OPLAN TOKHANG: A PHENOMENOLOGICAL STUDY ON THE LIVES OF THE

TOKHANG FAMILIES

SOLOMON, ANGELICA L.

MASTERS IN PSYCHOLOGY

LAGUNA COLLEGE OF BUSINESS AND ARTS

Calamba City, Laguna

November 2019
 Chapter 1

THE PROBLEM AND ITS SETTING

INTRODUCTION

Life is the first fundamental right of individuals, without which no other right can be held
upon. Extrajudicial executions are a violation of this right, deliberately designating State Agents
to kill an individual or a civilian without due process of law. Extrajudicial killings (EJK) have
been a persistent global issue since 1940s and result to formulation of many local and
international laws that aim to fully eradicate it (Pangilinan et al., 2012). In fact, Hitler
capitalized on economic woes, popular discontent and political infighting to take absolute
power in Germany beginning in 1933. Germany’s invasion of Poland in 1939 led to the
outbreak of World War II, and by 1941 Nazi forces had occupied much of Europe. Hitler’s
virulent anti-Semitism and obsessive pursuit of Aryan supremacy fueled the murder of
some 6 million Jews, along with other victims of the  Holocaust (A&E Television Networks,
2019). However, cases of it continue to grow that the International Statistics on Crime and
Justice reported by Harrendorf, Heiskanen and Malby (2010) showed an increase in its incidence
all over the world.

In our modern world, extrajudicial killings started to be rampant during the Marcos
administration due to the imposition of Martial Law and are widely rising up until now since
President Duterte came to power. There are so many cases where alleged drug users have been
killed in the police custody or in police operation - “Oplan Tokhang”. Philippines topped in
fourth place globally due to 75% civilian deaths this year (Guardian News & Media Limited,
2019).

License to kill – one of a popular movie of James Bond reflects the situation of
extrajudicial killings in our country. From the title itself “License to kill” means the authorities
have the right and license to execute a civilian, whoever it is. It is indeed an underlying situation
in the government where the state agents have the authority to kill. The concept of “Oplan
tokhang” is good in nature because it decreases crime rates in our country but what made its
reputation to be bad is because of the people who are given the power to execute or apply the
operations. The said operation also has good intentions to prevent victims of drug to spread
widely but the authorities have taken this issue over confidently knowing they have the power in
their hands which was personally given by the president.

Death is inevitable. We cannot tell or foresee our own fates or how will we encounter
death. Killing is one of the many ways a person may encounter towards their death. Dying
through extrajudicial executions is a grievous death for the family members. Extrajudicial
killings are inhumane in nature. Executing an individual due to just a mere suspicion of drug
using or trafficking is indeed unlawful. Every human has the right to live and have second
chances to be a better person. In this operation - “Oplan tokhang”, there might be innocent lives
that are being assassinated. Each victim has families to support which became orphaned and left
behind. Some of the victims are considered bread winners which mean they are the ones who
provide the basic needs of their family. And these families undergo a difficult phase in their lives
because of their member’s loss.

Inside the humble abode of each individual is a great gift God has given which is living
with family. And because of these executions without lawful basis, families may experience
grief, depression, and extreme hunger for justice. It is really painful and traumatic to see your
loved ones lying down without any manifestation of life. Acceptance in this situation is hard to
attain by the family members because of first, the sudden death of their member and second, the
small chance of finding the unknown culprit responsible for their loved one’s death.

For several years, the Philippines has faced significant criticisms from the international
community, human rights groups and local civil societies for the deaths of a civilian which has
been allegedly accused as “drug lords”, “drug dealers”, or “drug pushers”. Although the
government has publicly denounced such killings, elements of the government have also
repeatedly argued that extrajudicial killings should also comprise killings by non-state agents –
specifically those by rebel groups. This has led to a dispute over how the state and civil society
should design extrajudicial killings. Families of the allegedly accused “drug lords”, “drug
dealers”, or “drug pushers” have been shouting for justice since the oplan tokhang takes place.
Also, these families have been in financial drought because most of the victims have been their
bread winners.

The researcher chooses this study because she wanted to know the experiences of
tokhang families. Moreover, the main purpose of this qualitative study is to explore the
psychological, social and emotional experiences of tokhang families through rich and pure
descriptive data of their own experiences. Also, as a master of psychology student, the researcher
wanted to learn and acquire information regarding the experiences of tokhang families. It can
help the researcher understand further the field because it is somehow related to depression of
the families who lost a loved one. It can help in the researcher’s future job if decided to pursue
clinical concepts especially in terms of psychiatry. This study could benefit the researcher in
terms of acquiring ideas on how to handle persons with depression and emotions such as grief
and anger. Most of all, it could give the researcher essential background on what to expect and
what to do in their future career as a psychologist.

