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D R A I N A G E
D
• by washing away the soil (erosion
and scouring),
• by making the road body less
resistant to traffic (i.e. weakening
7
RAINAGE the load bearing capacity),
• by depositing soils (silting) which
may obstruct the passage of water,
or
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runoff from the surrounding areas, or in the ditches by slowing down
in streams and rivers. In flat terrain, the flow of the water,
the entire area around the road may • culverts which lead the water
be inundated with water during the from the side drains under the
rainy season. In addition, water also road to the other (lower) side,
travels underground which can have an • bridges and drifts which allows
impact on the quality of the road. the road to cross rivers and
streams in a controlled manner
An efficient drainage system is therefore throughout the seasons.
essential to allow water to f low off
and away from the road as quickly as In addition, different arrangements
possible. This is achieved by a system may be required for drainage of high
consisting of the following components: water tables to lower the levels of
underground water.
• road surface drainage which
enables the water to flow off the All these components need to work
road surface, well together. If one component of the
• side drains and mitre drains drainage system breaks down, it will
which collect and lead the water not only compromise the drainage in
away from the road, that specific location, but may lead to
BUILDING RURAL ROADS
2 1 5
crossings will greatly reduce the
drainage problems. By following ridges
and other high points in the terrain, it
is possible to benefit from the natural
drainage in such locations.
7
In hilly or mountainous terrain, it is
important to select road alignments
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future maintenance demands, and Secondly, if surface water penetrates
increase the lifetime of the road. into the road body, it reduces the load
bearing capacity of the pavement,
Obviou sly, t he de sign of proper which may cause further damage to
drainage relies on careful studies at the road. To avoid these problems, it is
site. Equally important, the drainage important to secure adequate drainage
patterns and requirements should be of the road surface.
observed during rainy periods, in order
to obtain a realistic impression of the On most roads, the camber is roof-
how, and how much, water is moving shaped with the highest point at the
in the vicinity of the road. road centre line, with a descending
gradient towards the road shoulders. On
Finally, it is also worth mentioning narrower local roads, the camber may
that the drainage system of a road may be constructed as a continuous slope
have an impact on the environment in from one side of the road to the other.
the vicinity of the road. Water collected This is referred to as a cross-slope.
through a road drainage system needs
to be carefully discharged from the Cross-slopes are also used to achieve
road, avoiding any damages to the good driving dynamics. To counter the
adjacent land. Equally, the drainage centrifugal forces exerted on a vehicle
system of a road needs to be carefully manoeuvring a curve, a cross-slope
adjusted so it does not conflict with is installed with a downward slope
BUILDING RURAL ROADS
the drainage systems on adjacent towards the centre of the curve. When
farmlands. roads have a grade towards the cut side
of a slope, the surface water needs to be
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led away to a side drain and eventually In mountainous terrain, this solution
t hrough some form of crossroad can be effective when providing the
drainage arrangement such as culverts initial access into an area as it requires
or splashes. less earthworks since the area normally
required for installing side drains can
7 On roads in mountainous terrain, some be used as part of the carriageway. The
design specifications require the cross- major drawback with this design is that
slope to face the hillside of the road for "out-sloped" roads with clayey soils
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safety reasons. This is often referred may become slippery during rains and
to as an inwards cross-slope. With this become a safety hazard. Also, for this
design, there is a need to install a full design to be effective, there is a demand
drainage system as mentioned above. for limiting the amount of water from
the slope above the road. Cut-off drains
may address this problem.
away from the hillside of the road. The type of surface materials. For earth and
advantage of this design is that the side gravel roads, it is recommended that
drains can then be omitted and the the camber is installed with a slope in
road carriageway can be moved closer the range of 7 to 10 percent. On earth
to the side slope. roads where the surface gets slippery
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7
when wet, it may be necessary to reduce is therefore recommended that the road
the camber slope. camber of a gravel road is constructed
at 7 to 10 percent. This will prolong the
For roads with an asphalt surface, the lifetime of the road and allow a longer
camber is normally not more than 2 period of time and use before reshaping
7 to 3 percent, because water will easily of the camber is required.
f low off a hard, waterproof surface.
On earth and gravel roads, the camber Cross Slopes
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needs to be steeper because the water On sharp curves, the camber is often
will flow more slowly and the surface is substituted with a super-elevation which
often uneven. Gravel and earth surfaces leads the water to the inside of the
also absorb some of the surface water curve. The super-elevation is installed
unless it is quickly drained away from with a gradual change of the road
the road. cross section from a camber shape to a
road surface shaped with a cross slope.
At the same time the super-elevation
provides a certain resistance to a vehicle
from skidding off the road due to the
centrifugal force.
