Timber Designs

Use of timber
Timber has been in use to build bridges, houses and and other
structures throughout the years
A number of reasons make timber an effective material
- Pleasing appearance
-Light weight
-Easy to work with
-Strong in tension, compression and bending
-High strength to weight ratio
-Performs better as a combustible material
Limitations of timber
Timber has disadvantages too
-Limitations in size and shape
-Varaiblity
-Durability
The proper use of preservatives reduce the speed of decaying in
timber.

-New adhesives
-New joint technologies have enhanced the use of timber in
construction processes
What is timber
Timber is different from other construction materials as it is a renewable
material and considered natural
So that unlike a manmade product whose properties are dependant on
the quality of raw materials, the proportion in which those are
manufactured, the properties can not be predicted
The quality and the properties can not be controlled in timber
The only possibility is to modify the section to suit the requirement
Sapwood vs Heartwood
Sapwood is the outer part with lighter colour. More of food is stored in
this part and water is moved from roots to leaves through this part.
Hence it is more porous.
Easily penetrated by
preservatives as well. Heart wood
Is the middle hard part with
the darker shade and is less
Susceptible to preservatives. Heart wood is
made by Heart wood
Sapwood being converted into
Sap wood
more complex organic
components.
Grain direction
The shape, the number and the distribution of different cells assist in
the identification of different species of timber. Most of the cells are
assigned in the direction of growth, parallel to the axis of the trunk.
Other cells are placed in bands or rays in a horizontal plane. The
distribution of cells along the three main axes causes the high degree of
anisotropy in timber. The properties of timber vary with the direction.
Timber has a higher strength and stiffness parallel to its grain direction
and low strength perpendicular to its grains
Hardwood and softwood
Trees can be categorized into hard and softwood based on its botanical
structure

Hardwood trees vary from the lightest to the densest species

Soft timbers are of fairly uniform density

Most tropical timber species are hardwood timbers

Factors affecting strength properties
Density - Higher the density greater the strength is

Moisture content - The drier the timber the stronger it is

Duration of load - Timber loses its strength when it has to sustain loads
for a longer time

Growth characteristics - Knots, grain direction affect the strength

Size and shape - Larger timber sections have a lower strength than
smaller timber sections
Grading of timber
-Grading is a form of quality control
-Grading is the separation of timbers into one or more groups
depending on the extent of growth characteristics or defects
-Two methods of grading are used

1. Visual grading - It is inspected visually and sorted according to the

grading rules that specifies limits on defects, knots, fissures, and the
position of those in timber. Depends on the skill of the grader.

2. Mechanical grading- The properties bear a certain relationship to the

modulus of elasticity. The stiffness of the member passing through a
machine along its length and the strength is predicted according to a
predefined strength formula
How can graded timber be identified
Graded timber can be identified by the stamp on that

Grade applies to the entire piece

If the piece is cut into two or more pieces each piece should be
regraded
How are design stresses derived
Small clear specimens are obtained from tree, easier to test using
limited equipment

A large number of test results can be obtained from this

However small clear specimens are not typical of growth and the effect
of defects can not be studied. Hence structural size specimens too
should be tested
Codes used
BS code in use is BS 5268
Eurocode in use is EC 5
Contents in EC 5 - Chapter 1: General
Chapter 2: Basis of design
Chapter 3: Material properties
Chapter 4: Durability
Chapter 5: Basis of structural action
Chapter 6: Ultimate limit states
Chapter 7: Serviceability limit states
Chapter 8: Connections with metal fasteners
Chapter 9: Components and assemblies
Chapter 10: Structural detailing and control
Chapter 11: Special rules for diaphragm structures
Basis of design
EC 5 recommends that the two principal categories of limit states to be
considered in design are ultimate and serviceability limit states
A separate third limit state of durability is also mentioned in section 4 of
EC 5 which covers the risk of timber decay due to fungal or insect
attack as well as the risk of corrosion of metal fasteners and
connections, e.g. nails, screws and staples. Measures to reduce the risk
of timber decay include selecting materials which are naturally durable
or the use of appropriate preservative treatments.
Possible measures against corrosion attack of metal fasteners include
the use of zinc coatings or stainless steel. The terms ultimate state and
serviceability state apply in the same way as is understood in other
limit state codes.
Thus ultimate limit states are those associated with collapse or with
other forms of structural failure which may endanger the safety of
people while serviceability limit states correspond to states beyond
which specific service criteria are no longer met. The serviceability limit
states which must be checked in EC 5 are deection and vibration.
The ultimate limit states, which must be checked singly or in
combination, include bending, shear, compression and buckling.
The various design rules for checking these limit states are discussed
later.
Material properties
In practice the most commonly recommended strength classes are C16
and C24. The table also gives the characteristic strength and stiffness
properties and density values for each class.
Note that the strength class indicates the characteristic bending
strength of the timber. Comparison with the strength classes used in BS
5268 shows that they are in fact identical.
However, there are considerable differences in the values of strength
for the same class of timber.
This is because the strengths in EN 338 are fifth percentile values
derived directly from laboratory tests of five minutes duration whereas
those in BS 5268 are grade stresses which have been reduced for long-
term duration and already include a safety factor.
One benefit of using characteristic values of material properties rather
than grade stresses is that it will make it easier to sanction the use of
new materials and component for structural purposes, since such
values can be utilised immediately, without first having to determine
what reduction factors are needed to convert them to permissible or
working values.