SSS10

 Proceedings  of  the  10th  International  Space  Syntax  Symposium    

123  
Using  space  syntax  to  analyse  stress  ratings  of  open  
public  spaces  
 
Martin  Knöll  
Department  of  Architecture,  Technische  Universität  Darmstadt  
knoell@stadt.tu-­‐darmstadt.de  
 
Yang  Li  
Department  of  Architecture,  Technische  Universität  Darmstadt  
li@stadt.tu-­‐darmstadt.de  
 
Katrin  Neuheuser    
Department  of  Architecture,  Technische  Universität  Darmstadt  
neuheuser@stadt.tu-­‐darmstadt.de  
 
Annette  Rudolph-­‐Cleff  
Department  of  Architecture,  Technische  Universität  Darmstadt  
rudolph@stadt.tu-­‐darmstadt.de  
 

Abstract  
This   article   contributes   with   preliminary   data   on   how   selected   properties   commonly   used   in   space  
syntax   research   relate   to   users’   ratings   of   stress   and   spatial   qualities   in   open   public   spaces   (OPS).  
First,   by   conducting   a   literature   research   in   the   fields   of   space   syntax   and   environmental   psychology,  
a  set  of  syntactical  properties  is  extracted,  which  have  been  associated  with  health  and  stress-­‐related  
measures   in   previous   research.   Second,   the   result   of   data   construction   from   a   sample   of   22   OPS   in  
Darmstadt,   Germany   is   presented.   Specifically,   the   sample   is   described   with   street   network  
characteristics   including   global   and   local   integration   and   connectivity,   as   well   as   isovist   properties  
including   total   area,   perimeter,   vertices   number   and   density,   openness   and   roundness.   In   the   third  
step,   the   constructed   data   is   paired   with   city   dwellers’   ratings   (n=134)   of   the   sample   regarding   to  
stress   perception   and   urban   design   qualities   using   a   set   of   bipolar   adjectives   (e.g.   max.   stressful   /  
max.   relaxing,   spacious   /   narrow).   Significant   relations   have   been   found   between   global   (r=N)   and  
citywide  (r=3000m)  integration  values  and  users’  ratings  of  OPS  as  being  stressful,  relaxing,  safe  as  
well   as   being   exposed   to   traffic.   A   weak   relation   can   be   found   between   the   vertices   density   of   an  
OPS’s  isovist  and  participants’  ratings  of  safety.  Overall,  the  results  indicate  that  line-­‐based  measures  
such   as   global   and   city   wide   integration   may   be   valid   measures   to   analyse   stress   perception   in  
outdoor   spaces.   Selected   point-­‐based   measures,   which   had   been   previously   paired   with   cognitive  
measures   in   indoor   settings,   need   to   be   subjected   to   further   research   to   analyse   the   perception   of  
outdoor  settings,  for  which  this  article  contributes  with  preliminary  data.      

Keywords  
Open  public  space,  morphology,  environmental  stressors,  perception,  urban  health.  
 
 
 
 

M  Knöll,  Y  Li,  K  Neuheuser  &  A  Rudolph-­‐Cleff     123:1  

Using  space  syntax  to  analyse  stress  of  open  public  spaces  
SSS10  Proceedings  of  the  10th  International  Space  Syntax  Symposium    

1.  Introduction  
Neuroscientists   have   related   current   city   living   and   upbringing   in   urban   environments   to   various  
manifestations   of   stress   and   a   higher   risk   for   mental   health   problems.   Lederbogen   et   al.   (2013)   have  
named  a  set  of  contributors  to  “urban  social  stress”  such  as  infrastructure,  socio-­‐economic  factors  as  
well  as  noise  and  environmental  pollution.  However,  it  remains  an  open  question,  which  aspects  of  
urban   environments   are   critical   and   how   they   interact.   Further   interdisciplinary   research   should  
investigate   potential   urban   contributors   to   stress   in   a   higher   spatial   resolution.   Planning   oriented  
research   has   mainly   focused   on   various   health-­‐promoting   mechanisms   in   green   spaces,   which  
include  increased  physical  activity,  social  interaction,  restoration  and  stress  relief  (Nieuwenhuijsen,  
et  al.,  2014).  In  this  article,  it  is  argued  that  a  better  understanding  of  urban  contributors  to  stress  
can  help  to  increase  the  quality  of  life  in  a  wider  array  of  open  public  spaces  (OPS)  including  green  
spaces  and  squares,  piazzas,  streets  and  sidewalks.    

This  article  focuses  on  two  aspects,  which  are  commonly  used  in  space  syntax  research  to  describe  
places  –  isovist  properties  and  street  network  characteristics.  In  the  following  sections,  the  authors  
will   first   present   a   set   of   properties,   which   has   previously   been   related   to   users’   perception   and  
health-­‐related  behaviours  and  outcomes.  Second,  the  article  will  present  the  constructed  data  from  
a   sample   of   22   OPS   in   the   German   city   of   Darmstadt.   In   the   third   step,   these   data   are   related   to  
users’   ratings   of   stress   and   spatial   properties   gained   from   previous   works.   Conclusively,   the   strength  
of   individual   correlations   and   possible   collinearity   of   syntactic   properties   and   users’  
perceptions/ratings   are   analysed.   This   article   intends   to   augment   current   research   on   the   usage  
(Gehl   &   Svarre,   2013),   the   promotion   of   physical   activity   with   playful   interventions   (Knöll,   Dutz,  
Hardy,   &   Göbel,   2014),   “active   design”   (City   of   New   York,   2010)   and   the   walkability   (City   of   New  
York,  2013)  of  public  space,  which  has  so  far  paid  little  attention  to  environmental  stressors.  