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A full cross-slope is also applied in other
circumstances. When the road width is
reduced (i.e. in mountainous terrain or
on low-volume village access roads), it is
common practice to construct a cross-
slope towards only one side of the road.
The correct shape of the camber can
Constructing the Camber be secured by setting out the levels of
The camber should be formed already the shoulders and the centre line with
before the surface layer is provided. profile boards and a line level (ref.
It is created from surplus soils from chapter on Surveying and Setting Out).
side drain excavation. The soil is first These levels are then transferred to pegs
heaped along the centre-line during the placed at 5 metre intervals.
ditching and sloping process and then
spread towards both sides of the road. If By stretching strings between the pegs,
necessary, use soils from the back slope the exact level of any point along the
or widen the drains to provide sufficient road can be accurately determined. The
materials for the camber. string provides useful guidance to the
workers carrying out the levelling.
The quantity of soil along the centre-line After compaction, check that the final
should be sufficient to form the camber levels of the road camber is exact and
with the correct angle. In order to to the prescribed standard and quality.
secure the prescribed cross-slopes on the This can be done by setting out the
completed surface, it is common practice profile boards again, and controlling
to increase the slope on the loose soils the levels between the profiles with a
before compaction (7 to 10 percent before traveller. A quicker method, though less
compaction, equivalent to approximately accurate, is to use string lines to check
5 to 7 percent when compacted). the level of the completed surface.
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7
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If the levels are inaccurate, the irregularities drainage difficult to control. These
should be removed or filled in. If further problems start when the longitudal road
f illing is required, make sure that gradient exceeds 8 percent. Due to the
this patching work is also properly steep grade, it becomes more difficult
compacted. Finally, repeat once again to evacuate water from the carriageway.
the checking of the levels to ensure that Instead, the water has a tendency of
the earthworks are completed to the finding a passage parallel to the road
prescribed quality. alignment, commonly following wheel
ruts. In a very short time, this will
Before the road is gravelled, ensure that result in accelerated wear of the road
the road base is properly compacted and surface.
has the correct camber. Compaction and
levelling of the road base is as equally Steep road sections are almost always
important as the final surface layers a problem when dealing with road
and needs to be carried out to the same maintenance. In the long run, the most
level of accuracy and quality in order to effective counter measure is to realign
secure a lasting and smooth surface. the road section to reduce the gradient.
Such measures are costly, and should
BUILDING RURAL ROADS
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BUILDING RURAL ROADS
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carriageway, but also the road shoulders draining from the road carriageway.
and the surface of fills. For the road
surface, the most common approach is Equally, the surface of side fills needs
to provide a surface layer of compacted to be designed with a sufficiently gentle
gravel, however, when traffic levels slope to avoid water causing erosion. As
are high, other more durable surface a final measure, covering the side slopes
treatments should be considered (i.e. with grass turf further protects the fill.
concrete or asphalt based mixtures).
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are dependent on the expected amount
of rainwater and the distance to the
next exit point where the water can
be diverted away from the road. The
construction of side drains is also a
source of materials for constructing the
road formation and camber. In flat or
rolling terrain, it is common practice to
maintain a balance between the volume
of soils excavated to create side drains,
and the need for soils to build the road
camber. By increasing the dimensions
of the side drains, it is possible to raise
the level of the carriageway. controlled by using ditch templates.
The soils from the ditches are placed in
In flat or slightly undulating terrain one the middle of the road.
would aim to achieve a longitudinal
gradient between 2 and 5 percent (1:50 The reason for excavating the ditch in
and 1:20) in the drains. With gradients this manner and shape is that it is easier
less than 2 per cent, silting occurs easily to measure and control than excavating
while with gradients steeper than 5 percent it in one operation. The correct width
the ditches will easily erode. and depth can be controlled with a
BUILDING RURAL ROADS
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road gradients reach 8 to 10 percent, it
may be necessary to consider lining the
side drains in the steep sections. Drain
lining can be made from concrete, to avoid the rock being washed away by
stone or bricks. Rock, if available in water. The masonry work needs to be
the vicinity of the road, is the preferred well laid to ensure that water does not
building material and can be laid as enter underneath the lining allowing
dry or wet masonry. The size of the it to become unstable and eventually
stone should be a minimum 200 mm wash away.