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

The primary research question to be answered in this study is “What is the essence of
deaf teachers’ lived experience?”

Central Question

What is the essence of lived experiences of the tokhang families?

Corollary Questions

1. How do relatives cope from the member’s loss?

2. What are the adjustments made by relatives in terms of:
a. Psychological
b. Social
c. Emotional
3. What are the themes emerged in the study?
4. Based on the findings of the study, what would the researcher proposed?
a. action plan
b. guidelines
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

The main purpose of this study is to better understand the lived experiences of the
“tokhang families”. Thus, the study is anchored on the following theories.

According to Stroebe and Schut as cited by Novak (2019), Dual Processing theory states
that the response made by an individual to a stimulus that permits behavioral control involves
two stages: (a) a decision as to whether or not to respond and (b) a choice between alternative
responses. Within the stages, two forms of stressors are identified: loss orientation and
restoration orientation, with the crux of the theory being the oscillation between the two
orientations as a main coping process. Loss stressors may include: actually actively participating
in grief work, acknowledging the intrusion of grief, ending relational ties with the deceased, and
actively denying and/or avoiding restorative measures. These stressors often center on dealing
with the loss itself, and manifest themselves in actions such as visiting the grave, looking at old
photographs, going through the deceased personal belongings etc. Alternatively, restoration
stressors include: attending to life’s changes, doing new things and creating distractions from the
grief. Restorative stressors are often consequent to the passing; their physical manifestations
may include dealing with financial ramifications of the loss, selling assets, etc.

In general terms, the grieving person moves from the confrontation of the loss
(reinforcing stages of Freud’s theory), to the avoidance of the grieving process (a significant
tenet in Horowitz’s grief theories). The researchers further explain the need for an individual to
move back and forth between the stressors, taking on limited measures of the actual grief
process. They hypothesize that this allows the bereaved to utilize their coping skills within their
comfort orientation until they have successfully reached closure. Complicated grief occurs when
there is an interruption or disruption in the movement from one orientation to the other. The
movement between the orientations can be unlimited until successful grief resolution is reached.
(Stroebe and Schut, 1999) as cited by Novak (2019).

In addition to that, Stroebe and Schut’s Dual Processing theory is important for the
“tokhang families” because it tackles their stages and ways of coping. It explains how the
relatives grieve and how they can have closures and acceptance. The two stressors mentioned
give us knowledge on why they do such things in order to cope for their loss.
 According to Kubler-Ross (1969) as cited by Byock (2014), Grief theory or Five
Phases of Grief Model which was introduced on her book “On Death and Dying” explains how
people grieve towards their loss. Mainly, because people studying her model mistakenly believed
this is the specific order in which people grieve and that all people go through all stages. Kubler-
Ross now notes that these stages are not linear and some people may not experience any of them.
Yet and still, others might only undergo two stages rather than all five, one stage, three stages,
etc.  It is now more readily known that these five stages of grief are the most commonly
observed experienced by the grieving population

