2.16.

Seismic Forces—Primary System

Seismic forces are calculated and distributed throughout the structure in the reverse order used for most other forces. In
evaluating wind forces, for example, the design pressures are calculated first. Later the shear at the base of the structure can
be determined by summing forces in the horizontal direction. For earthquake forces, the process is just the reverse. The shear
at the base of the structure is calculated first, using the base shear formula for V (Sec. 2.14). Then total story forces Fx are
assigned to the roof and floor levels by distributing the base shear vertically over the height of the structure. Finally, individual
story forces are distributed horizontally at each level in accordance with the mass distribution of that level.

The reasoning behind the vertical distribution of seismic forces was given inSec. 2.14. The general distribution was
described, and it was seen that the shape of the first mode of vibration serves as the basis for obtaining the story forces
acting on the primary LFRS. When a part or portion of a building is considered, the seismic forceFp on the individual part may
be larger than the seismic forces acting on the primary LFRS. Seismic forces on certain parts and elements of a structure are
covered in Sec. 2.17. The methods used to calculate the distributed story forces on the primary LFRS are reviewed in the
remaining portion of this section.

The primary LFRS is made up of both horizontal and vertical elements. In most wood-frame buildings, the horizontal elements
are roof and floor systems that function as horizontal diaphragms, and the vertical elements are wall segments that function
as shearwalls. A variety of other systems may be used (see Sec. 3.3 for a comparison of several types), but these alternative
systems are more common in other kinds of structures (e.g., steel-frame buildings).

Another unique aspect of seismic force evaluation is that there are two different sets of story force distributions for the
primary LFRS. One set of story forces is to be used in the design of the vertical elements in the LFRS, and the other set applies
to the design of horizontal diaphragms. A different notation system is used to distinguish the two sets of story forces.

The forces for designing the vertical elements (i.e., the shearwalls) are given the symbol Fx, and the forces applied to the
design of horizontal diaphragms are given the symbol Fpx. Both Fx and Fpx are horizontal story forces applied to level x in the
structure. Thus, the horizontal forces are assumed to be concentrated at the story levels in much the same manner as the
masses tributary to a level are "lumped" or assigned to a particular story height.

Initially it may seem strange that ASCE 7 would provide two different distributions (Fx and Fpx) for designing the primary LFRS,
but once the reasoning is understood, the concept makes sense. The rationale behind the Fx and Fpx distributions has to do
with the fact that the forces occurring during an earthquake change rapidly with time. Because of these rapidly changing
forces and the different modes of vibration, it is likely that the maximum force on an individual horizontal diaphragm will not
occur at the same instant in time as the maximum force on another horizontal diaphragm. Hence, the loading given by Fpx is to
account for the possible larger instantaneous forces that will occur on individual horizontal diaphragms. Therefore, the Fpx
story force is to be used in the design of individual horizontal diaphragms, diaphragm collectors (drag struts), and related
connections. The design of horizontal diaphragms and the definition of terms (such as collectors) are covered in detail in
Chap. 9.

On the other hand, when all of the story forces are considered to be acting on the structure concurrently, it is reasonable to
use the somewhat smaller distribution of earthquake forces given by Fx. The simultaneous application of all of the Fx story
forces does not affect the design of individual horizontal diaphragms. Thus, Fx is used to design the vertical elements
(shearwalls) in the primary LFRS. The connections anchoring the shearwall to the foundation, and the foundation system
itself, are also to be designed for the accumulated effects of the Fx forces. The design of shearwalls is covered in Chap. 10,
and a brief introduction to foundation design for shearwalls is given in Chap. 16.

ASCE 7 Sec. 12.8.3 specifies vertical distribution of Fx story forces. The equation requires a vertical redistribution that will
result in a triangular load distribution for most wood-frame structures. ASCE 7 Sec. 12.10.1.1 specifies the distribution of Fpx
diaphragm story forces. These forces require a second vertical distribution that recognizes the higher instantaneous forces

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that can act on one story at a time. The formulas for story force Fx and diaphragm story force Fpx are given in Example 2.14. In
practice, the Fx story forces must be determined first because they are then used to evaluate the Fpx story forces. The Fx story
forces are to be applied simultaneously to all levels in the primary LFRS for designing the vertical elements in the system. In
contrast, the Fpx story forces are applied individually to each level x in the primary LFRS for designing the horizontal
diaphragms.