At the same time, the gradient of the make it easy for the water to
drains should be at a minimum of 2 flow along and out of the mitre
percent. To avoid silting in the mitre drain. Water always flows the
drains, the ideal situation is to maintain easiest way. The water will try to
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continue to flow down the side expensive, more likely to silt up
of the road because it is usually or get blocked off, and in general
steeper and in a straight line. In more difficult to maintain.
order to divert the water into the An effective slope for a mitre
mitre drain it is vital that the d ra in is 2 % . T he grad ient
water is effectively channelled should definitively not exceed 7
into it. 5%, to avoid erosion in the drain
The best way to provide a strong or to the land where the water
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block-off in the side drain is to is discharged. In mountainous
leave 3 - 8m of natural ground terrain, it may be necessary to
not excavated on the drain line. accept steeper gradients. In such
Forming the block-off with cases, appropriate soil erosion
excavated material is not as measures should be considered
strong. Block-offs can also act as such as ditch lining or scour
useful turning points for trucks checks. In flat terrain, a small
and other equipment during gradient of 1% or even 0.5%
the gravelling operation. Once may be necessary to discharge
the road has been completed, water, or to avoid very long
they are a good location for off- drains. These low gradients
loading and storing gravel for shou ld on ly be u sed when
future routine maintenance absolutely necessary. The slope
works. should be continuous with no
The amount of water entering high or low spots.
the mitre drain cannot be greater In general, the mitre drains
than the amount flowing out. should connect to natural run-
Otherwise, the drain will fill off channels that take the water
up and over f low, damaging clear of the road. If this is not
the block off and causing even possible, then the next mitre
greater problems at the next should be set out to catch this
mitre drain. The mitre drain water before it enters back into
BUILDING RURAL ROADS
raining.
2 3 2
7.5 Scour Checks to install scour checks in the drains.
These are only used in hilly terrain with
Depending on the prevailing site steep gradients where it is not possible
conditions, soil erosion in the side to remove water using mitre drains.
drains can be countered using a number When road gradients are steeper than
of different measures: 4 percent, the drainage water gains 7
higher speeds, which may cause erosion
• as mentioned earlier, by installing of the side drains. Their function is to
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frequent mitre drains, the amount slow down the water flow by reducing
of water in the drains can be kept the natural gradient of the drain by
at a minimum, allowing the drain to silt up behind the
• by increasing the dimensions of scour check.
the side drains (i.e. the width),
the flow of water can be kept at The scour checks hold back the silt
slow speeds, carried by the water flow and provide a
• lining the drains using stone series of stretches with gentle gradients
masonry, bricks or concrete is interrupted by small "waterfalls".
a common measure to protect
the drains – particularly in Scour checks are usually constructed
mountainous areas with steep in natural stone or from wooden or
road gradients. bamboo stakes. Masonry, or concrete
scour checks require less maintenance,
Another measure to control erosion is but are more expensive to build.
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road at constructed water crossings the drain can silt up quickly,
such as culverts, bridges and drifts. • as they are off the road they will
These drains, when properly built, probably receive less maintenance
are very effective in reducing the - especially when they are difficult
amount of water around the road, thus to reach,
limiting the damage to the road and • when they fail, water breaks
consequently reducing maintenance through in a concentrated flow
costs. causing damage, and
• they may be ploughed up or
Wherever possible the catch-water blocked off by people using the
drains should be diverted to a natural land.
watercourse. Catch-water dra ins
usually have a trapezoidal cross-section These risks can be reduced if they are
and the excavated material should carefully designed and properly built.
always be deposited on the downhill The following precautions should be
side of the drain. These soils should taken:
be properly stabilized so they are not
washed away during rains - ending up • T he r i sk of si lt i n g c a n b e
in the side drains of the road. reduced by making sure there is
a continuous downhill gradient
In most cases, it is cheaper and safer to and that there is a clear outlet at
direct water away from the road, using the end.
BUILDING RURAL ROADS
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to (i) allow natural streams to cross the surface needs special protection to stand
road, and (ii) discharge surface water up to the forces from the flow of water.
from drains and the areas adjacent to This is usually done by constructing a
the road. stone packed or concrete surface where
the water will pass. The level of the
Culverts form an essential part of the drift is lower than the road on each
drainage system on most roads, and side, to make sure that water does not
most road construction or rehabilitation spill over onto the unprotected road
works include the installation or repair surface.
of culverts.
Drifts are normally constructed to pass
Culverts are constructed using a wide river streams which are dry during long
variety of designs. The most common periods of the year. If the waterway has
culvert design is based on the use of a continuous flow of water throughout
concrete pipes. This type of culvert is the year, the use of other cross-drainage
built with 1 - 3 rows of culvert pipes solutions such as culverts, vented fords
with diameters commonly ranging or bridges should be considered.
from 0.6m to 1m.