These five stages of grief are denial, anger, bargaining, depression and acceptance.
Denial is the stage that can initially help you survive the loss. You might think life makes no
sense, has no meaning, and is too overwhelming. You start to deny the news and, in effect, go
numb. It’s common in this stage to wonder how life will go on in this different state – you are in
a state of shock because life as you once knew, it has changed in an instant. If you were
diagnosed with a deadly disease, you might believe the news is incorrect – a mistake must have
occurred somewhere in the lab–they mixed up your blood work with someone else. If you
receive news on the death of a loved one, perhaps you cling to a false hope that they identified
the wrong person. In the denial stage, you are not living in ‘actual reality,’ rather; you are living
in a ‘preferable’ reality. Interestingly, it is denial and shock that help you cope and survive the
grief event. Denial aids in pacing your feelings of grief. Instead of becoming completely
overwhelmed with grief, we deny it, do not accept it, and stagger its full impact on us at one
time. Think of it as your body’s natural defense mechanism. Once the denial and shock starts to
fade, the start of the healing process begins. At this point, those feelings that you were once
suppressing are coming to the surface. The second stage is anger. Once you start to live in
‘actual’ reality again and not in ‘preferable’ reality, anger might start to set in. This is a common
stage to think “why us?” and “life’s not fair!” You might feel anger towards the one who caused
your loved one to die. You find it incomprehensible of how something like this could happen to
you. If you are strong in faith, you might start to question your belief in God. “Where is God?
Why didn’t he protect us?” Researchers and mental health professionals agree that this anger is a
necessary stage of grief. And encourage the anger. It’s important to truly feel the anger. It’s
thought that even though you might seem like you are in an endless cycle of anger, it will
dissipate – and the more you truly feel the anger, the more quickly it will dissipate, and the more
quickly you will heal. Your life has shattered and there’s nothing solid to hold onto. Think of
anger as strength to bind you to reality. You might feel deserted or abandoned during a grief
event. That no one is there. You are alone in this world. The direction of anger toward something
or somebody is what might bridge you back to reality and connect you to people again. It is a
“thing.” It’s something to grasp onto – a natural step in healing. The third stage is bargaining. In
a way, this stage is false hope. You might falsely make yourself believe that you can avoid the
grief through a type of negotiation. If you change this, I’ll change that. You are so desperate to
get your life back to how it was before the grief event; you are willing to make a major life
change in an attempt toward normality. Guilt is a common wing man of bargaining. This is when
you endure the endless “what if” statements. The fourth stage is depression. Depression is a
commonly accepted form of grief. In fact, most people associate depression immediately with
grief – as it is a “present” emotion. It represents the emptiness we feel when we are living in
reality and realize the person or situation is gone or over. In this stage, you might withdraw from
life, feel numb, live in a fog, and not want to get out of bed. The world might seem too much and
too overwhelming for you to face. You don’t want to be around others, don’t feel like talking,
and experience feelings of hopelessness. You might even experience suicidal thoughts – thinking
“what’s the point of going on?” The last stage of grief identified by Kubler-Ross is acceptance.
Not in the sense that “it’s okay my husband died” rather, “my husband died, but I’m going to be
okay.” In this stage, your emotions may begin to stabilize. You re-enter reality. You come to
terms with the fact that the “new” reality is that your relative is never coming back – or that you
are going to succumb to your illness and die soon – and you’re okay with that. It’s not a “good”
thing – but it’s something you can live with. It is definitely a time of adjustment and
readjustment. There are good days, there are bad days, and then there are good days again. In this
stage, it does not mean you’ll never have another bad day – where you are uncontrollably sad.
But, the good days tend to outnumber the bad days. In this stage, you may lift from your fog, you
start to engage with friends again, and might even make new relationships as time goes on. You
understand your loved one can never be replaced, but you move, grow, and evolve into your new
reality. (Kubler-Ross, 1969) as cited by (Byock, 2014).
 Kubler-Ross grief theory best explains different phases and stages of grief, adjustments
and coping of a relative of an extrajudicial killing victim. It is really hard to accept that their
loved ones are dead. They might be in the stage of denial at first and keep on insisting that the
news might be wrong and it is not their loved ones is not dead. Next, they will feel anger towards
the unknown person who is responsible for their loved one’s death. And because the culprit is
unknown, they might displacing their anger towards the authorities or the president. After that,
they will try to bargain with God or themselves that if they change a situation, their loved ones
will come back. Also, they might think of the “what ifs” which leads to depression. These “what
ifs” are like guilt feelings that make a person to be more dysfunctional and may lack purpose in
life which sometimes lead to self-injurious activities or worst, suicide. And if an individual
experiencing this kind of mishaps might successfully overcome these stages they can achieve
acceptance and they can be able to move forward and become a stronger person throughout their
lives.

Attribution theory analyzes how a person explains other people’s behaviour. Attribution
researchers have found a common problem with people’s attributions. When explaining
someone’s behaviour, people often underestimate the impact of the situation and overestimate
the extent to which it reflects the individual’s traits and attitudes. (Myers, 2008).

Thus, people cannot attribute that quote to its original speaker, because they do not know
who that was. They do know, however that the words are very true, and often spoken. Upon
deeper inspection, a person can say that this phrase relates directly to how a learner triumphs
over both everyday tasks, and lifelong dilemmas. Many educational psychologists have studied
the effects of motivation on learning, including MClelland, Hoppe and Atkinson, among others.
The most important pieces of information are included in the achievement motivation theory, and
one method analyzing it, attribution theory (Beard, 2004).

In addition to that, the theory of Attribution is important to the “tokhang families” in

regards with their perspective while mourning. It determines how the “tokhang families” will
learn and cope with their loved one’s sudden death. This will test their abilities on how to adapt
to the world of change.
 The theories presented will be a good help to guide the researchers to support the study.
Attribution theory gave researchers the idea that the attitude of the victim’s family matter when it
comes to grief and mourning. Another theory which is Dual Processing theory explains the two
stressors mentioned which can educate us on why bereaved family act and feel that way.
Moreover, Grief theory suggests that there are five stages of grief which can help us interpret and
explain the family’s emotional distress.
Research Paradigm