Example

EXAMPLE 2.14 Fx and Fpx Story Force Distributions

Two different distributions of seismic forces are used to define earthquake forces on the primary LFRS (Figure 2.18). The
story forces for the two major components of the primary LFRS are given by the following distributions.

Fx Distribution—Vertical Elements (Shearwalls)

All seismic design categories

Fx = CvxV

and

wxhkx
Cvx = n
∑
i=1 wihki

where Cvx = vertical distribution factor

V = total base shear
wi, wx = tributary weights assigned to level i or x
hi, hx = height from the base of structure to level i or x, ft
k = an exponent related to the structural period
= 1 for structures having a period of 0.5 sec or less
Fpx Distribution—Horizontal Elements (Diaphragms)

n
∑
i=x Fi
Fp x = wp x
n
∑
i=x wi

and

0.2SDS Iewp x ≤ Fp x ≤ 0.4SDS Iewp x

where F = horizontal force on primary LFRS at story level x for designing horizontal elements
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 where Fp x = horizontal force on primary LFRS at story level x for designing horizontal elements
= lateral force applied to level i (this is story force determined in accordance with formula
for Fx)
wp x = weight of diaphragm and elements tributary to diaphragm at level x

Other terms are as defined for Fx.

ASCE 7 Sec. 12.10.1.1 specifies that the redundancy factor ρ is to be used in the design of diaphragms for structures
assigned to SDC D, E, and F. Where the diaphragm is designed only for single-story forces, the redundancy factor ρ may be
taken as 1.0. There are two circumstances where use of a higher ρ may be required. First, if an upper level shearwall were
to be discontinued at lower levels, causing the shearwall force to be redistributed through a diaphragm, ASCE 7 Sec.
12.10.1.1 would require that the calculated redundancy factor ρ be included in forces for that diaphragm. Second, if a rigid
diaphragm distribution of forces is being used, and changes in vertical element rigidity cause redistribution of forces
through the diaphragm, the calculated redundancy factor ρ must be used for the redistributed forces.

Although the purpose of the Fx forces is to provide the design forces for the shearwalls, the Fx forces are applied to the
shearwalls through the horizontal diaphragms. Thus, both Fpx and Fx are shown as uniform forces on the horizontal
diaphragms in Figure 2.18. To indicate that the diaphragm design forces are applied individually, only one of the Fpx forces is
shown with solid lines. In comparison, the Fx forces act concurrently and are all shown with solid lines.

Figure 2.18 Fx and Fpx story force distributions.

The formula for Fx will produce a triangular distribution of horizontal story forces if the masses (tributary weights) assigned to
the various story levels are all equal (refer to Figure 2.13A in Sec. 2.14). If the weights are not equal, some variation from the
straight-line distribution will result, but the trend will follow the first-mode shape. Accelerations and, correspondingly, inertia
forces (F = Ma) increase with increasing height above the base.

In the formulas for distributing the seismic force over the height of the structure, the superscript k is to account for whip
action at the top of tall, slender buildings and to allow for the effects of the higher modes (i.e., other than the first mode) of
vibration. When the period of vibration is less than 0.5 sec, there is no whipping effect.

It may not be evident at first glance, but the formulas for Fx and Fpx can be simplified to a form that is similar to the base shear
expression. In other words, the earthquake force can be written as the mass (weight) of the structure multiplied by a seismic
coefficient. For example,

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 V = (seismic coefficient)W

The seismic coefficient in the formula for V is known as the base shear coefficient. When all of the terms in the formulas for
the story forces (Fx and Fpx) are evaluated except the dead load w, seismic story coefficients are obtained. Obviously, since
there are two formulas for story forces, there are two sets of seismic story coefficients.

The story coefficient used to define forces for designing shearwalls is referred to as the Fx story coefficient. It is obtained by
factoring out the story weight from the formula for Fx:

wxhkx
Fx = CvxV = n
∑
i=1 wihki
⎡ ⎤
⎢
⎢ ⎥
⎥
= ⎢ ⎥
V hkx
Fx ⎢
⎢
n ⎥
⎥
wx
∑
⎣ wihki ⎦
i=1
= (Fx story coefficient) wx

Likewise, the formula for Fpx for use in diaphragm design can be viewed in terms of an Fpx story coefficient. The formula for Fpx
is initially expressed in the format:

⎡∑ ⎤
n

⎢
⎢ i=x Fi ⎥⎥
= ⎢
⎢ ⎥
⎥
⎢ n ⎥
Fp x wp x

⎣∑i=x wi
⎦
= (Fp x story coefficient)wp x

Numerical examples will greatly help to clarify the evaluation of lateral forces. Several one-story building examples are given in
Chap. 3, and a comparison between the Fx and Fpx force distributions for a two-story building is given in Example 3.10 in Sec.
3.6.