Background:  The  built  environment  and  stress  perception  

Environmental  aspects,  which  have  been  related  to  various  manifestations  of  urban  stress,  include  
noise,   crowding   of   residents,   extreme   heat   waves   and   air   pollution   (Evans   &   Cohen,   1987),  
motorized   traffic   (Appleyard   &   Lintell,   1972)   and   lack   of   green   space   (De   Vries,   2010).   Knöll   et   al.  
(2014)   have   developed   a   set   of   11   bipolar   adjectives   (e.g.   spacious,   narrow,   see   Table   1),   which   they  
related   to   qualitative   data   on   the   perception   of   public   spaces.   In   an   online-­‐survey   conducted   among  
134   students   in   December   2013,   they   analysed   data   from   a   sample   of   24   OPS   in   Darmstadt,  
Germany,  which  consisted  of  parks,  squares,  courtyards,  and  streets  exposed  to  little,  medium  and  
heavy   amounts   of   motorized   traffic.   The   results   confirmed   that   the   exposure   to   noise,   motorized  
traffic,  and  the  lack  of  green  space  are  strongly  associated  with  participants’  ratings  of  OPS  as  being  
stressful.   The   survey   underlines   the   critical   role   of   context   (work   or   leisure)   as   well   as   modes   of  
travel   (walking,   cycling,   public   transport   or   driving   in   a   car).   Ratings   of   spaciousness,   lightness,  
liveliness   and   safety   could   not   be   assigned   to   either   ratings   of   stressful   or   relaxing   OPS.   A   visual  
analysis   of   the   spatial   distribution   of   people’s   ratings   suggests   a   higher   concentration   of   ratings   of  
“stressful”  OPS  along  busy  roads,  as  well  as  in  the  compact  city  centre  and  western  city  areas.  A  finer  
grain   of   built   space,   especially   structures   with   low   densities   such   as   one   family   housing,   seem   to  
consist   of   more   OPS   rated   as   relaxing   (Knöll,   Neuheuser,   Vogt,   &   Rudolph-­‐Cleff,   2014).   In   order   to  
specify   possible   correlations   between   the   morphology   and   stress   ratings,   this   article   presents   a  
selection   of   syntactical   properties,   which   have   been   previously   associated   with   stress-­‐related  
1
behaviours  and  health  outcomes  in  space  syntax  research  literature .  

1.1.  Space  syntax  and  environmental  psychology  

Montello   (2007)   states   that   space   syntax   provides   a   set   of   quantitative   indices   for   characterising  
places  in  ways  that  would  be  relevant  to  research  a  variety  of  psychological  responses.  This  would  
include  peoples’  perception  of  spaciousness,  stress  and  fear.  From  his  viewpoint  of  an  environmental  

                                                                                                               
1
 Search  words  included  health,  stress,  perception,  psychology,  mental  health,  emotion,  affect  in  Proceedings  of  
Sypace  Syntax  Symposia  7-­‐9  as  well  as  the  Journal  of  Space  Syntax  (JOSS)  website.  

M  Knöll,  Y  Li,  K  Neuheuser  &  A  Rudolph-­‐Cleff     123:2  

Using  space  syntax  to  analyse  stress  of  open  public  spaces  
SSS10  Proceedings  of  the  10th  International  Space  Syntax  Symposium    

psychologist,   Montello   identifies   future   directions   in   developing   evaluation   measures   such   as  

connectivity  and  visibility  to  find  causal  factors.  In  particular,  he  emphasizes  the  unresolved  role  of  
isovist  analysis  in  studying  the  visual  characters  of  an  outdoor  space  (Montello,  2007).  Dara-­‐Abrams  
(2009)   has   reviewed   studies   that   pair   environmental   analysis   with   behavioural   measures   on  
locomotion,   way-­‐finding   and   spatial   knowledge.   Her   categorization   of   point-­‐based,   line-­‐based,   and  
polygon-­‐based   models   of   environmental   measures   (Dara-­‐Abrams,   2009)   has   guided   the   following  
brief  review  of  relevant  syntactic  properties.  

1.2.  Isovist  properties  

Franz   and   Wiener   (2008)   have   derived   a   set   of   spatial   qualities   including   spaciousness,   openness,  
complexity   and   order   from   a   review   of   normative   architectural   theory   and   linked   them   to   isovist  
properties.  From  earlier  empirical  studies  with  virtual  reality  environments  (VR),  Wiener  et  al.  (2008)  
put  an  emphasis  on  the  significant  relations  between  isovist  properties  and  users’  ratings  of  spaces  
in   terms   of   “pleasingness”,   “beauty”   and   “interestingness”.   “Interestingness”,   which   they   see   as   one  
indicator   for   arousal,   is   considered   to   be   related   with   isovist   roundness,   openness   ratio,   vertices  
number   and   vertices   density   (Franz   &   Wiener,   2008).   Wiener   et   al.   (2007)   had   shown   that   both   –  
users’  ratings  of  “interestingness”  and  complexity  –  were  positively  associated  with  the  number  of  
vertices.   However,   since   the   measures   above   have   been   used   for   indoor   settings,   their   relevance   for  
outdoor  settings  remains  open.    