During rains, most drifts carry shallow
Chapter 8 provides a detailed description flows of water through which vehicles
of the use and construction of culverts. can pass. Occasionally, deep drifts are
flooded for short periods and the road
BUILDING RURAL ROADS
mitre drains and the water has to a river crossing, the running
be lead across the road. surface is improved by building a
(ii) Drifts are crossings at large firm foundation. With seasonal
drainage channels and small flows of water, a concrete slab
rivers. Although the f low of would be sufficient, however,
water is normally seasonal, they with a ll-year-round f low of
may have to take strong flows of water, it would normally be more
water. appropriate to design a vented
(iii) R iver Crossings are longer ford, or a combination of a vented
crossings of riverbeds. In order to ford and a drift slab.
allow traffic to cross the riverbed,
it would usually consist of deep Choosing drifts as the preferred cross-
sand or rock. When improving drainage structure has a number of
2 3 8
advantages. Most importantly, the drift proceed safely down the approach and
is a low-cost structure which carries across the drift.
a good capacity. In places with only
seasonal flows of water, but with large Additional guidance can be given in the
and intense flows during parts of the form of marker stones painted white and
year, the drift provides an economic placed along both sides of the drift slab. 7
and technically feasible approach to
dealing with water crossings. Site Location
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As with all cross-drainage structures,
Floodwater often carries excessive amounts part of the design work is to identify
of debris and silt which can easily create the optimal location for the river
blockages. While such debris often poses crossing. If the drift is wrongly placed,
a danger to culverts and bridges, drifts it may result in extra work during
do not face such problems. Drifts require construction as well as afterwards
limited maintenance compared to during maintenance. The main points
other structures and the most common to consider are:
maintenance tasks for drifts are far less • The angle between the centre line
complicated. of the road and the flow of the
water should be close to 90 degrees.
Drift Warning • The site should be on a straight
Adequate sign posting length of the stream.
to warn traffic of the • Places where there are signs of
location of a drift or river crossing scouring or silting should be
should be placed on the side of the avoided. Such locations run
road. Traffic can then reduce speed and the risk of generating excessive
The actual river crossing should be at First, the end points of the drift bed are
least the same width as before the drift located. Two profiles are set out with a
was constructed. No attempt should be 5% slope at each side of the crossing.
BUILDING RURAL ROADS
made to constrain the width of the river The length of the approach can be
by reducing the length of the actual found by means of a traveller moved
drift. This may seem feasible during along the line of the slope profiles until
the dry season, however, during high it levels up with the slope profiles.
flood periods this may lead to scouring
and eventually wash-outs of parts of the The traveller can also be used to
river crossing structure. measure the depth of the dig along
2 4 0
7
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the proposed approach, and this can • the availability of materials, such
be used to estimate the volume of as gravel, stone, aggregate and
excavation required. If the initial setting sand,
out results in excessive excavation • the quality and strength of the
works, consideration should be given existing river bed foundation,
to moving the drift to an alternative and
location. • costs of labour and materials.
paving or constructing a concrete slab. these cases, the cheaper solution using
The choice depends on the following gabions with gravel should be adopted
issues: first, and then allow a full rainy season
• the expected force of the water before deciding whether it is necessary
flow, to upgrade the crossing with a stone
2 4 1
pavement or a concrete slab. drift aprons and foundations. However,
the use of such building materials
The figure above shows an example of a requires good availability of quality
drift consisting of a porous dam which stone and skilled masons. A very good
retains the gravel/rock from being alternative to pitched stone works is the
7 carried away by the water flow. The top use of gabions for the same components
of the gabion dam is between 15 and of the drift.
20cm higher than the riverbed at the
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provide the only long-lasting solution. it should be kept damp and allowed
to cure for 7 to 10 days. An adequate
Stone masonry can also be used for the supply of water must be available on site
2 4 2
during the curing period, and a worker or reducing the bearing capacity of the
should be assigned to keep the concrete road. In exceptional cases, where there
surface moist during this period. The is a limited flow of water, good natural
traffic needs to be diverted away from soils and little traffic, the splash can be
the drift during the curing period. built using gravel. However, in most
cases it is necessary to install a more 7
If the length of the slab is less than 12m durable surface made from materials
there is no need for an expansion joint. such as stone or concrete.
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On longer river crossings, expansion
joints are required for approximately Similar to drifts, the splash is designed
every 10 to 15 metres. at a lower level than the road with
descending approaches on both sides.
