4.10.

Growth Characteristics of Wood

Some of the more important growth characteristics that affect the structural properties of wood are density, moisture content,
knots, checks, shakes, splits, slope of grain, reaction wood, and decay. The effects of density, and how it can be measured
visually by the annual rings, were described previously. Likewise, moisture content and its effects have been discussed at
some length. The remaining natural growth characteristics also affect the strength of lumber, and limits are placed on the
size and number of these structural defects permitted in a given stress grade. These items are briefly discussed here.

Knots constitute that portion of a branch or limb that has been incorporated into the main body of the tree. SeeFigure 4.7. In
lumber, knots are classified by form, size, quality, and occurrence. Knots decrease the mechanical properties of the wood
because the knot displaces clear wood and because the slope of the grain is forced to deviate around the knot. In addition,
stress concentrations occur because the knot interrupts wood fibers. Checking also may occur around the knot in the drying
process. Knots have an effect on both tension and compression capacity, but the effect in the tension zone is greater. Lumber
grading rules for different species of wood describe the size, type, and distribution (i.e., location and number) of knots allowed
in each stress grade.

Figure 4.7 Examples of knots. Lumber grading rules for the commercial species have different limits
for knots occurring in the wide and narrow faces of the member.

Checks, shakes, and splits all constitute separations of wood fibers. See Figure 4.8. Checks have been discussed earlier and
are radial cracks caused by nonuniform volume changes as the moisture content of wood decreases (Sec. 4.7). Recall that the
outer portion of a member shrinks first, which may cause longitudinal cracks. In addition, more shrinkage occurs tangential to
the annual ring than radially. Checks therefore are seasoning defects. Shakes, on the other hand, are cracks that are usually
parallel to the annual ring and develop in the standing tree. Splits represent complete separations of the wood fibers through
the thickness of a member. A split may result from a shake or seasoning or both. Splits are measured as the penetration of the
split from the end of the member parallel to its length. Again, lumber grading rules provide limits on these types of defects.

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 Figure 4.8 Checks, shakes, and splits.

The term slope of grain is used to describe the deviation of the wood fibers from a line that is parallel to the edge of a piece of
lumber. Slope of grain is expressed as a ratio (for example, 1:8, 1:15, etc.). See Figure 4.9. In structural lumber, the slope of
grain is measured over a sufficient length and area to be representative of the general slope of wood fibers. Local deviations,
such as around knots, are disregarded in the general slope measurement. Slope of grain has a marked effect on the structural
capacity of a wood member. Lumber grading rules provide limits on the slope of grain that can be tolerated in the various
stress grades.

Figure 4.9 Slope of grain.

Reaction wood (known as compression wood in softwood species) is abnormal wood that forms on the underside of leaning
and crooked trees. It is hard and brittle, and its presence denotes an unbalanced structure in the wood. Compression wood is

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not permitted in readily identifiable and damaging form in stress grades of lumber.

Decay is a degradation of the wood caused by the action of fungi. Grading rules establish limits on the decay allowed in
stress-grade lumber. Section 4.9 describes the methods of preserving lumber against decay attack.

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