; Juliano et
al., 1989):
- Janitor fish, Clown
- knife fish,
- Giant snakehead,
- Black-chin tilapia
- Jaguar guapote
The worst invasive plants found in the Philippines include (Joshi nd: ISSG2006a: Uriarte et al, 2007):
- Chromolaena odorata
- Mikania micrantha
- Leucaena leucocephala
- Lantana camara
- Imperata cylindrica
- Hiptage benghalensis
- Eichhornia crassipes

4.) Global Climate Change – gradual increase in the world’s temperature also threatens biodiversity. Global
warming entails the following:
- Meltdown of icebergs in polar regions leading to sea level rise
- Increase in amount of rainfalls
- Too much summers and too much cold winters
- Frequent grass and forest fires
- Changes in sea temperature

Each of these brings a negative impact to world’s biodiversity and remains true especially to
species that are incapable of adapting to this changing environment.

5.) Exploitation – any form of abuse to flora and fauna threatens biodiversity. Collecting them in huge
amounts may threatens their proliferation. Gathering these organisms, especially the endangered ones, for
trading is an act punishable by law.

6.) Overpopulation – human population poses the greatest threat to biodiversity. As population increases,
the demand for all human needs wants also increase. These demands need for more natural resources as
humans are in point that they get too much from the environment but do not contribute to their
replacement.

Conserving Biodiversity (How can biodiversity loss be prevented?)

Strategies to conserve biodiversity need realistic solution and will need to involve a multidisciplinary
strategy, including political, socioeconomic, and scientific input in all stakeholders (government, non-
government, national and international organizations) must participate. Researches can be done and proper
investigations on environmental problems can be used for policy making. Relevant information maybe given to
local communities regarding sustainable use of biodiversity. Education and awareness activities have started and
are being done continuously, however, should be emphasized to everyone while they are still young or in their
pre-school age. More often than not, only the adults are the focus of these activities and sustainable use of
biodiversity should be given emphasis. Community-based programs are also initiated to help conserve
biodiversity and people involved themselves in the conservation projects like the rehabilitation of the Apo Island
in Dumaguete City.

Government Legislation
There are laws and orders in the Philippines to save biodiversity and these laws never forget preserving
the wellness and betterment of the Philippine nature:
 1.) Executive Order No. 247 – prescribing guidelines and establishing a regulatory framework for the
prospecting of biological and genetic resources, their by-products and derivatives, for scientific and
commercial purposes; and other purposes.
2.) Act No. 2590 – an act for the protection of fishes.
3.) R.A 7308 – an act to promote and develop the seed industry in the Philippines and create a National Seed
Council and for other purposes.
4.) R.A 7586 – National Integrated Protected Areas System Act of 1992.
5.) R.A 7611 – Strategic Environmental Plan for Palawan Act.
6.) R.A 7900 – High-value Crops Developmental Act of 1995.
7.) R.A 7942 - Philippine Mining Code.
8.) R.A 8371 – Recognizing the Rights of Indigenous Cultural Communities Indigenous People.
9.) R.A 9147 – Wildlife Protection Act.
10.) R.A 8485 – Promote Animal Welfare in the Philippines.
11.) P.D 1433 – Plant Quarantine Decree of 1978.
12.) P.D 1586 – Environmental Impact Statement System Law.
13.) Executive Order No. 192 – Reorganization of the DENR.
14.) Proclamation No. 926 – Establishing Subic Watershed Forest Reserve.
15.) DAO 02 – Establishing Protection for Ancestral Homeland.

Techniques in Conserving Biodiversity

Several technologies are now available to conserve and/or maintain biodiversity. These are as follows:

1.) Cell and tissue culture allow the propagation/multiplication of organisms at a rapid pace. A one way of
conserving our resources and rescue the endangered species.
2.) Cryopreservation technology is a non-lethal storage of organelles, cells, tissues or bone biological
constructs at ultra-low temperature. A technology that enables the conservation of germplasm. In the
Philippines, this is currently used by the Philippine Carabao Center.
3.) Advances in molecular biology and genetics have taken a stronghold in analyzing individual strains of an
organism, identify species and predict future phenotypes. A very important technique in maintaining
biodiversity.

The Role of Evolution in Biodiversity

Evolution is how the genetic composition of species change over time (Grant et al., 2010). The underlying
mechanism of biodiversity and it has two kinds: microevolution and macroevolution. Microevolution is the
evolution below the species level while macroevolution is the type that gives rise to new species or larger groups
such as new genera, family, class or phyla. Evolution may happen through ‘artificial selection’ or by ‘natural
selection’.