The splash needs to be deep enough
to cater for the highest flow of water,
without reaching the unprotected
road sections on each side of the water
crossing.
drifts are used to cross natural streams stone or gabions can provide a solid but
and rivers, the splash is mainly used to inexpensive surface for this purpose.
lead road surface water across and away
from the road.
for crossing rivers and streams which Similar to drifts and culverts, the
carry a minimal flow of water through installation of vented fords needs to
the dry season. be carefully designed, taking into
consideration the topography, the
The advantage of the ford is that it features of the river or stream and
is a relatively inexpensive structure the water flow. The ideal location of
appropriate for both narrow and a vented ford is at a shallow stream
wide river crossings. Vented fords location, away from river bends. The
use a combination of culvert pipes riverbed should be firm and stable,
to discharge water under the road preferably with bedrock or coarse soils
during low water f lows, and a drift so that there is limited scouring or
slab allowing water to overtop the sedimentation.
structure during high water flows. This
BUILDING RURAL ROADS
2 4 4
7
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The key design parameters for a vented with adequate capacity to cater for
ford are to establish (i) the appropriate the highest water f lows. Important
drainage required through the culvert factors for the design of a vented ford
pipes during low f lows, a nd (ii) are low and high water levels, design
provide a sufficiently solid structure and protection of approach roads
and protecting the structure and its
surroundings against scouring.
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can take place, the existing stream
needs to be temporarily diverted away
from the work site.
headwalls are constructed up to the
As with culverts, the first step is to road level. Headwalls are normally
excavate the trenches for the cut-off built from cement bound masonry. The
walls. A suitable culvert bed is then space between the pipes is backfilled
levelled and compacted between the with a well-graded stony material. Lean
cut-off walls. It is recommended that a concrete with rock may also be used
concrete bedding is provided on which as a backfilling material, although this
the pipes are placed. The bedding choice will increase the costs of the
should be indented to accommodate the structure.
shape of the culverts and its joints. The
bedding must be set out at the correct For the road surface, it is recommended
level, thus ensuring that the culvert to install a 10 cm reinforced concrete
pipes are flush with the riverbed. layer with a 3 percent cross-fall. The
surface slab needs to be strong enough
After laying the culvert pipes, the to protect the culvert pipes from the
C U L V E R T S
8
C U LV E R T S
8.1 Introduction
C
Culvert works constitute a significant
part of both rural road construction
and maintenance. Road construction
may obstruct the natural flow of water
BUILDING RURAL ROADS
ULVERTS
system, the culverts are also essential for
basic access along a road section.
C U LV E R T S
side of the road, relieving the side
drains of water which cannot be
discharged by mitre drains.
dimensions can be obtained from the natural materials are not suitable, a
2 5 2
8
C U LV E R T S
bed of gravel or sand can be used as a Aprons
foundation for the pipes. If the ground Aprons are constructed at the inlets
is swampy or muddy, it may be useful and outlets to protect the culvert
to construct a bed made from stone bed and the connecting ditches from
packing, lean concrete or selected soils erosion and scouring. At the outer end
such as sand or gravel. of the aprons, it is common practice to
construct a toe wall to prevent water
It is important to install the culvert at from eroding the soils underneath
the correct position, level and gradient, the apron. Aprons and toe walls can
preferably with a slope of 2 – 5%. The be made of stone, brick, concrete or
inlet and outlet level and gradient of gabions.
the culvert should to the extent possible
follow the existing natural water T he leng t h of aprons shou ld be
channels and ground levels. equivalent to at least one and a half
C U LV E R T S
8.2 Culvert Location because they have been carrying
too much water.
Before fixing the position and frequency
of culverts, it is necessary to carry out Insufficient cross-drainage may lead to
a survey of the surrounding terrain to washouts of entire road sections. In such
establish the exact patterns of water instances, it is important to carry out a
flow and on this basis the exact need for thorough reassessment of the drainage
crossroad drainage. Roads will obstruct situation before starting the repair works.
the natural f low of water. Crossroad An investigation should be carried out as
drainage is therefore essential in terms to why the washout occurred and how to
of discharging the water surrounding avoid it happening again.
the road. The frequency and location of
culverts forms an important part of the Ca ref u l consideration shou ld be
water management surrounding the road. given to how and where the water is
discharged. Water collected along the
If an existing road is being improved, road and discharged through a culvert
the locations of most culvert sites are may cause serious soil erosion and
BUILDING RURAL ROADS
C U LV E R T S
culverts require more pipes as they do channel - skewed if required. If it is
not follow the shortest distance across a relief culvert, it should be set out
the road. To avoid skewing the culvert, perpendicular to the road centre line.
the best approach is to realign the road
so that the road crosses the stream at a Wooden pegs are placed close to the inlet
90-degree angle. and outlet positions of the culvert pipe to
mark the centre line of the culvert pipe.