In   order   to   assess   physical   and   psychological   experiences   of   real   outdoor   spaces,   Osmond   (2011)  
points   out   the   traditional   measurands   such   as   isovist   area,   perimeter,   maximal   radials,   occlusivity  
(Benedikt,   1979)   and   compactness   (Batty,   2001).   Osmond   (2011)   underlines   that   isovist   area   and  
perimeter   would   be   important   factors   when   studying   “visual   stimulation”   in   terms   of   the  
information   available   in   a   given   surrounding   environment.   He  points   out   that   many   different   objects  
can   block   visibility   in   outdoor   spaces,   most   notably   vegetation,   and   it   is   difficult   to   quantify   which  
grade  of  partial  occlusion  is  resulted  by  vegetation.  Osmond  (2011)  mentions  3  practical  approaches:  
a)  to  assume  that  vegetation  would  be  visually  permeable  at  eyes’  level,  b)  it  would  be  not  visually  
permeable,   or   c)   each   vegetation   element   needs   to   be   assessed   individually.   Since   the   data   on  
peoples’  perception  of  outdoor  spaces    used  in  this  study  were  conducted  during  the  winter  season  
(Knöll,   Neuheuser,   Vogt,   &   Rudolph-­‐Cleff,   2014),   when   trees   and   vegetation   are   more   permeable,  
approach   a)   is   chosen   here.   It   is   therefore   assumed   that   vegetation   is   visually   permeable.   This  
approach   is   more   time-­‐efficient   than   c),   but   for   this   particular   case   more   accurate   than   b).   This  
assumption  allows  us  to  construct  isovist  properties  of  outdoor  spaces  without  having  to  assess  each  
element   of   vegetation   individually.   Osmond   (2011)   points   out   that   all   factors   would   have   to   be  
tested  in  further  settings  that  combine  quantitative  data  on  isovist  properties  with  qualitative  data  
on   users’   perception.   This   study   will   relate   isovist   area   and   perimeter   to   users’   stress   ratings   in   open  
spaces.    

More   recently,   Kuliga   et   al.   (2013)   have   linked   qualitative   data   of   users’   perception   of   the   Seattle  
Public  Library  with  their  analysis  of  convex  spaces,  visibility  graphs  and  point  isovist  properties.  Their  
aim  was  to  evaluate  “emotional  appraisal”  as  a  special  state  of  mind  that  is  different  from  everyday  
life   and   would   be   part   of   an   emotional   process   evoked   by   the   aesthetic   processing   of   an   object  
(Kuliga,   Dalton   Conroy,   &   Hölscher,   2013).   To   this   end,   they   chose   a   subset   of   6   bipolar   adjectives  
with  six-­‐point  intervals  on  a  semantically  different  scale  (e.g.  narrow/spacious),  which  were  gained  
through   a   standardized   questionnaire   with   visitors,   who   were   mostly   unfamiliar   with   the   building.  
Specifically,   they   looked   into   seven   syntactic   measures   of   isovist   integration:   full   (360°)   and   partial  
(120°)   isovist   area,   isovist   connectivity,   isovist   visual   control,   mean   depth   and   relative   asymmetry.  
Calculating   isovist   properties   for   a   local   reference   point,   they   also   took   mean   values   of   bigger  
subareas  and  found  mean  isovist  area  as  the  best  predictor  for  “spaciousness,  safety  and  openness”.  
In   addition,   Kuliga   and   colleagues   used   a   selection   of   polygon-­‐based   syntactic   measures.   Overall,  
Isovist  integration  was  found   the  best  predictor  for  participants’  perception  of   a  space  as  “public”  or    
“private”  (Kuliga,  Dalton  Conroy,  &  Hölscher,  2013).  It  is  important  to  note  that  this  is  one  of  the  few  
works   that   combine   point-­‐based   and   polygon-­‐based   syntactic   measures.   However,   since   the  
construction  of  convex  spaces  (which  are  to  be  analysed  in  a  polygon-­‐based  model  for  a  sample  of  

M  Knöll,  Y  Li,  K  Neuheuser  &  A  Rudolph-­‐Cleff     123:3  

Using  space  syntax  to  analyse  stress  of  open  public  spaces  
SSS10  Proceedings  of  the  10th  International  Space  Syntax  Symposium    

outdoor  spaces)  is  beyond  the  scope  of  this  project,  isovist  integration  is  not  included  in  this  study.  
Isovist   area,   as   an   important   indicator   for   the   perception   of   spaciousness   in   indoor   spaces,   will   be  
included  to  test  their  performance  for  outdoor  spaces.  