Artificial selection, human determines which individuals breed as exemplified by the specific crops that
are bred and varieties come out. Environment also determines which organisms or individuals survive and
perpetuate and this is what we call natural selection. By natural selection, first, that individuals vary and
variations could be inherited for several generations as variations may confer advantages to the next generations
so that the individuals have better capacity to adapt and survive. The combination of bright butterfly and black
‘monarch butterfly’ is an adaptation to warn potential predators that the butterfly is poisonous and prevent it
from being eaten. Some exhibits ‘camouflage’, the ability to blend to the surroundings and a common example of
an adaptation.

Evolution may also be slow or rapid depending on the rate of environmental change, amount of genetic
variation in the species, population size involved and the generation time particular species. In evolution,
‘speciation’ and ‘extinction’ may happen and dictate biodiversity.

Speciation may be ‘allopatric’ – if new species are created by geographic or reproductive isolation, or
‘sympatric’ – one species evolves into two species without being geographically isolated. Extinction is the dying
out or termination of a species and it occurs due to environmental forces like global change, habitat
fragmentation, and overexploitation of species or because of evolutionary changes in their members like
inbreeding, poor reproduction, superior competition, and decline in the number of populations.

Genetically Modified Organisms: Science, Health, and Politics

Objectives
At the end of the topic, students/readers are expected to:
1.) Define Genetically Modified Organism.
2.) Explain the principles behind cloning and genetic engineering.
3.) Answer frequently asked questions about GMO.
4.) Give examples of GM plants and animals.
5.) Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of GMOs.

KEY CONCEPTS

GMO – genetically modified organism.

Vector – usually a plasmid or cosmid that accepts foreign DNA and serve as vehicle for transformation.
Plasmid – extrachromosomal element capable of independent replication.
Cloning/Genetic Engineering – technique used to alter or move genetic material (genes) of living cells.
Restriction enzyme – enzyme that cuts the DNA.

What are Genetically Modified Organisms?

These are organisms with foreign genes incorporated into their genome such that they exhibit different
but desirable properties/traits that do not occur naturally by mating and/or natural recombination. The foreign
genes may come from bacteria, viruses, insects, animal or even humans. These are all carefully studied and
selected to improve a particular organism or make this organism a vehicle for faster and efficient manufacturing
and delivery of a product. Modifications can be ‘transgenic’, whereby the organism contains DNA from another
species, or ‘cisgenic’, whereby it contains DNA from a member of the same species but doesn’t occur naturally.

This form is viewed as a safer practice, although there are concerns for all types of genetic modification.
GMOs can include plants, animal, and microorganisms and have been approved by regulatory agencies for
commercial production and consumption, while other are currently undergoing regulatory evaluation (Center
for Ecogenetics and Environmental Health). GMOs are in experimental stages and confined to a scientific
laboratory research.

The Making of GMOs, Steps in Cloning

Cloning requires a source of DNA or a donor organism because it was cut with restriction enzyme and is
ligated to a vector, usually a plasmid, previously cut with another restriction enzyme compatible with that first
enzyme used. After ligation, the chimeric molecules are transformed in competent cells (usually Escherichia coli)
and then screened for the presence of genes of interest.

Several organisms have been genetically modified since the introduction of technologies and discovery of
the DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) double helix structure. GM crops were first commercialized in 1996 and only
from countries that placed transgenic crops to about 11 million hectares (Brankow & Lovre, 2015). In 2011, the area
had expanded to 160 million hectares in 29 countries. Soybeans, maize, cotton, and canola remain to be leading
GM crops. Other crops include eggplant, Jatropha, rice, sugar beets, cassava, papaya, banana, tomatoes, squash,
peas, alfalfa. GM animals, on the other hand, include fishes, cows, chicken, pigs, etc.
 The GM crops are listed below are some examples (Phillips, 2008; Fridovich-Keil et al., n.d,: Johnson &
O’Connor, 2015; Center for Ecogenetics and Environmental Health):