Tools for Setting Out In most cases these pegs will be located
The exact position and gradient for on the road shoulders or side slopes. In
a culvert can be established with addition, it is therefore useful to place
simple setting out methods, using reference pegs well outside the work area
prof ile boards and a line level. In of the culvert works.
addition to setting out tools, there
may be a demand for some bush
clearing equipment such as axes and
bush knifes. In case the soils are dry
and hard, chisels or metal spikes are
useful accessories to the setting out
equipment. A more detailed description
of the equipment required for the actual
culvert construction works is covered
in the chapter dealing with tools and
BUILDING RURAL ROADS
equipment.
a length of one metre. Culvert pipes space between the pipes to allow for
are therefore installed at a total length proper compaction of the fill material
consisting of multiples of the individual between the pipes.
length of the pipe segments.
The total width of a trench for a single
For example, if the total road width, pipe culvert with a 60cm pipe can be
including side slopes is 4.4 metres, calculated as follows:
one would choose to build a culvert
with a total length of 5 metres using With a pipe thickness of 6cm, the
1 metre long culvert pipes. The total outside diameter of the culvert pipe is
length of the culvert pipe also needs then 60cm + (6cm x 2) = 72cm.
to accommodate the thickness of the
headwall in addition to the road width. WIDTH of trench to be excavated =
72cm + (40cm x 2) = 152 cm
If the culvert crosses a tall embankment,
BUILDING RURAL ROADS
C U LV E R T S
The purpose of adding an extra width lead to silt deposits inside the culvert.
of 40 cm on each side of the pipe is to
secure sufficient space to: Setting out the depth of the trench
needs to start at the inlet of the culvert
• easily place the pipes in the trench to ensure that adequate cover is secured.
and make the final adjustments to The thickness of the backfill should be
achieve a straight row, 3/4 of the inside diameter of the pipes.
• easily adjust the position of the When installing a 60cm pipe, the back-
pipes to secure tight joints, fill should be at least:
• provide su f f icient space for 60cm x 3/4 = 45cm
compacting the f ill material
with hand rammers or plate The trench depth is based on the outer
compactors. This activity should diameter of the culvert pipe. With
be carried out in layers with a pipe thickness of 6cm, the outer
thickness of not more than 10 cm. diameter would then be:
BUILDING RURAL ROADS
Having already established the level The above example describes the ideal
at the inlet, the depth of the trench at situation, in which it is possible to set
the outlet can be determined. With the gradient at the desired grade. In flat
a gradient of 3% on a 5 m long pipe terrain, it is often not possible to obtain
culvert, the level at the outlet can be this gradient. In such cases, the culvert
calculated as follows: grade needs to be determined by the
Length of culvert x gradient = levels of the surrounding terrain at the
level difference inlet and the outlet of the culvert.
With a 5m long culvert, the difference In some cases, the f low of water
in levels at the inlet and the outlet is: changes to the opposite direction at
certain times of the year. In such cases,
the slope of the culvert is set out at zero
BUILDING RURAL ROADS
C U LV E R T S
Step 6: Maintaining the Correct Gradient (iv) On the ranging rod placed at the
Once the levels of the inlet and outlet outlet, measure 15 cm down from
are established, it is possible to prepare the level transferred from the
a smooth culvert bed with the desired inlet and place a profile board at
gradient. With a line level and profile this level. This should mark the
boards, this can be achieved following level one metre above the level of
the process described below: the outlet, when applying a 3%
gradient for a 5m long culvert.
(i) Place ranging rods at the exact (v) To establish the correct level
locations of the inlet and outlet of the trench between the inlet
of the culvert. and the outlet, place a one metre
(ii) Measure up one metre from high traveller in the trench and
the level of the inlet and mark sight from the profile boards at
this level with a profile board either side to control the depth.
attached to the ranging rod. (vi) The correct depth is achieved
BUILDING RURAL ROADS
(iii) Use the line level to transfer this when the top of the traveller is
level from the inlet to a ranging level with the sight line between
rod placed at the outlet. the profile boards. If the traveller
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is above the sight line, it means
that more excavation is required.
If it is lower, this means that the
trench is too deep.
C U LV E R T S
the height of the headwalls wall foundations
on the pegs. Finally, set out
t he dept h of t he he adwa l l
foundations. Remember that the
headwall foundations need to
be constructed before laying the
pipes.
(i) S e t out t he d e s i r e d a n g l e
between the culvert pipe and the
wing wall,
(ii) Set out the correct length of the
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Step 9: Aprons and Toe Walls
Aprons and toe walls are constructed
to avoid scouring of the soils close to
the culvert inlet and outlet. The depth
of the toe walls is normally the same as
8 the depth of the headwall foundations.