INPUT PROCESSING OUTPUT

1. Experiences of 1. Testimonies
“tokhang families”
2. Results of
2. Coping Mechanism Interpersonal
of “tokhang families” relationships between
relatives and people
who support them
3. Psychological,
Social and Emotional 1. Interview 3. Positive and
Effects on “tokhang Negative
families” 2. Analysis and Psychological, Social
Interpretation of data and Emotional Effects
FEEDBACK
on “tokhang families”

4. Motivational factors 4. Reasons why

of “tokhang families” “tokhang families” are
motivated to move
forward

5. Themes emerged
from the data gathered

6. Action plan and

guidelines developed

Figure 1. Research Paradigm. The Lived Experiences of

Tokhang Families
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

Figure 1 of the research shows the flow of the study, how it is processed and the final
outcome of the research. The Input box, contains the experiences of “tokhang families”, coping
mechanism of “tokhang families”, behavioural and emotional effects on “tokhang families”, and
motivational factors of “tokhang families” to move forward. This study will assess the emotional
and behavioral relationships of the participants towards their family, co-workers and friends. In
the Process, the researchers will conduct interview in order to gather information and data
needed in the study. This data will be interpreted and will be transcribed for the analysis of
information.

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

The purpose of this study about the lived experiences of “tokhang families” is to be able
to establish accurate information about their loss. This is very essential to institute appropriate
perspective to the minds of the following people.

To the Relatives of EJK victims. This research can help them gain understanding on
what they’ve been through. Also, to make them understand different stages of grief and to fight
their depression to attain acceptance.

To the Government. This research can help establish deep realization about how hard
for the “tokhang families” to mourn and not give the justice their loved ones deserve. Also, the
authorities may be enlighten on what are the effects of EJK to emotional well-being of every
victim’s family.

To the Society. This research can make the society give “tokhang families” an
understanding and sympathy from their situation. The society can benefit from these researches
by simply having an idea that there are people suffering from the loss of their family members
and there are institutions that can help these peoples which they some of them might encounter.

To the Psychology students. This research can enlighten them to have deep
understanding about the depression that “tokhang families” are experiencing. To give them
knowledge about depression experienced by loss of family members or loved ones.

To the Teachers. This research can employ more information about the “tokhang
families”. This also can help them institute appropriate knowledge to their students about the
reality that is happening in their society.
 To the Future Researchers. This research can give them enough ideas about the life of
“tokhang families”. This can give them information on how to deal and approach “tokhang
families” for their research.

Scope and Limitations

The research work will deal only on the aspects of social, mental, emotional and even
psychological life of “tokhang families”. The participants are said to be not having psychological
background which means they do not have deep knowledge about psychological and mental
perspective. There are also some factors that can affect the study such as experiences of mother
and father losing a child which are different from experiences of mothers or fathers losing their
spouse or partners and experiences of a person losing one or both of his/her parents. Also, the
variations in age of the participants are observed.

Definition of Terms

To fully understand the study, the following terms are operationally defined.

Attribution theory. It states how “tokhang families” explains and interprets their own or
their other family member’s perspectives and behavior towards the loss of their loved ones.

Depression. A serious condition in which a person feels very sad, hopeless and
unimportant engaging themselves in a self-injurious activities and suicide.

Dual processing theory. The theory states that a person may engage in either of the two
phases in which they might be in the stage of denial and continue to grieve or doing new things
and creating distractions to avoid grief.

Extrajudicial killings. It is an execution, assassinations and any forms of killings

designating government agents without forming a valid part of regular legal proceedings or due
process.

Grief theory. The theory states that a person grieving for the loss of their loved ones
experienced five stages such as denial, anger, bargaining, depression and acceptance in order to
finally heal.

Parent. A father or mother; one who begets or one who gives birth to or nurtures and
raises a child; a relative who plays the role of guardian.
 Mother. The woman who loves a child unconditionally from birth, the one who puts her
kids before herself and the one who can always be counted on above everyone else. 

Father. He is the male parent. Any male ancestor, especially the founder of a family or
line, the progenitor. A man who exercises paternal care over other persons, paternal protector or
provider.

Oplan tokhang. A police operation dealing with drug abusers, traffickers and addicts.

Tokhang Families. The families and relatives of the extrajudicial killings victims and
convicted by police operation “Oplan tokhang”.

Phenomenological. The study of structures of consciousness as experienced from the

first - person point of view.

Victims. A person who has been executes and killed behind the mask of extrajudicial
killings.

Chapter 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter reviews the literature on the context of extrajudicial killings, emotional well-
being of tokhang families, causes of stress, their coping mechanisms, psychological impact on
tokhang families’ well-being.
 The following are among the referred significant related works, researches, articles and
write ups, which could contribute and support this research.