1.) Corn
It was first genetically modified with the insertion of toxin gene from the Bacillus thuringiensis and with
its commercialization of Bt corn, an increase in corn production was realized because of its resistance to
the attack of corn borer.
2.) Cotton
Half of cottons grown in the world have been genetically modified to resist pests and pesticides.
However, it was reported to have had devastating results in Indian agriculture. In Philippines,
experiments to develop local Bt corn variety are being performed to prevent bollworm damage.
3.) Jatropha
These seeds are similar to palm oil and can be used as biofuel and a high source of protein for livestock
but planting jatropha seeds has caused destruction of native plants.
4.) Rice
Golden rice is genetically modified rice containing beta carotene, a precursor of vitamin A. It is still in the
research stage but once it becomes a developed variety and commercialized many Filipinos will benefit
from it. In relation, studies are being done to address the pervasive and persistent vitamin A deficiency
problem at the same time make Golden Rice more profitable to farmers by adding tungro and bacterial
leaf blight (BLB) resistance to this GM crop.
5.) Soy
More than 90% of soybeans grown in the U.S are genetically modified to be herbicide resistant.
6.) Sugar Beets
These were engineered to grow faster and to be more resistant to weeds. However, a federal judge puta
halt on processing GMO sugar beets due to failure of USDA to present an Environmental Impact
Statement (EIS) and many environmentalist and researchers are concerned that GMO beets could have
serious impact on the environment and other crops.
7.) Cassava
It is a starchy plant like potato that is consumed by many people across the globe like Africa. The first
GMO cassava plant was engineered in 19955. Cassava was supposed to be virus and pest resistant but
farmers reported that in few years the GMO cassava lose their anti-virus resistant quality.
8.) Papaya
Also known as Carica papaya L., has Caribbean coast of Central America as the point of origin. It was
genetically modified in Hawaii and introduced to the market in 1999. The GM papaya lines were
developed to resist infection by papaya ringspot virus (PRSV).

9.) Tomatoes
Many tomatoes have been genetically modified in US but GM tomatoes are banned in Europe. Flavr Savr
is the first commercially grown GM tomatoes granted with a license for human consumption. Produced
by Calgene, a Californian company, it was first sold in 1994 after that the US Food and Drug
Administration (FDA) completed evaluation.
10.) Apple
Scientists are now able to deactivate the gene for polyphenol oxidase (PPO), an enzyme which causes the
browning of apples.

Impacts of GMOs
Defined and known useful genes when inserted into an organism will definitely affect the growth pattern,
behavior and products of the said organism in a short span of time saving a lot of pesos conducting research
when compared to traditional breeding GMOs have been around for several years and their impacts are already
felt. With these, “designer crops” can be produced containing with more nutrients, pesticide resistant, require
less inputs to grow and produce more yield. Some agricultural soils are saline. This condition hampers the
growth of crops are unable to grow. Thus, there is a need to research to come up with salt tolerant organisms.
 Growing GM plants allows the farmers to spend less time and money in pesticides and herbicides. GMO
foods are also now available in the market. In other parts of the world, GMOs are considered to have health
threats. (Bawa & Anilakumar, 2012). The downside of farming with GMOs include “creating super weeds” that
have evolved a resistance to glyphosate, a common herbicide in GMO food production.

Frequently Asked Questions About GMOs

Though GMOs are commercially available for several years now, there are still several questions asked by
the consumers or need to be addresses. Some of them are as follow:
1.) Are GMOs safe?
2.) How are GMOs produced?
3.) What are the major issues that need to be addressed in the regulation of GMOs?
4.) Which types/varieties of GMOs are already applied in ASEAN Member countries?

CHAPTER X
The Nano World

Objectives
At the end of the topic, the students/readers are expected to:
1.) Define nanotechnology.
2.) Identify the risk and ethical considerations in nanotechnology
3.) Cite some examples of nanotechnology applications and products.

KEY CONCEPTS

Nanotechnology – a new area of scientific research which focuses on particles too minute to be seen but
with impact interacting with other fields of sciences.
Nanomaterials – minute particles.
Nanoethics – study of the ethical and social dimensions of nanotechnology.
Nanotechnology and Nanomaterials
The word ‘nano’, one-billionth of a quality and is represented mathematically as 1 x 10 -9, or simply as 10-9.
The word ‘technology’ refers to the application of science for society’s practical needs and improvements. It is a
new category of technology involving both basic and applied research intersecting with the fields of computer
science and information technology, medical technology, agriculture, life science, engineering, chemistry,
physics, and mathematics.