1.3.  Street  network  characteristics  

The  degree  of  integration  of  particular  street  segments  in  the  urban  grid  has  been  considered  as  a  
pervasive   indicator   for   pedestrian   movement   pattern   (Hillier,   Penn,   Hanson,   &   Grajewski,   1993).  
Usually,  one  distinguishes  between  local  integration  and  global  integration,  which  indicate  how  well  
a  street  segment  is  integrated  into  the  local  or  citywide  /  regional  street  network.  In  addition,  local  
integration   indicates   how   well   a   street   segment   is   connected   to   its   immediate   neighbourhood.  
Recently,  Wineman  and  colleagues  (2012)  have  used  global  and  local  integration  values  of  peoples’  
home   address   street   segments   to   relate   to   their   self-­‐reported   amount   of   physical   activities.   Each  
respondent   was   assigned   the   mean   value   for   both   global   integration   and   connectivity   of   street  
segments  in  a  1/4  mile  and  1/2  mile  radius  from  the  respondent's  block.  Their  study  shows  that  both  
mean   global   integration   and   mean   connectivity   were   positively   associated   with   reported   physical  
activities  (Wineman,  Marans,  Schulz,  Van  der  Westhuizen,  Mentz,  &  Max,  2012).  Sakar  et  al.  (2013)  
have  used  syntactic  properties  and  related  them  to  data  of  psychological  distress  of  older  men.  They  
used   the   expression   “movement   potential”,   which   we   interpret   as   integration   values   here.   They  
distinguish  integration  on  a  local  (r  =  1200m),  citywide  (r=3000m)  and  regional  scale  (r=N),  as  well  as  
connectivity   as   the   number   of   segments   connected   to   a   given   segment   (Sarkar,   Gallacher,   &  
Webster,  2013).  High  connectivity  is  synonymous  to  a  high  density  of  street  intersections,  which  may  
be  related  to  arousal  and  stress  when  users  walk  through  such  an  area.  Sarkar  and  colleagues  (2013)  
found   that   high   levels   of   "local-­‐level   accessibility",   e.g.   high   values   in   local   integration   (r=1200   m)  
was   associated   with   lower   odds   of   psychological   distress   in   older   men.   According   to   their  
explanation,   the   high   value   of   local   integration   is  associated   with   high   walkability   of   the   area,   where  
respondents   would   have   more   access   to   public   life   and   care   facilities.   At   the   same   time,   they   also  
found  that  high  global  integration  values,  which  is  collinear  with  high  amounts  of  motorized  traffic,  
are   correlated   with   higher   odds   of   psychological   distress.   Connectivity   was   found   not   being  
significantly   related   to   psychological   distress   in   that   study   (Sarkar,   Gallacher,   &   Webster,   2013).   In  
the  following  sections,  this  study  will  include  global,  citywide  and  local  integration  and  connectivity.  

2.  Research  Questions  
a.   How   do   selected   isovist   properties   previously   associated   with   the   spatial   perception   and  
emotional  appraisal  of  indoor  spaces  relate  to  ratings  of  spaciousness,  traffic,  liveliness  and  safety  of  
outdoor   spaces?   How   do   isovist   properties   previously   associated   to   visual   stimulation,   arousal  
theoretically  relate  to  ratings  of  OPS  as  being  stressful  or  relaxing?    

b.  How  do  the  selected  street  network  characteristics  previously  associated  to  pedestrian  movement  
and   motorized   traffic   relate   to   ratings   of   traffic,   liveliness   and   safety?   How   do   syntactic   properties  
previously  related  to  self-­‐reported  amount  of  physical  activities  and  psychological  distress  relate  to  
users’  ratings  of  OPS  as  being  stressful  or  relaxing?    

c.   How   do   isovist   properties   and   street   network   characteristics   compare   in   their   relationships   to  
ratings  of  stressful,  relaxing,  and  spacious  OPS?  

3.  Method  
3.1.  Material  

Maps:   We   used   data   from   OpenStreetMap   (OpenStreetMap   contributors,   2015),   to   which   we   added  
footpaths  basing  on  satellite  photos  provided  by  Google  Maps  (Google  Inc.,  2015).  

M  Knöll,  Y  Li,  K  Neuheuser  &  A  Rudolph-­‐Cleff     123:4  

Using  space  syntax  to  analyse  stress  of  open  public  spaces  
SSS10  Proceedings  of  the  10th  International  Space  Syntax  Symposium    

Sample   and   reference   points:   The   study   sample   includes   a   total   amount   of   22   open   public   spaces  
(OPS),  which  were  rated  by  a  total  of  134  participants  as  presented  in  the  study  of  Knöll  et  al.  (2014).  
We  excluded  2  OPS,  as  one  is  not  an  outdoor  space,  and  the  other  is  located  on  the  fringe  of  the  city,  
which  makes  the  construction  of  isovists  impossible  with  the  available  plan  material.    

     

(a)   (b)   (c)  

Figure   1   shows   how   the   isovist   were   generated   from   a   hypothetical   outdoor   environment   (a),   for   which   the  
reference  point  was  retrieved  by  choosing  the  point  with  the  highest  visibility.  Part  (b)  indicates  the  grey  area  as  
visible   area   from   a   person’s   standpoint   on   eye   level   (1.60   m).   Trees   and   any   vegetation   are   seen   as   non-­‐
obstructive  here.  Part  (c)  shows  the  resulted  isovist  of  an  OPS  and  its  basic  measures.  Illustration  is  based  on  
(Franz  &  Wiener,  2008).  

The   original   online   survey   only   provided   a   verbal   description   of   an   OPS   (e.g.   “pedestrian   pathway  
next  to  the  Public  Library”)  in  combination  with  an  overview  map  highlighting  the  sub  areas  (Knöll,  
Neuheuser,   Vogt,   &   Rudolph-­‐Cleff,   2014).   Since   they   had   been   chosen   manually,   more   specific  
reference   points   were   needed   in   this   study   for   the   construction   of   isovists   and   selection   of  
appropriate  street  segments.  Franz  and  Wiener  (2008)  point  out  that  the  most  visible  points  will  also  
allow  the  best  overview  and  may  therefore  optimally  represent  the  overall  environment.  They  have  
suggested   that   the   outcomes   of   behavioural   experiments   involving   visibility   analysis   would   be  
considerably   robust   against   the   selection   strategy   for   local   reference   points.   In   the   following,  
reference  points  for  each  OPS  were  specified,  which  are  supposed  to  have  the  maximal  visibility  in  
each   of   the   22   OPS.   These   reference   points   were   retrieved   from   the   visibility   map   of   Darmstadt  
constructed  with  depthmapX  software  (Varoudis,  2012).  