Extrajudicial killings

Every man remains innocent until proven guilty is a universally accepted legal term. The
purpose of the judicial administration is to provide justice in each and every case that appears
before the court. Therefore, no one should be killed by any reason without defending himself.
Extra-judicial killing, summary execution and arbitrary execution are all kinds of killings
without following due process and therefore a violation of human rights. An extra-judicial killing
is the unlawful or illegal killing of an individual by either the State government, the State
authorities like the armed forces, the police or criminals without following the due process of
justice or without the permission of a court. An arbitrary execution is the execution of an
individual in a case where there is no evidence that he committed a crime against legal statute. A
summary execution is an execution in which a person is killed without a formal trial under the
legal system of a State or without any trial at all. Summary executions are practiced by military
and other related organizations and are associated with guerrilla warfare, terrorism and
counterinsurgency (Thessismun, 2013) as cited by (Sajjan, 2014).

Generally the issue of extra-judicial, arbitrary and summary executions encompasses any
killing by government forces as well as killings by other groups or individuals which the
government fails to investigate and prosecute when it is in a position to do so (Thessismun,
2013). Though these terms played a vital role in the historical evolution of this subject as a whole
but nowadays they suggest a little about the real circumstances, such as targeted killings; which
is continuing despite the existence of numerous resolutions of the UN General Assembly and the
Commission on Human rights (Sajjan, 2014).

Drug-Related Extrajudicial Killings

In the present administration, EJK is seemed to be directed against the rampant illegal
drug use in the country. In fact, as of January 9, 2017, a total of 4,146 cases of drug-related
killings occurred outside police operations and 3, 271 of it were categorized as “deaths under
investigation” (Bueza, 2016) as cited by (Sorila et al., 2018).

Drug-related EJK seemed to be viewed in two lenses. The first view was proved to be
victim-centered. It discusses EJK with primary focus on the killed victims and their moral status
since they were involved in illegal drugs. It debates whether the victim deserves condemnation
or sympathy (Saunar, 2014; Casiño, 2016; Morallo, 2017). The second view on EJK extends to
the victims’ families. This view was infrequently taken but proved that the issue of EJK really
extends beyond the victims and has an immeasurable impact on victims’ families. (Sorila et al.,
2018)

The Impact of Drug-Related EJK on Victim’s Families

In the case of families of victims of drug-related EJK, the available studies consistently
focused upon only three elements that constitute their experiences as a result of the loss of their
family members. These are legal obstacles, economic difficulties and violation of emotional
integrity (Clarke, 2016).

The families of EJK victims experience difficulties in investigation and prosecution

(Pangilinan, 2012). Difficulties in these are commonly seen in the apparent poor policing and the
lack of cooperation and reluctance to testify on the part of the witnesses (Human Rights Watch,
2007; Human Rights Watch, 2011; Ateneo Human Rights Center, 2017; Amnesty International,
2017; Pangilinan, 2012). Also, EJK lacks formal, legislated and clear definition which makes it
harder for prosecutors to solve and close cases because of an undefined scope of what kinds of
killing constitute such. (Sorila et al., 2018).

The overall standard of living was also identified to be adversely affected (Pangilinan,
2012). Since EJK victims are often identified as the breadwinners of their families, their death
marked a greater economic suffering experienced by the families left behind (Center for Trade
Union and Human Rights, 2011). With the loss of a productive household member comes a
resulting diminished household income thereby having significant impact on household
budgeting and a family’s quality of life (Corden & Hirst, 2013).
 Aside from these, it was also found that even their emotional integrity was negatively
affected. The loss of a family member who was killed without due process of law brought
general feelings of hopelessness to the family (Pangilinan, 2012). Given the fact that EJK often
ends unresolved, the recovery of families from the death of a family member is made more
difficult. Also, families have consistently experienced fears of retribution (Sheppard, 2007) that
made them leave their communities in order to ensure safety (Clarke, 2012). To sum it up, EJK
brought feelings of hopelessness, prolonged grief and fear to the families of victims.

Grief and Bereavement

The most frequently utilized terms in the profession of grief and bereavement therapy are
often employed interchangeably by professionals and laymen alike. Despite concrete definitions
which have been put forth by both practitioners and academics; it is important to understand the
manner in which these terms will be used. Kubler- Ross and Kessler (2005) explain that grief is a
process that is a typical response to any form of loss, encompassing responses that are physical,
emotional, spiritual, cognitive and social. Conversely, bereavement is the state of having
suffered a loss (Kubler-Ross & Kessler, 2005) as cited by (Novrak, 2019).

The term “mourning” is another concept that is often substituted for the word “grief”.
Mourning however, is defined by Rosenblatt as the public and/or cultural showing of grief
(Rosenblatt, 2008). This is illustrated by observing mourning rituals in cultures such as that in
New Orleans, where “jazz funerals” or playing music though the streets behind a casket is a
typical mourning rite (Novrak, 2019).