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falling water can land. On high slopes, equivalent to the outside diameter of
gabions are installed starting at the foot the culvert pipe. The thickness of the
of the slope, covering the entire surface walls of the drop inlet should follow the
up to the outlet apron. thickness of the headwalls and wing
walls. The height should be minimum
Similar arrangements need to be 40cm higher than the outside diameter
considered where the slopes are not of the pipes and its bed level should be
necessarily ver y steep, but where flush with the culvert pipe.
the soils are incohesive and prone to
erosion. The installation of a culvert The level of the inlet of the collectors
may trigger soil erosion in areas which should be at the same level as the side
at the outset appeared to be stable. drains, and its size and shape should follow
the size and shape of the side drains.
Step 11: Drop Inlets
In mountainous or rolling terrain, the
road is often constructed as a side cut
into sloping terrain. In such terrain, most
culverts would need head walls and wing
walls on one side only. At the inner side, i.e.
close to the side slope, it would be more
appropriate to construct a drop inlet. BUILDING RURAL ROADS
C U LV E R T S
8.5 Construction Operations ensure that it is excavated at the correct
location and to the correct width. With
Detours the use of profile boards and a traveller,
Before starting the excavation of the the foundation bed is excavated to the
culvert trench, traff ic needs to be correct level and slope.
diverted away from the work site. When
excavating the trench and laying the The trench should not be excavated
pipes, the road is blocked and traffic deeper than to the intended levels.
will not be able to pass. If it is not The natural soils are normally well
possible to build a detour outside the compacted, and if left alone, they will
culvert site, the alternative is to build in most cases provide a sufficiently firm
one half of the culvert while allowing foundation for the culvert. If the trench
traffic to pass on the other half of the is dug too deep, it is necessary to refill
roadway. The diversion should be the trench to its intended levels and
properly organised to cater for existing provide the fill with proper compaction
levels and type of traffic, and equipped at optimal moisture content.
with adequate sign posting to avoid any
accidents caused by the diversion. Ensure that any water which may enter
the trench can exit. This not only
In order to keep the work site dry and implies that excavation should start at
free from water, it may be necessary the outlet side of the drain. It is also
BUILDING RURAL ROADS
Excavation Works
Once the position and depth of the
trench have been set out, the excavation
can commence. By digging the trench
starting from the outlet side towards
the inlet, it is possible to keep the
trench free of water. The trench should
be marked with pegs and string lines, to
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Keeping the work site dry and free of
water will contribute to securing the
correct dimensions and levels as shown
on the drawings.
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The culvert pipes should be gently
lowered into the trench using a rope.
Avoid the pipes falling onto each other
as this may damage the pipes. The
surface of the joints should be cleaned
from dirt and soil before they are fitted
together. Using crowbars, the pipes
are eased up tight against each other,
ensuring that they are in a straight line
and properly joined. The pipes must be
placed in the right position forming a
straight line along the culvert pipe axis.
Any pipe found defective or damaged
during laying should be replaced. Before commencing the backfill, it is
common practice that the supervising
After laying the complete run, the joints engineer inspects and approves the laying
are sealed with cement mortar. When of the culvert pipes and the mortar work
sealing the joints, the mortar must be flush at the joints. The contractor should not
with the inner surface of the pipe, thus commence any backfilling of the pipes
securing a smooth inner surface, easy to before he receives an explicit go-ahead
maintain and keep clean of debris and silt. from the engineer. BUILDING RURAL ROADS
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8.6 Constructing Headwalls, Wing Walls and Aprons
Culvert headwalls, wing walls and aprons aesthetic preferences of the agency in
can be constructed in concrete, stone charge of the construction works.
or brick masonry. The work should be
8 carried out by skilled workers with good Stone Masonry
experience in masonry works. Besides Stone masonry is commonly applied to
providing important protection to the areas wing walls and aprons on culverts and
C U LV E R T S
surrounding the culvert inlets and outlets, small bridges. It can also be used for the
the headwalls and wing walls act as facades foundation work on such structures. Stone
to the structure and therefore require a is also used for providing a surface texture
neat and clean finish to the surfaces. and therefore needs to be hard, clean and
compact and should be carefully selected
The choice of materials for this purpose to ensure roughly flat sides.
depends on their availability in the area
where the structures are located. Equally, Although these structures can be built
the choice of materials depends on the in dry masonry, it is more common to
BUILDING RURAL ROADS
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set the stones in mortar. When using
mortar for the joints, the stone needs to
be wet before laying in order to prevent
any absorption of water from the mortar.
Equally, the bed of each layer (course) of
stones should be clean and also wetted 8
before applying the next layer of mortar.