3.2.  Variables  
Isovist  properties  –  spaciousness,  complexity,  stress  perception  

Isovist  area  is  defined  in  this  study  as  the  amount  of  space,  which  is  unobstructed  by  built  space  of  
any  kind  at  eye  level  (1.60  meter)  from  the  reference  point  in  square  meter.  Vegetation  is  assumed  
not   to   obstruct   views   in   this   study.   We   assume   that   high   amounts   of   isovist   area   are   positively  
associated  with  ratings  of  OPS  as  being  spacious.  

Isovist  perimeter  is  defined  in  this  study  as  the  total  outline  of  an  isovist  area  in  meter.  It  has  been  
seen  as  co-­‐indicator  to  visual  stimulation  in  combination  with  isovist  area.    

Isovist  roundness  is  defined  in  this  study  as  the  relation  between  isovist  area  and  its  perimeter  set  in  
square.  Isovist  roundness  has  been  related  to  interestingness.  We  assume  that  isovist  roundness  is  
negatively  associated  with  ratings  of  stressful  OPS.    

M  Knöll,  Y  Li,  K  Neuheuser  &  A  Rudolph-­‐Cleff     123:5  

Using  space  syntax  to  analyse  stress  of  open  public  spaces  
SSS10  Proceedings  of  the  10th  International  Space  Syntax  Symposium    

Openness  ratio  is  defined  in  this  study  as  the  balance  between  closed  and  open  edges  of  an  isovist  
(see  Figure  1),  which  has  also  been  considered  as  being  related  to  visual  stimulation,  and  as  indicator  
for   “interestingness”   and   associated   with   arousal.   We   assume   that   high   values   in   openness   ratio   are  
positively  associated  with  ratings  of  stressful  OPS.    

Vertices  number  is  defined  in  this  study  as  the  total  amount  of  vertices  of  an  isovist  perimeter  and  
vertex   density   as   standardized   index   of   vertex   number   divided   by   isovist   area.   Both   variables   have  
been   considered   related   to   the   ratings   of   complexity   and   “interestingness”   of   an   isovist,   which   in  
turn   could   be   associated   with   arousal.   We   assume   that   high   vertices   number   as   well   as   high   vertices  
density  are  positively  related  to  ratings  of  OPS  as  being  stressful.    

Street  network  –  exposure  to  traffic,  walkability  and  stress  perception  

Global   integration   is   defined   in   this   study   as   the   mean   depth   of   integration   on   a   regional   level  
(computed   using   depthmapX   software   with   the   radius   r=N).   High   values   in   global   integration   are  
strongly   related   to   main   traffic   hubs   and   inter   city   routes.   We   assume   that   high   values   of   global  
integration  are  positively  related  to  high  ratings  of  stressful  OPS  and  high  ratings  of  motorized  traffic.  

Citywide  integration  is  defined  in  this  study  as  the  integration  level  of  street  segments  in  a  citywide  
network   (computed   with   r=3000   m).   High   citywide   integration   is   assumed   to   be   positively   related   to  
ratings  of  motorized  traffic  and  stress.  

Local  integration  is  defined  in  this  study  as  the  integration  of  street  segments  on  a  neighbourhood  
level  (computed  with  r=1200m).  Local   integration   is   associated   with   a   good   walkability   and   low   odds  
of   overall   psychological   distress   in   some   groups   of   inhabitants.   We   assume   high   values   in   local  
integration   to   be   positively   associated   high   ratings   in   liveliness   and   safety,   and   negatively   associated  
with  ratings  of  stress.  

Axial  Connectivity  is  defined  in  this  study  as  the  number  of  segments  that  are  directly  connected  to  a  
given   street   segment.   High   values   in   axial   connectivity   are   co-­‐linear   with   high   densities   of  
intersections.  It  is  assumed  that  high  connectivity  is  associated  with  high  ratings  of  stressful  OPS.  

Ratings  of  spatial  qualities  and  stress  perception  

Category   English   German  

  Low  extreme   High  extreme   Minimum   Maximum  

Maximum   Überhaupt  nicht   Maximal  stressig  

Stress   Not  stressful  (1)  
stressful  (10)   stressig  (1)   (10)  

Maximum   Überhaupt  nicht   Maximal  

Relax   Not  relaxing  (1)  
relaxing  (10)   entspannend  (1)   entspannend  (10)  

Spaciousness   Narrow  (1)   Spacious  (10)   Eng  (1)   Weit  (10)  

Heavy  traffic  
Traffic   Low  traffic  (1)   Wenig  Verkehr  (1)   Viel  Verkehr  (10)  
(10)  

Livelihood   Not  lively  (1)   Lively  (10)   Nicht  belebt  (1)   Belebt  (10)  

Safety   Unsafe  (1)   Safe  (10)   Unsicher  (1)   Sicher  (10)  

Table  1:  Categories  of  adjectives  used  by  participants  to  rate  perception  of  OPS  on  a  10-­‐point  interval  

In  this  study,  we  use  a  subset  of  six  bipolar  adjective-­‐scales,  which  were  translated  to  English  (Table  
1)  and  are  reproduced  in  Table  2,  as  first  presented  by  Knöll  et  al.  in  (2014).  The  original  rating  task  
comprised   eleven   core   aspects   of   environmental   and   behavioural   experience   and   subjects   could  
differentiate   their   appraisals   using   a   ten-­‐step   scale.   Table   2   shows   means   (M)   and   standard  
deviations  (SD)  of  all  22  OPS  and  indicates  the  number  of  participants  (n)  rating  for  each  OPS.  