The term “complicated mourning” as employed by Rando (1993) is an interrupted grief

process experienced in any culture. Rando explained that the signs of the interrupted process can
manifest themselves as prolonged depression, self-medication though drugs, alcohol or nicotine,
extreme life changes (such as religious fanaticism or becoming a workaholic) and problems in
relationships. The difficulty with this definition is delineating these symptoms with the natural
expressions and intensity of grief (Novrak, 2019).

Grief and Gender: Intuitive and Instrumental Grief

 We are usually pretty hesitant to even hint at categorizing, labeling or classifying grief.
There are so many different grief responses that can and should be considered ‘normal’ and no
two people will have the exact same feelings and experiences after a death, not even those from
the same family, region, religion, or culture.

We don’t always think of gender as complicated because we sometimes confuse it with

‘sex’, which refers to our biological makeup and determines what box we check at the DMV.
Gender is not actually a matter of fact, as psychologist Dr. Stephanie Shields of Pennsylvania
State University notes, “…gender is something that one practices (in nearly every sense of the
word), and rather than only what one inflexibly is.” Societies, cultures, and even families have
differing views on what it means to be prototypically male or female and it is rare that real-
life individuals ever fit perfectly into these molds.

Today we want to start talking about grief and gender, but our goal is to simply point out
where similarities and differences might lie. In conceptualizing grief and gender, we want you to
always remember these things exist on a continuum. Please keep in mind, we’re not stating facts
about men and women. There is no way we can tell you how your brother or mother or best
friend will respond to grief solely based on gender.

Although men are often thought of as “less emotional,” I think it’s important to quickly
discredit the notion that men don’t feel the same intense grief emotions as women. Prominent
grief researcher, Kenneth Doka, and his colleague Terry Martin have already served up a heaping
bowlful of food for thought on this topic in their book Grieving Beyond Gender.  In this book,
they outline different grieving styles which they associate with being characteristically
“masculine” or “feminine”, although they note that these styles exist on a continuum and that
gender is merely a contributing factor.

In general, our culture has come to expect people to grieve in an emotional way, which is
characteristically more female. It is easy to put things like tears and sadness into the context of
grief and when we see them we say, “Ah yes, this person is grieving appropriately”. Doka and
Martin associate this type of grieving with the intuitive grieving style.  Intuitive grief is
experienced mainly in terms of feelings and emotions – “I felt sad” or “I felt angry” – and the
grief response is usually focused on exploring and expressing these emotions – “I cried all night”
or “I got so mad I couldn’t think.” Now, when it comes to gender there are a lot of societal,
cultural, and personal expectations telling us how we should feel and react; men should be strong
and stoic and women should be emotional and sensitive.  These assumptions are really
unhelpful because a lot of the time they don’t fit, yet we might feel ashamed, guilty, or weak for
not feeling or acting our part.

According to Martin and Doka (2000), dissonant grief emerges when the way someone’s
grief is naturally experienced and expressed clashes with what they think is expected and
acceptable. Confusion, shame, and repression can emerge when someone who is typically
“strong” or unemotional becomes overwhelmed by emotion or someone who expects to be
flooded with feelings finds that they aren’t.

Martin and Doka represent just one perspective on how gender-related characteristics can
impact grief, but I think their theory encourages us to consider the ways in which gender
can influence grief while being mindful that there is immense variability in what gender actually
means on an individual level. It is important as people who are grieving or as friends, family and
support workers, to be open to a range of grief responses regardless of our expectations. (Haley
and Williams, 2015)

Adaptive Behavior

Hull (2013) said that adaptive behavior is a type of behavior that is used to adjust to
another type of behavior or situation. This is often characterized as a kind of behavior that allows
an individual to change a nonconstructive or disruptive behavior to something more constructive.
These behaviors are most often social or personal behaviors. For example, a constant repetitive
action could be re-focused on something that creates or builds something. In other words, the
behavior can be adapted to something else. Adaptive behavior reflects an individual’s social and
practical competence of daily skills to meet the demands of everyday living. Behavior patterns
change throughout a person's development, across life settings and social constructs, changes in
personal values, and the expectations of others. It is important to assess adaptive behavior in
order to determine how well an individual functions in daily life: vocationally, socially, and
educationally. They are skills that a person learns in the process of adapting to his/her
surroundings.
Synthesis