New in the 2016 edition of ASCE 7 are the Sec. 12.10.3 alternative design provisions for diaphragms. Similar to the ductility of
vertical elements that is recognized through R factors, this section recognizes that diaphragms have varying levels of ductility.
Section 12.10.3 introduces Rs factors to explicitly recognize the effect of diaphragm ductility and displacement capacity on
diaphragm forces. Use of this new section is mandatory for precast concrete diaphragms in Seismic Design Category C and
up. Due to the very low ductility of precast diaphragms, it is necessary to design for high near-elastic forces which results in a
significant increase in diaphragm design force levels over previous editions of ASCE 7. This change is due in part to extensive
precast diaphragm research that followed the 1994 Northridge Earthquake.

Use of this section is permitted for wood and cast concrete diaphragm systems in all regions. For wood diaphragms, the Rs
factor recognizes the ductility of wood diaphragms to be relatively high, similar to that of wood structural panel shear walls.
This text will focus on the basic diaphragm design method of ASCE 7 Sec. 12.10.1.1, as this is now commonly used, and
because the alternative design provisions are not thought to result in significantly different design forces. See the ASCE 7
commentary for a detailed discussion of the alternative design provisions for diaphragms.

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At this point, one final concept needs to be introduced concerning the distribution of seismic forces. After the story force has
been determined, it is distributed at a given level in proportion to the mass (dead load, D) distribution of that level. See
Example 2.15.

Example

EXAMPLE 2.15 Distribution of Seismic Force at Story Levelx

Transverse and Longitudinal Directions Defined

A lateral force applied to a building may be described as being in the transverse or longitudinal direction. These terms are
interpreted as follows:

Transverse lateral force is parallel to the short dimension of the building.

Longitudinal lateral force is parallel to the long dimension of the building.

Buildings are designed for seismic forces applied independently in both the transverse and longitudinal directions.

Each square foot of dead load, D, can be visualized as generating its own inertial force F
( igure 2.19A). If all of the inertial
forces generated by these unit areas are summed in the transverse direction, the forces w1 and w2 are in proportion to
lengths L1 and L2, respectively.

Figure 2.19A Distribution of story force in transverse direction.

The sum of the distributed seismic forces w1 and w2 (i.e., the sum of their resultants) equals the transverse story force.
For shearwall design the transverse story force is Fx, and for diaphragm design the transverse story force is Fpx.

In the longitudinal direction (Figure 2.19B), L3 and L4 are measures of the distributed forces w3 and w4. The sum of these
distributed seismic forces equals the story force in the longitudinal direction.

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 Figure 2.19B Distribution of story force in longitudinal direction.

NOTE: The distribution of inertial forces generated by the dead load of the walls parallel to the direction of the earthquake
is illustrated in Chap. 3.

The purpose behind this distribution goes back to the idea of an inertial force. If it is visualized that each square foot of dead
load has a corresponding inertial force generated by an earthquake, then the loading shown in the sketches becomes clear. If
each square foot of area has the same D, the distributed seismic force is in proportion to the length of the roof or floor that is
parallel to the direction of the force. Hence the magnitude of the distributed force is large where the dimension of the floor or
roof parallel to the force is large, and it is small where the dimension parallel to the force is small.

The basic seismic forces acting on the primary LFRS of a regular structure have been described in this section. ASCE 7
requires that the designer consider the effects of structural irregularities. Section 12.3.2 of ASCE 7 identifies a number of
these irregularities. In many cases, increased force levels and reduced stresses are required for the design of an irregular
building.

It is important for the designer to be able to identify a structural irregularity and to understand the implications associated
with the irregularity. However, a detailed study of these ASCE 7 provisions is beyond the scope of Chap. 2. In fact, the majority
of this book is written as an introduction to the basic principles of engineered wood structures. To accomplish this, most of the
structures considered are rather simple in nature. Structural irregularities may be common occurrences in daily practice, but
they can be viewed as advanced topics at this point in the study of earthquake design.

It is felt the reader should first develop a good understanding of the design requirements for regular structures. Therefore, the
provisions for irregular structures are postponed to Chap. 16, after the principles of structural design for regular buildings
have been thoroughly covered.

The seismic forces required for the design of elements and components that are not part of the primary LFRS are given in Sec.
2.17.

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