M  Knöll,  Y  Li,  K  Neuheuser  &  A  Rudolph-­‐Cleff     123:6  

Using  space  syntax  to  analyse  stress  of  open  public  spaces  
 SSS10  Proceedings  of  the  10th  International  Space  Syntax  Symposium    

Stress   Relax   Spaciousness   Traffic   Liveliness   Safety  

Category   OPS   n  
M   SD   M   SD   M   SD   M   SD   M   SD   M   SD  
park   1   16   2,44   1,82   8,13   1,86   6,13   2,13   2,60   2,26   8,33   1,59   2,71   2,64  
  2   73   2,48   1,59   7,79   1,74   8,23   2,09   3,11   2,04   8,03   1,67   4,24   2,26  
3   4   3,75   3,77   5,25   2,36   6,50   1,29   6,25   2,87   4,75   1,71   4,00   1,41  
square   4   41   8,17   1,51   2,24   1,59   5,88   2,41   9,02   1,27   8,85   1,37   5,49   2,39  
5   58   8,90   1,24   1,86   1,30   5,55   2,44   9,59   0,82   9,43   1,24   5,79   2,37  
6   33   4,45   1,64   5,27   1,82   7,06   1,73   5,12   2,63   8,21   1,73   3,25   2,05  
7   1   1,00   0,00   10,00   0,00   8,00   0,00   1,00   0,00   7,00   0,00   1,00   0,00  
courtyard   8   11   1,91   0,83   8,45   1,04   6,27   1,62   1,64   0,92   5,55   0,93   2,45   0,82  
9   57   3,79   1,79   5,70   2,17   4,58   1,59   2,89   2,35   7,63   1,43   3,46   1,66  
10   6   1,17   0,41   9,67   0,52   9,17   1,33   1,67   0,82   5,00   1,41   3,80   2,77  
Pedestria 11   26   2,54   1,33   7,77   1,27   5,46   1,59   3,69   1,87   6,54   1,48   4,54   1,75  
n  
12   73   6,67   2,02   3,82   2,04   5,08   1,87   4,77   2,92   8,58   1,40   4,59   2,03  
zone  
13   4   3,00   0,00   7,75   0,96   2,00   0,82   3,75   2,22   4,50   2,38   5,25   3,30  
14   30   3,83   2,20   5,90   2,06   4,93   1,78   3,67   2,34   5,17   1,82   4,62   2,13  
medium   15   25   2,72   1,21   7,32   1,65   4,92   1,80   2,64   1,25   4,28   1,37   3,40   1,80  
traffic  
16   32   4,28   1,73   5,28   1,82   4,59   1,16   4,56   1,88   4,56   1,54   5,16   1,82  
street  
17   57   3,63   1,79   5,74   2,02   4,32   1,56   4,21   1,89   4,40   1,57   4,02   1,84  
18   17   3,82   1,78   5,71   1,96   4,29   1,31   4,18   1,33   4,35   1,62   3,94   1,68  
heavy   19   15   5,47   1,88   4,07   1,58   5,13   1,85   8,20   1,47   4,80   2,18   5,27   1,53  
traffic  
20   68   7,93   1,57   2,58   1,69   6,31   2,15   9,46   0,87   7,65   2,35   6,02   2,14  
street  
21   37   7,70   1,54   2,54   1,64   6,00   2,15   8,76   1,74   7,76   1,80   6,44   1,95  
22   14   7,23   1,54   2,85   1,28   4,00   1,75   8,31   1,60   5,77   2,20   6,77   2,13  
Table  2:  OPS-­‐ratings  (Knöll,  Neuheuser,  Vogt,  &  Rudolph-­‐Cleff,  2014)  

3.3.  Statistics  &  Software  

All  syntactic  properties  were  constructed  using  depthmapX  software  (Varoudis,  2012).  Vertices  were  
counted  using  Adobe  Illustrator  (Adobe  System  Inc.,  2014)  to  which  isovist  polygons  of  each  OPS  (in  
.eps   format)   were   individually   imported   from   depthmapX.   The   relation   between   ratings   and  
syntactic   properties   was   analysed   in   a   two-­‐phase   process   using   IBM   SPSS   Statistics   22.   In   the   first  
step,   the   rating   results   were   averaged   by   category   over   all   subjects   per   OPS.   In   the   second   step,  
linear  correlation  coefficients  were  calculated.  The  rating  data  were  treated  as  even-­‐interval-­‐scaled  
to   calculate   Pearson´s   product   moment   correlation   r.   Additionally,   Kendall   tau-­‐b   correlation   τ   was  
calculated.   The   probability   of   the   non-­‐directional   null   hypothesis   is   indicated   by   p   values:   p-­‐values  
below  0.05  were  treated  as  significant  correlations  (*),  p-­‐values  below  0.01  as  highly  significant  (**).    

4.  Findings  
4.1.  Isovist  Properties  
A  selection  of  isovists  constructed  for  each  typology  of  OPS  (parks,  squares,  courts  and  streets  with  
low,  medium  and  high  motorized  traffic)  shows  a  variety  of  shapes  (fig.  2)  and  properties  (Table  3).  A  
visual  investigation  of  the  isovists  reveals  some  similarities  according  to  their  typology.  Squares  and  
parks,  as  well  as  courtyards,   seem   to   have   shorter   maximum   radial   lines   compared   to   streets   with  
heavy  motorized  traffic.  The  length  of  radial  lines  seems  to  decrease  with  smaller  amount  of  traffic  
(fig.2).   The   results   of   the   constructed   isovist   properties   reveal   a   great   variety   of   geometry   and  
shapes   of   OPS   in   the   whole   as   well   as   within   the   categories   of   parks,   squares,  courtyards  and  streets  
(Table  3).  