It’s a fast-growing area of science and research. Some call it as “general purpose technology” because of its
global impacts and effects while others call it “enabling technology” because it supports other technologies.
Nanotechnology is concerned with the world of ultraminute particles dominated by forces of chemistry and
physics that cannot be applied at the human-scale level. Some people define nanotechnology include “processes
that provide goods and /or services which are derived from matter at the nanometer level”. According to US
National Nanotechnology Initiative (NNI) that nanotechnology involves “research and technology development
at the atomic, molecular, or macromolecular levels, in the length scale of approximately 1 to 100 nm range, to
provide a fundamental understanding of phenomena and materials at the nanoscale and to create and use
structures, devices and systems that have novel properties and functions because of their small and/or
intermediate size”. The materials used are called nanomaterials with properties absent in ordinary and
commonly used materials.

Nanoparticles can be produced from nearly any chemical; however, most that are currently in use today
have been made from transition metals, silicon, carbon (single walled carbon nanotubes; fullerenes), and metal
oxides (zinc dioxide and titanium dioxide). Engineered nanoparticles also exists as nanocrystals composed of a
number of compounds such as silicon and metals (quantum dots).

According to NNI, there are four generations of nanotechnology:

1.) Passive nanostructures – size + physical property
2.) Active nanodevices – quantum properties
3.) Systems of nanosystems – systems of nanodevices
4.) Molecular nanosystmes – molecular machines and manufacture

Potential Applications of Nanotechnology

Though it is a relatively new science, it already has numerous applications and on a top nanotechnology
application and the UN Millennium Development Goals include:

1.) Energy storage, production and conversion

Increasing the electricity generated by windmills. Epoxy containing carbon nanotubes are being used to
make windmill blades. The resulting blades are stronger and with lower weight thus, the amount of electricity
generated by each windmill is greater.
2.) Agricultural productivity and enhancement; vector and pest detection and control
“Nanosensors” are important nanoproducts for faster detection of soil quality. This will also enable
plant health monitoring for improved crop yield. Nanocapsules may also be developed for more efficient
delivery of herbicides and drugs for livestock.

3.) Water treatment and remediation

“Nanoparticles” are useful in cleaning up organic chemicals/solvents polluting groundwater. The iron
nanoparticles disperse throughout the body of water and decompose the organic solvent in place. This
method ca be more effective and cost significantly less than treatment methods that require the water to be
pumped out of the ground.

4.) Disease diagnosis and screening; drug delivery systems

“Nanotechnology-based diagnostic kits” for screening of diseases and systems od drug delivery will be
very useful in health monitoring and cure. Potential applications of nanomedicine have been discussed in
many of the reports on nanotechnology. One application involves employing nanoparticles to deliver drugs,
 heat, light or other substances to specific group of cells. They are manipulated so that they will be attracted
to diseased cells, thus allowing direct treatment.

5.) Food processing and storage

Nanotechnology is useful when “nanocomposite-based film crating” is used in food packing. An
antimicrobial “nanoemulsions” will also facilitate the cleaning of food equipment and packaging while
“nanotechnology-based sensors” will help in detecting food-borne pathogens.

6.) Air pollution and remediation

Generating less pollution during the manufacture of materials is very important. Researches shows
that using a silver “nanocluster” as catalysts can significantly reduce the polluting by-products generated in
the process used to manufacture propylene oxide. P.O is used to produce common materials such as plastics,
paint, detergents, and brake fluid.

7.) Construction
Construction activities will be a lot easier if” nanomolecules” are used in manufacturing concrete,
asphalt, glues, and housing surfaces.

In the Philippines, the possible applications of nanotechnology are food and agriculture, health and
medicine, energy, environment, ICT, and semiconductors.

Nanotechnology-based Consumer Products

Consumer products are not exempted from nanotechnology and has found its way into numerous
products that people can use for specific purposes and the following are some:

1.) Fabric containing silver nanoparticles that kill bacteria making clothing odor-resistant.
2.) Skin care products like lotions, sunscreens and creams that use nanoparticles to deliver vitamins deeper
into the skin.
3.) Lithium ion batteries that use nanoparticle-based electrodes.
4.) Sporting goods like tennis racquets were improved by adding nanotubes to the frames which increase
control and power when one hits the ball.
5.) Filtration set-up. The DOST has developed a nanofilter assembly for water purification.

Risk Assessment and Ethical Consideration

Nanoethics it the study of the ethical and social dimension of nanotechnology. According to most
ethicists, we should protect some combinations of human rights, preferences, health, future generations, and so
on, because these things are morally valuable.