The stones should be fully surrounded
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by mortar covering both the bed and the
vertical joints. When laying the stones,
they should be carefully settled in place
and a wooden mallet used immediately
after so that they are firmly embedded to support the stones in the required
before the mortar sets. positions and to avoid thick beds of
mortar joints. Use of chips, however,
Clean chips can be used as wedges should be limited to the extent possible
in the mortar joints where necessary by carefully choosing stones that fit
neatly together.
C U LV E R T S
support the stone in
its correct position
a nd a n g le b e fore
With some effort it should be possible filling the mortar,
to obtain the size of stones specified (v) Repeat this activity
above. When measuring the size of for all courses.
stones, the height of course should be
fixed by the engineer in charge and Brick Masonry
insisted upon during the construction. If stone is not readily available, a good
The face work should be brought up alternative is using brick masonry.
evenly. Two lines of nylon string are used Bricks can also be used as façde or
to control the surface of each course: they can be plastered, giving a smooth
concrete like surface.
(i) Fix the first string line at the
bottom of the course of stones When laying bricks, they first need to
bet ween t wo ra ng i ng rod s be soaked in water for a minimum of
outside the wall (exposed side), one hour before being placed. After
(ii) Fix a second line between two having been soaked, they are taken out
ranging rods at the top of the of the water sufficiently in advance so
course, that the skin of the bricks is dry at the
(iii) Using a plumb bob to ensure time of laying. The soaked bricks are BUILDING RURAL ROADS
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stacked on a clean place where they will When using bricks for the foundation,
not be soiled by dirt or earth. a 15 mm layer of mortar is placed over
the base on which the brick works are
Bricks are laid in an appropriate bond evenly laid. The first layer of bricks is laid
ensuring good interlocking between the immediately after spreading the mortar.
8 bricks. A plumb bob and line level should
be used to ensure that the work is even Backfilling
and true in both vertical and horizontal The backfill should be carried out after
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directions. Joints should be maintained at the concrete is fully set or the masonry
a uniform thickness and level. To secure has hardened. It should be carried out
a neat and even outer surface, bricks in such a manner that it does not cause
used on the face should be complete with any thrust or pressure to any part of the
uniform size and true rectangular face. structure.
Bricks should be laid with frogs up, The backfill around the pipes and the
if any, on a full bed of mortar. When overfill should be placed in 10 cm layers
laying, the bricks are pressed slightly of suitable material free from large or
into the mortar so that the mortar can sharp stones. Preference should be given
get into the surface pores of the bricks to suitable material excavated from
to ensure proper adhesion. All joints the pipe trench or the foundation. If
should be properly flushed and packed these soils are unsuitable, good quality
with mortar so that no hollow spaces material should be borrowed from
are left. The thickness of joints would adjacent locations or by importing
normally not exceed 10mm. granular materials such as sand or gravel.
C U LV E R T S
8.7 Culvert Approaches settlement as compared with the
adjoining sections. As a result, the
In flat areas, it is often necessary to lift traffic will cause more consolidation
the road on an embankment in order of the road body before and after the
to achieve sufficient fill height on top of culvert, and the road section directly
the culvert rings. In such cases, a ramp above the culvert pipe will appear as
needs to be constructed on each side of a bump in the road surface. However,
the culvert to avoid a rapid change of with proper compaction, this potential
the road gradient. defect can be avoided altogether.
C U LV E R T S
• A shed or a sunshade under the concrete using a steel bar and by
which the pipes can be placed knocking the outside of the mould
during the curing period needs gently with a hammer.
to be erec ted. I n add it ion
arrangements for adequate water The mould should be left on the pipes
supply for the curing process for 24 hours before being reused. 24
should be put in place. hours after pouring the concrete, the
rings should be stiff enough to remove
The mixture for concrete pipes should the mould.
be 1:2:4 (cement : sand : aggregate).
If possible, concrete cover outside the The rings must be kept damp for
reinforcement bars should be 4cm, else another 7 days to ensure proper curing
centre aligned. of the pipes. The pipes should be 28
When pouring the concrete, compact days old before being transported to the
work site and installed.
BUILDING RURAL ROADS
others are assembled from rounded Armco pipes can also be used to produce
segments by bolting them together on arch formed culverts. The half circle is
site. then placed on a concrete bedding which
acts as the floor inside the arch pipe.
The most common brand is Armco,
who delivers these pipes in a variety When utilising corrugated steel pipes
of diameters and shapes. Armco pipes for culvert works, they are used in the
are easy to transport and assemble, same manner as concrete pipes, fitted
however, they are usually slightly more with aprons, head and wing walls and
expensive to use than concrete pipes. installed with a similar backfill.
BUILDING RURAL ROADS
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