M  Knöll,  Y  Li,  K  Neuheuser  &  A  Rudolph-­‐Cleff     123:7  

Using  space  syntax  to  analyse  stress  of  open  public  spaces  
SSS10  Proceedings  of  the  10th  International  Space  Syntax  Symposium    

   
 (a)  courtyard    (b)  pedestrian  

   
 (c)  square   (d)  park  

Bismarckstraße

   
(e)  medium  traffic   (f)  high  traffic  

Figure  2  shows  a  selection  of  isovists  from  each  of  the  six  categories  and  their  vantage  points  in  the  same  scale.  
Red   indicates   high   Vertices   Density.   Blue   indicates   low   Vertices   Density.   Vertices   Density   has   been   shown  
weakly  associated  to  users'  ratings  of  "safety".  

M  Knöll,  Y  Li,  K  Neuheuser  &  A  Rudolph-­‐Cleff     123:8  

Using  space  syntax  to  analyse  stress  of  open  public  spaces  
SSS10  Proceedings  of  the  10th  International  Space  Syntax  Symposium    

Total  area     Perimeter     Number  of   Vertices  Density   Roundness  

Category   OPS   2 2 Openness  
(m )   (m)   Vertices   (v/m²)   (area  /  perimeter )  
park   1   94021,30   4273,28   243   0,2585%   0,5149%   0,25  

  2   187950,00   9155,45   560   0,2980%   0,2242%   0,24  

  3   200648,00   14134,70   599   0,2985%   0,1004%   0,16  

square   4   68970,80   3657,51   243   0,3523%   0,5156%   0,28  

  5   133313,00   9137,51   277   0,2078%   0,1597%   0,21  

  6   33963,90   2097,91   248   0,7302%   0,7717%   0,42  

  7   66607,90   6180,25   477   0,7161%   0,1744%   0,22  

courtyard   8   61147,90   5360,98   452   0,7392%   0,2128%   0,24  

  9   2495,41   320,54   59   2,3643%   2,4287%   0,75  

  10   28652,40   2551,45   76   0,2652%   0,4401%   0,14  

pedestria
11   253092,00   13700,10   645   0,1148%   0,1492%   0,17  
n    
zone   12   38741,20   3748,65   254   0,6556%   0,2757%   0,36  

  13   36646,50   3378,90   260   0,7095%   0,3210%   0,27  

  14   83866,60   5349,92   268   0,3196%   0,2930%   0,19  

medium  
15   57602,60   4795,88   422   0,7326%   0,2504%   0,24  
traffic  
street   16   50055,20   5478,44   233   0,4655%   0,1668%   0,25  

  17   270094,00   15416,20   619   0,2292%   0,1136%   0,15  

  18   451776,00   26126,50   673   0,1490%   0,0662%   0,10  

heavy  
19   27758,70   2507,38   153   0,5512%   0,4415%   0,43  
traffic    
street   20   336809,00   15548,40   483   0,1434%   0,1393%   0,17  

  21   324341,00   20798,20   525   0,1619%   0,0750%   0,10  

  22   204372,00   10647,30   319   0,1561%   0,1803%   0,18  

Table  3:    Isovist  properties  for  all  22  OPS  

4.2.  Street  network  characteristics  

The  data  retrieved  from  computing  street  network  characteristics  of  street  segments  being  closest  to  
the  reference  point  of  each  OPS  reveals  a  wide  range  of  integration  and  connectivity  values  (Table  
4).   OPS   such   as   parks   usually   consist   of   many   street   network   segments,   for   example   footpaths,   in  
close   proximity.   The   big   park   in   the   city   centre   contains   street   segments   with   various   values   of  
integration  as  well  as  connectivity  within  it.  (Figure  3)  

M  Knöll,  Y  Li,  K  Neuheuser  &  A  Rudolph-­‐Cleff     123:9  

Using  space  syntax  to  analyse  stress  of  open  public  spaces  
SSS10  Proceedings  of  the  10th  International  Space  Syntax  Symposium    

   
(a)  connectivity  (axial)   (b)  connectivity  (segmented)  

   
(c)  global  integration  (r=N)   (d)  city  wide  integration  (r=3000)  

   
(e)  local  integration  (r=1200)   (f)  OPS  

Figure  3  shows  street  network  characteristics  of  a  selection  of  OPS.  Red  indicates  high  values  and  blue  low  
values.  (f)  indicates  the  ID  number  of  OPS  

M  Knöll,  Y  Li,  K  Neuheuser  &  A  Rudolph-­‐Cleff     123:10  

Using  space  syntax  to  analyse  stress  of  open  public  spaces  
SSS10  Proceedings  of  the  10th  International  Space  Syntax  Symposium    

Global   Citywide  Integration   Local  Integration   Connectivity   Connectivity  