A workshop co-sponsored by the National Science Foundation and the US Environmental Protection
Agency has identified a number of critical risk assessment issues regarding manufactured nanoparticles such as
exposure assessment of these particle’s toxicity using exiting particle and fiber technological databases,
environmental and biological fate, transport, persistence, and transformation of manufactured nanoparticles and
recyclability and overall sustainability of manufactures nanomaterials. In risk analysis conference in Brussels in
2004, (European Commission 2004), another set of issues was raised like security problems, mapping out nano-
risks, engineered nanomaterials and risks, emerging concepts in nanoparticle toxicology, nanotechnology from
the insurers’ perspective, and ethical challenges in healthcare.

Human health and safety and environmental impact should be given the top priority in researches
concerning nanotechnology since human are the beneficiaries of ant research endeavor in this field.

Nanotechnology, Dream No More in Philippines

 Nanotechnology seemed to be a dream in the Philippines (Dayrit, 2000; Enriquez, 2002). However, with
the recent developments in technology, this is not from reality. A roadmap was formulated by the DOST for the
development of nanotechnology. The four major programs of this roadmap include:
1.) Nano-based technologies and materials.
2.) Nanosensors and nanodiagnostics.
3.) Nanometrology for ICT and semiconductor; and
4.) Nanostructured solar energy devices and storage.

CHAPTER XI
Gene Therapy

Objectives
At the end of the topic, the students/readers are expected to:
1.) Define gene therapy.
2.) Distinguished between somatic and germline therapy.
3.) Explain the ethical considerations in germ line gene therapy.
4.) Give examples of successful and unsuccessful gene therapy.

KEY CONCEPTS

Gene – a part of a cell in a living thing that controls what it looks like, how it grows, and how it develops.
Genetic disorders – a disease that caused by an abnormality I an individual’s DNA.
Vector – an organism that does not cause disease itself, but which carry the DNA from one host to another.
An Introduction to Gene Therapy
When a gene is mutated, the gene that codes for the normal protein is altered and results in producing an
abnormal or nonfunctional protein. Inheriting a defective gene can cause a wide range of disorders such as cystic
fibrosis and haemophilia that causes susceptibility to some cancers.

Genetic diseases are treated by repairing the damaged gene responsible for the disease. Through the
introduction of a normal copy of the gene instead of using drugs or surgery, the cells can produce the normal
functional protein. This technique is known as “gene therapy” which was developed in 1972, a promising
treatment option, but had, so far, limited success in treating human diseases. This method is still risky and is still
under study to make sure that it will be safe and effective. It is currently being tested only for diseases that have
no other cure.

Delivery of Genes During Gene Therapy

There are several ways by which therapeutic genes are delivered to the body. The cells with the defective
gene are taken from the body and that genes are either ‘spliced’ or injected into these cells. They are left to grow
in the laboratory and then returned into the person and these are as follows:
1.) Use of vector
Therapeutic genes are placed inside a harmless virus, where most of its own genes are removed or have
been deactivated. This virus works by entering into the cell, taking over its DNA and forcing it to produce more
viruses. Similarly, a deactivated virus can enter the specific cell and deliver the working gene.

2.) Use of stem cells

These are a class of undifferentiated cells that are able to differentiate in to specialized cell types. They
are the foundation for every organ and tissue in the body and have potential to develop into cells with different
functions. Stem cells are then manipulated in laboratory to accept new genes that can then change their
characteristics, thus, when the stem cell grows, divide, and differentiate they already carry the manipulated
genes that would enable them to treat the disease. Example: a specific gene that could resist chemotherapy
might be inserted into a stem cell that could make it better able to survive chemotherapy.

There are two types of gene therapy depending on the types of cells treated: Somatic Gene Therapy and
Germline Gene Therapy

Somatic Gene Therapy – a gene therapy that only treating any cell of the body aside from sperm or egg cell.
However, the effects of this method will not be passed on to the next generation, so the patient’s offspring still
have a chance of contracting the diseases. This gene therapy is effective in treating various kinds of diseases such
as cystic fibrosis, muscular dystrophy, cancer, and certain infectious diseases. The effectiveness of somatic gene
therapy is usually short-lived. This therapy method can be divided into two categories:

1.) Ex vivo gene therapy

Genetic manipulation of cells is done outside the body, which is well suited in targeting a specific organ
rather than treating the whole organism.