The literature and studies have long supported that extrajudicial killing is unlawful and a
violation of an individual’s right to live. Thessimun stated that extrajudicial killings, summary
executions and arbitrary executions are all forms of executing an individual citizen of a particular
state without the process of judicial courts. Extrajudicial killings are often connected with drugs.
According to Sorilla, drug related EJK are viewed I two lenses which is first, the victim-centered
wherein the sympathy is focused on the victim itself and second, relatives-of-the-victim-centered
which states that killing is not just from the victim’s perspectives but also, it extends to the
family’s grief and mourning. Moreover, because of these emotional distress among the families,
came the impacts of the extrajudicial killings towards them. Clarke states that the results of their
family member’s loss maybe legal obstacles, economic difficulties and violation of emotional
integrity. However, Sorilla states that it highly affects their financial status because most of the
EJK victims are the bread winners of the family which can also lead to emotional distress such as
grief, anger, and other negative feelings. These feelings of grief and bereavement are explained
by Kubler- Ross and Kessler. According to these two, grief and bereavement are natural
responses to death of a family member and these feelings of grief are often manifest as
depression, nicotine, alcohol and drug intake and others lead to suicide. In addition to grief,
gender has a great purpose in this process according to Haley and Williams. Grief and gender is
interconnected because according to studies, most females are more emotional than males and
they can express the strong feeling of grief while men are known for being less emotional which
means they didn’t express their mourning well. And these feelings may pile up with other
problems and mishaps which explains more cases of men commits suicide. Hull stated that a
person should possess a type of behavior that is used to adjust to another type of behavior and
situation. Studies found that the physical symptoms of a person’s stress are a result of a
prolonged and elevated level of stress hormones circulating in the body. Researchers also
suggest that exhausted person’s stress hormone level is like those suffering from post traumatic
stress disorder. This study was anchored from Sandra Tunajek entitled Understanding Individual
Stress Syndrome.
 Moreover, the literature and studies in this chapter presents insights about extrajudicial
killings, drug related EJK, impacts of extrajudicial killings to victim’s families, grief and gender
and adaptive behaviours a tokhang family should possess. Jointly, the literatures can give
sustenance to the current study. The reviewed related literature and studies are essential help in
finding answers. Moreover, it provides researchers supporting ideas to pursue this research and
to know if it will be helping the previous study.

Chapter 3

METHODOLOGY

This chapter describes the methodology that the researchers performed to gather

information about the lived experiences of the tokhang families.

Research Design

This study used qualitative method of research. The researchers used this method because

it provides in-depth and comprehensive information needed in this study. Qualitative research

methods are often employed to answer the whys and hows of human behavior, opinion and

experience-information that is difficult to obtain through more quantitatively-oriented methods

of data collection. These qualitative methods are often closely allied with interviews, survey

design techniques and individual case studies, as a way to reinforce and evaluate findings over a

broader scale. A phenomenological study describes the meaning of several individuals of their

lived experience. It is concerned with the study of experience from the perspective of the

individual, ‘bracketing’ taken-for-granted assumptions and usual ways of perceiving.

Epistemologically, phenomenological approaches are based in a paradigm of personal

knowledge and subjectivity, and emphasize the importance of personal perspective and

interpretation. Phenomenological methods are particularly effective at bringing to the fore the

experiences and perceptions of individuals from their own perspectives, and therefore

challenging structural or normative assumptions. Adding an interpretive dimension to

phenomenological research, enabling it to be used as the basis for practical theory, allows it to

inform, support or challenge policy and action. The researchers’ motivation to use the qualitative

research approach is the possibility of developing a deeper understanding of the phenomenon

belief studied. It explores the attitude, opinion and beliefs of the participants in terms of

extrajudicial killings. Data are collected from the individuals who have experienced the

phenomenon. Data collection in phenomenological studies consists of in-depth interviews and

multiple interviews with participants (Lester, 2005).

Research Locale
 The research will be conducted in ALLiance for the Family Foundation Philippines Inc.

located at Alabang-Zapote Road, Muntinlupa City Metro Manila. The participants were three (6)

male EJK-relatives and (3) female EJK-relatives ages 10 – 40 years who are members of such

foundations. The researcher chose this area to show her continuous support and interest in the

foundation’s advocacy. Also, it is convenience and proximity wise with the location of the

researcher to enable her to have more complete and clearer data collection.

Population and Sampling

In the conduct of this qualitative research, the researcher used purposive sampling. This

is deemed the most appropriate sampling for the study since the researcher opted to select the co-

researchers based on criteria: relatives of the victims of extra-judicial killings who are in

ALLiance for the Family Foundation Philipinines Inc. - Alabang-Zapote Road, Muntinlupa City.

While this is a type of sampling that uses small sample sizes, its goal is to increase credibility,

not to encourage representativeness or the ability to generalize (Clemente et al, 2016).