This therapy method modifies the cells outside the body and transplanted back after selection and
amplification. Genetic alteration is usually done by using a viral vector, which carries the corrected gene back
to the patient’s body. This is a very promising on bone marrow stem cells, liver cells, blood vessel smooth
muscle cells, tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes for cancer treatment, blindness, treatment for leukemia and other
cancers. Advances in gene therapy are also achieved in corneal disease, glaucoma, retinal degeneration, stroke
and multiple sclerosis through genetic re-programming of cells to replace degenerate cells and through more
refined neuroprotection, modulation of inflammation and replacement of deficient protein (Gregory-Evans,
Bashar & Tan, 2012).

The major steps in ex vivo gene therapy involves:

1.) Isolation of the defective gene from the patient,
 2.) isolated cells are then grown in cultures in the laboratory,
3.) the therapeutic genes are inserted or introduced to the grown cell cultures using vectors (viruses,
liposomes),
4.) the transformed cells are selected from the non-transformants and grown in the laboratory; and
5.) these selected cells are transplanted into the patient.

Advantage of this gene therapy – the ability to target selectively specific cell types for production of the gene of
interest before engrafting the cells into the host. The manipulated cells are immunocompatible since they are
collected from the patient to avoid rejection.

Disadvantage of this gene therapy – it is intrinsically more invasive process than injection of vector suspensions
in in vivo gene therapy.

2.) In vivo gene therapy

It involves the direct introduction of the genetic materials into the human body and can be applied to
many tissues of the human body including liver, muscle, skin, lung, spleen, brain, blood cells, etc. the corrected
genes are introduced by the viral or nonviral-based vectors into the patient. Several factors that may affect this
therapy includes:

a. Uptake of the therapeutic gene carrying vectors by the target cells – appropriate vectors should be used
to efficiently deliver the corrected genes inside the target cells.
b. Intracellular degradation – the therapeutic gene should reach the target cell without being degraded.
c. Expression ability of the gene – the therapeutic gene should be expressed in the target cell.

The physical methods for in vivo gene delivery are mechanical, electrical, ultrasonic, hydrodynamic, and
laser-based energy.

In vivo gene delivery is simple because it is accomplished by the single step of direct vector injection into
the desired target organ and minimally invasive, but it is also “disadvantageous” because of non-specificity of
target cell infection. Various cell types including neurons, glia, and vascular cells can be infected when in vivo
vectors are injected in the CNS. Another disadvantage is its possibility to cause toxicity and elicit immune
responses.

Germline Gene Therapy – a gene therapy which cells are modified by the introduction of functional genes into
their genomes and its effect will be passed down on to the patient’s children and subsequent generations because
gene transfer can occur in all cells of the developing embryo. Thus, there is a possibility of permanently removing
an inherited disorder from a family line, however, it is not allowed to be done in humans, because of ethical
issues and fear of altering the human genes. Creating “super” human being or “architecture” human being and
the ethical issue of playing “gods” are additional restrictions. This technology should not be used for non-disease
conditions such as functional enhancement or “cosmetic purposes”. Examples of this are treatment of baldness
by gene transfer into follicle cells, increasing body size using growth hormone gene, or increasing muscle mass
using dystrophin gene.

Problems Associated with Gene Therapy

Gene therapy is considered as a scientific breakthrough but still, there are also some problems associated
with it as follows:

1.) Gene therapy is short-lived in nature; thus, patients will have to undergo multiple rounds of gene therapy.
2.) When the defense system is low due to gene therapy there is a risk of further advancement in the illness.
Hence, there is a difficulty for gene therapy to be repeated.
3.) Viral vectors could disrupt vital genes resulting to another disease or predisposition to cancer. They may
also cause toxicity, immune and inflammatory responses, and gene control and targeting. The deactivated
viruses might target other cells as well as the intended cells.
 4.) There is an occurrence of delivered genes can contribute to oncogenesis by removing controls on normal
cell cycle regulation. The therapeutic gene might produce too much of the missing enzyme or protein,
causing other health problems.
5.) The therapeutic gene might be slotted into the wrong spot.
6.) Other genes may be accidentally delivered to the cell.
7.) The deactivated virus may be contagious.

CHAPTER XII
Climate Change and the Energy Crisis

Objectives
At the end of the topic, students/readers are expected to:
1.) Describe the environmental changes brought about by increased global temperature.
2.) Identify the causes of climate change.
3.) Discuss the capacity of each nation in facing the effect of climate change.
4.) Describe the relation of climate change and the energy crisis.
5.) Identify the renewable sources in the Philippines.
6.) Describe the role of renewable energy in reducing the coal and fossil fuel dependence and impact of
climate change.
 KEY CONCEPTS

Weather – the condition of the atmosphere like heat, dryness, sunshine, wind and rain at a given place at a
given time.
Climate – the weather condition occurring in a region for a longer period of time.
Climate change – the changes in the regional or global climate patterns brought about by the increase of
atmospheric temperature.
Renewable Energy – the energy supply that are replenished through natural processes.

Global Impact of Climate Change

The U.N Framework Convention on Climate Change emphasized that impacts and vulnerability to
climate vary between regions of the globe. Below is the summarized information regarding the impact,
vulnerability, and adaptive capacity of each region to climate change based on the studies conducted by Boko et.
Al (2007), Christensen et al. (2007), Cruz et al. (2007), Magrin et al. (2007), and Mimura et al. (2007).

Adaptive capacity in the ASEAN region varies between countries depending on the social structure,
economic capacity, geography, and level of environmental degradation.

1.) Africa
It is expected that the temperature in this continent will increase by about 1.5% than the global average
that will result to a warmer subtropical region and a decreased in annual rainfall is expected in several areas such
as the Mediterranean Africa, Northern Sahara, and Southern Africa which may trigger desertification in many
areas. On the contrary, it is expected that increased annual mean rainfall is expected in East Africa and in the dry
Sahel area.

Drier condition in majority of the areas in Africa could pose a more sever water and food shortage to
about 220 million people by 2020. Agricultural production could be compromised since it is heavily dependent
on good water source to grow crops and support livestock needs and a projected worsening condition, human
health is expected to suffer from several diseases like malaria, dengue fever, meningitis, cholera, etc. because
they are transmitted by vectors.

Africa has a low adaptive capacity to the impact of climate change due to some of the nation’s existing
developmental challenges like low GDP per capita, widespread endemic poverty, weak institutions, low levels of
education, and low primary healthcare.

2.) Asia
Increase in the mean global temperature is expected in Central Asia, Tibetan plateau, Northern, Eastern,
and Southern Asia which leads to snow and ice reduction in the Himalayan and Tibetan Glaciers and this would
lead to increase in the number and severity of glacial melt-related floods, slop destabilization followed by
decrease in river flows as glaciers disappear. Increasing temperature would also increase the frequency and
intensity of extreme event such as El Niño and La Niña that would definitely affect the agricultural productivity
in some areas. Asian health conditions may be at risk of increased morbidity and mortality due to heat stress,
sever cholera and the changing dynamics of vector-borne diseases.

Projected rapid increase of species extinction on terrestrial ecosystems and habitat fragmentation will
increase due to synergistic impact of human activities and natural phenomenon. A more serious condition can be
felt in the coastal areas, as millions of coastal inhabitants are affected by a rise in sea levels and an increase in the
intensity of tropical cyclones.

The Philippines is considered the most affected countries by climate change (on of the considered) aside
the fact that we cannot evade global impacts, our country also lacks natural barriers’ such as coral reefs and
mangrove ecosystem due to the recorded accumulated 50% reduction since 1918. This natural structure serves as
buffers for typhoons before they hit the coastal communities.

3.) Latin America

In Latin America, higher temperature is predicted then the global mean which is generally leads to the
reduction of Andes glaciers and a decrease in the annual precipitation in most areas with variability around the
mountainous areas. Increased precipitation during winter and summer are projected in Tierra del Fuego and
South-Eastern, and South America.

Some possible extreme event that may be experienced by the inhabitants of this region are severe floods,
landslide, drought and heat waves in the mega cities. The agricultural sector has projected that about 50% of the
agricultural lands will be subjected to desertification and salinization in the next 20 to 30 years and would greatly
affect food security and health among other.

Adaptive capacity for these regions is limited by high infant mortality, low secondary school enrolment,
and high levels if inequality in income and access to fresh water and healthcare.

4.) Small Islands

It is expected that all small islands in the Caribbean, Indian Ocean and North and South Pacific will
experience warming which increase the annual rainfall and will expose these islands in increasing intensity of
tropical cyclones, storm surge, coral bleaching, and land inundation.

This will greatly affect the food security due to the sea-level rise, soil salinization, seawater intrusion into
freshwater sources, and decline in freshwater supply. Limited size, proneness to natural hazards and external
shocks enhance the vulnerability of the islands to climate change thus their adaptive capacity and adaptation
cost are high and are highly dependent on their GDP.