Co-researcher of the Study

Through purposive sampling, the researcher selected three (6)male EJK-relatives and

(3)female EJK-relatives ages 10 – 40 years who are in ALLiance for the Family Foundation

Philipinines Inc. - Alabang-Zapote Road, Muntinlupa City.

Sample size according to Creswell (2013) suggested that the number of participants in the

phenomenology design typically range from three (3) to ten (10) participants.

Data Gathering Procedures

 The researchers gathered information from the internet, published and unpublished thesis

and other printed materials relevant to the study.

Researchers will write a letter to the Head Administrator of the ALLiance for the Family

Foundation Philippines Inc. to seek permission to conduct an interview to the co-researchers.

Prior to the interviews the researchers asked the co-researchers if they are willing to be included

in the study manifested through a consent form and explain the purpose and procedures of the

study along with the interview guide. Co-researchers were informed that interviews will be voice

recorded and that strict confidentiality will be observed.

The data will be gathered through the use of smart phone and will be transcribed

verbatim. The researchers will analyze the transcriptions classified them into themes.

Instrumentation

In gathering pertinent information, the researcher used five (5) guide questions which

will be used as interview questions in the focus group discussion with the six (6) EJK relatives.

Thereafter, the researcher personally approached them and will explain the endeavour of the

inquiry and the purpose of the focus group discussion.

Validation of the Instrument

The materials that the researcher will use in this study included a smartphone, pen,

notebook, and semi-structured interview guide. The researcher will use a set of questions which

will be validated by four (4) respected psychologists from schools and colleges. A semi-

structured interview guide consists of a list of open-ended questions based on the topic areas that

the researcher intended to study and it will be reviewed by the thesis adviser who has a master’s
degree in education and a registered psychologist in conducting the semi-structured interviews.

The researcher prepared a list of questions and topics to be discussed and the answers depended

on the flow of discussion. It was best to start with a topic that was not sensitive and was

important to the co-researchers. Thus, an informal, friendly atmosphere will be created,

facilitating a natural flow of ideas and opinions. The researcher will be acting as a moderator,

guiding the co-researchers from one topic to another. Conducting such interviews requires a

skilled moderator (Hardon et.al, 2004).

Ethical Consideration

The researchers followed ethical guidelines, as specified by the Office of Research

Ethics, University of Waterloo. This included undergoing an ethics review process before

engaging in the interview of the participants to ensure that procedures will be fair and unbiased

to all involved.

Gaining consent and securing permission of the participants of this study are important

ethical considerations. In order to do so, the researcher will be relaying the aims of the research

clearly among all selected co-researchers. Head of the foundation will be asked to accomplish a

consent form, stating in detail all the activities involved as well as the purpose of the study.

Confidentiality and privacy of the co-researchers will be prioritized by the researcher.

The researcher will be very conscientious to ensure that these co-researchers will be kept

completely anonymous in the research. Co-researchers will be thanked in writing for their help.

Co-researchers will be also given the option of receiving the transcription of their interview and

the summary of the results of the research study.

 The co-researchers will be remained anonymous in order to comply with ethical

guidelines. It was for the co-researchers’ protection so that reader will not discover their true

identity and the benefits of assuring the co-researchers’ anonymity that they will be more willing

to allow an interview.

Treatment of Qualitative Data

After gathering all the data coming from the focus group discussion conducted, the

researcher will be transcribing the interviews with the six (6) EJK relatives. Afterwards, she will

extract the similar responses and then categorize by the themes and cluster. The emerging themes

will be extracted from the similar responses per line of the verbatim transcription.

According to Sultan and Austin (2015), if doing qualitative research is about putting

oneself in another person’s shoes and seeing the world from that person’s perspective, the most

important part of data analysis and management is to be true to the co-researchers. It is their

voices that the researcher is trying to hear, so that they can be interpreted and reported on for

others to read and learn from. The interpretation of the data will depend on the theoretical

standpoint taken by the researcher. All audio recordings should be transcribed verbatim,

regardless of how intelligible the transcript may be when it is read back. Lines of text should be

numbered. Once the transcription is complete, the researcher should read if while listening to the

recording and do the following: correct any spelling or other errors; anonymize the transcript so

that the co-researchers cannot be identified from anything that is said (e.g., names, places,

significant events): insert notations for pauses, laughter, looks of discomfort; insert any

punctuation, such as commas and full stops (periods), and include any other contextual
information that might have affected the co-researchers (eg., temperature or comfort of the

room).

Dealing with the transcription of the focus group is slightly more difficult, as multiple

voices are involved. One way of transcribing such data is to “tag” each voices (eg., Voice A,

Voice B). In addition, the focus group will usually have tasks which include guiding participants

through the topic and making the notes about context and group dynamics.