Global Energy Crisis and Climate Change

The rapid conversion and modernization of communities and of individual lifestyle has been seen to be
very much dependent on different technologies that make life convenient and these includes the use of
smartphones, laptops, television, electric stoves, washing machines, propelling engines, etc. all needs electricity
or electric energy. For the past 100 years, we have been using this energy and we are almost at its limits and an
unexpected cut in energy supply will make life a bit difficult and frustrating since almost all work activities are
linked to it.

Many might not know that planet Earth through its increasing human population is facing a serious
energy crisis, which is anchored on the escalating global energy demand derived fossil-based fuels. This process
depleted our non-renewable sources but it also created a steady increase in the global carbon emissions and in
the average global temperature. Many nations and scientific communities have accepted that these events
occurred due to “anthropogenic activities”.

The International Energy Agency has outlined several actions that are to be implemented until 2030 and
some of these would include:
- Use of energy efficient technologies
- Low carbon energy technologies
- Enhanced generation integration through renewable energy
- Increase in nuclear energy base load provider
- Use of energy plants capable of capturing and storing carbon
- Shifting from combustion-powered vehicles to hybrid electric vehicles by 60%

In December 2015, the U.N Framework Convention on Climate Change called the leaders of developing
and developed countries to meet in Paris, France to make a significant commitment in addressing climate
change which is known as the “Pari Agreement”. Even before the climate conference to happen, about 187
countries have already submitted their proposed climate commitments and climate pledges based on their own
nationally determined contribution. This initiative indicates a stronger transparency and accountability system
for all countries where they will report the greenhouse gas inventories and projections that will be subjected to
technical expert review. This agreement may not solve our climate change problems but will eventually ignite a
new wave of global climate action that will create a more aggressive action in the future.

Renewable and other Alternative Sources of Energy

Human become more dependent on coal and fossil fuels as sources of energy starting from year 1800, but
scientists have realized that these sources will not last forever and their continued use contributes to
environmental pollution. Renewable energy sources are supplies that are replenished through natural process
and their energy comes ultimately from the sun, but they can still become exhausted if human will not utilize it
wisely.
Alternatives energy sources are not renewables, but they use the energy more efficiently than older technologies

The following are some types of renewable sources listed in the handbook of alternative energy of the State of
Virginia (2014) used today:

1.) Hydropower – generated by releasing flowing water through channels installed with turbines. This is
considered as one of the oldest and largest renewable power sources and does not contribute to any
emission of pollutants. Still the establishment of dams pose a major ecological problems such as habitat
modification and water quality problems.

2.) Biomass – consists of organic matter such as industrial and agricultural wastes that serve as the second
main source of renewable energy. Heat or energy is generated as it is burned directly but, it is considered to
be cleaner than coal since int emits lesser amount in the atmosphere. It can also be used as indirect source
of energy through the process of “gasification” where a combustible gas like methane is produced when
biomass decomposes. energy that can be used is produced when methane is burned.
 3.) Solar Energy – this can be harnessed when the sun’s heat is converted to electricity using solar cells of
“photovoltaic technology” there can be an active or passive system in the utilization of the sun’s heat and
both systems are suitable for residential use.
 Active system – solar collectors use circulating air or liquid to bring heat in areas where it is needed in
certain facilities
 Passive system – facilities are built with specific structures such as windows and other heat absorbing
surfaces to maximize heating most especially during cold seasons

4.) Geothermal energy – energy harnessed from deep underground chambers with high temperature
originating from the Earth’s core. Steams produced from these chambers cause turbines to move and later
generate energy. In a sense, some may consider this as renewable sources since it may take hundreds of
millions of years before the core of our planet cool down.

5.) Wind energy – generated when aerodynamic blades attached to a hub turn due to wind current then the
hub is connected to a shaft that turns the generator, producing energy.

6.) Fuel cells – a alternative energy device that use chemical reactions to generate heat or electricity. Unlike
batteries that depend on the activity of the stored chemicals within them, fuel cells generate energy
depending on the availability of the raw materials.

Current Energy Sources in the Philippines

In the Philippines, renewable sources include solar, wind, geothermal, hydropower, and biomass. These
resources cover about 24% of the total energy needs of our country, that is about 21, 979, 459 megawatt-hour of
electrical energy out of 90, 797, 891 megawatt-hour. Furthermore, the Department of Energy through the
Renewable Energy law (R.A 9513) that promotes the development, utilization, and commercialization of
renewable energy resources, provide incentives to project proponents that utilize renewable resources. Some
efforts to the transportation industries in the country is to offer and utilize electric vehicles such as bicycle,
tricycle and jeepneys. This direction is given by the government to replace the traditional vehicles with electric
ones.