Category   OPS  
Integration  (r=n)   (r=3000)   (r=1200)   (Axial)   (Segmented)  
1   964,83   699,78   244,75   2   3  

park   2   1086,22   839,17   340,94   11   7  

3   836,87   568,11   189,13   3   3  

4   858,43   565,11   118,88   1   3  

5   1062,20   878,10   277,93   9   6  

square  
6   1091,60   840,45   268,03   5   5  

7   897,66   625,91   210,37   3   3  

8   710,04   479,92   156,90   2   3  

courtyard   9   873,49   655,02   190,83   2   2  

10   797,65   388,82   65,59   6   5  

11   871,88   613,13   195,00   3   4  

12   1062,72   865,71   250,37   5   5  

Pedestria
n  zone  
13   956,67   687,28   288,82   3   4  

14   937,03   705,35   232,68   8   4  

15   950,18   661,85   238,11   6   4  

medium   16   996,86   717,80   131,87   5   5  

traffic  
street   17   1066,39   752,08   261,68   7   4  

18   856,10   518,28   171,40   5   5  

19   982,47   791,87   258,34   5   7  

heavy   20   1067,06   809,82   206,97   4   4  

traffic  
street   21   953,72   587,54   163,45   7   4  

22   1148,47   809,62   175,22   2   2  

Table  4:  Syntactic  street  network  characteristics  

4.3.  Correlation  Analysis  

As  assumed  in  chapter  3.2.,  we  expect  correlations  both  between  OPS-­‐ratings  and  isovist  properties  
and  between  OPS-­‐ratings  and  street  network  characteristics.  Table  5  shows  Pearson`s  p  and  Kendall  
tau-­‐b  correlation  matrices.  Averaged  ratings  of  the  six  environmental  and  behavioural  aspects  were  
correlated   to   the   six   analysed   isovist   properties   and   to   the   five   analysed   street   network  
characteristics.  Because  of  varying  and  partly  small  sample  sizes  of  the  OPS-­‐ratings,  we  report  both  
correlation  coefficients  to  endorse  the  results.  

Relation  between  isovist  properties  and  OPS-­‐ratings  

The   rating   for   safety   was   negatively   correlated   with   isovist   vertices   density.   Kendall`s   tau   showed  
low   correlation   of   (  =   -­‐.325,   p   =   0.03)   and   Pearson   a   marginally   significant   result   (r   =   -­‐.365,   p   =  
0.09)  (see  Table  5).  No  other  correlations  were  found.  

M  Knöll,  Y  Li,  K  Neuheuser  &  A  Rudolph-­‐Cleff     123:11  

Using  space  syntax  to  analyse  stress  of  open  public  spaces  
 SSS10  Proceedings  of  the  10th  International  Space  Syntax  Symposium    

Stress   Relax   Spaciousness   Traffic   Liveliness   Safety  

  p     p     p     p     p     p    
Total  area  
2 .247   .134   -­‐.281   -­‐.156   -­‐.078   -­‐.004   .331   .203   -­‐.077   .004   .319   .169  
(m )  

Perimeter  
.218   .100   -­‐.262   -­‐.139   -­‐.097   -­‐.022   .301   .169   -­‐.151   -­‐.100   .282   .152  
(m)  
Isovist  properties  

Number  of  
-­‐.113   -­‐.061   .074   .022   .034   .035   -­‐.013   .009   -­‐.180   -­‐.139   -­‐.073   .009  
Vertices  

Vertices  Density   -­‐

-­‐.213   -­‐.169   .165   .174   -­‐.153   -­‐.013   -­‐.343   -­‐.273   .081   -­‐.039   -­‐.365  
(v/m²)   .325*  
Roundness  
(area  /   -­‐.085   -­‐.082   .034   .121   -­‐.063   .056   -­‐.185   -­‐.152   .243   .169   -­‐.209   -­‐.100  
2
perimeter )  

Openness   .000   .074   -­‐.051   -­‐.053   -­‐.146   -­‐.082   -­‐.104   -­‐.013   .267   .203   -­‐.185   -­‐.048  

Global  Integration   -­‐

.479*   .299   -­‐.243   -­‐.192   -­‐.100   .432*   .299   .290   .169   .449*   .264  
(r=n)   .470*  
Street  Network  Characteristics  

Citywide  
-­‐ -­‐
Integration   .461*   .351*   -­‐.228   -­‐.082   .393   .316*   .385   .290   .333   .247  
.458*   .312*  
(r=3000)  
Local  Integration  
.000   -­‐.048   -­‐.001   .069   -­‐.187   -­‐.030   -­‐.004   .004   .202   .117   -­‐.048   -­‐.013  
(r=1200)  

Connectivity  
.061   .078   -­‐.067   -­‐.027   .216   .078   .046   .059   .032   -­‐.078   .175   .123  
(Axial)  

Connectivity  
.077   .144   -­‐.071   -­‐.101   .195   .077   .135   .173   .022   -­‐.019   .182   .134  
(Segmented)  

Table  5:  Pearson`s  p  and  Kendall  tau-­‐b  correlation  matrices  

Relation  between  street  network  characteristics  and  OPS-­‐ratings  

High   values   in   global   integration   are   positively   associated   with   high   values   in   stress   ratings.  
Correlations  are  significant  for  Pearson  (r  =  .479,  p  =  0.02)  and  marginally  significant  for  Kendall`s  tau  
(  =   .299,   p   =   0.06).   They   are   also   negatively   related   to   high   ratings   of   relaxing   OPS,   but   only   for  
Pearson   (r   =   -­‐.470,   p   =   0.03).   The   same   relations   exist   with   citywide   integration   values   (r=3000m).  
Correlations   to   the   stress-­‐ratings   in   our   study   are   significant   for   Pearson   (r   =   .461,   p   =   0.03)   and  
Kendall  tau  b  (  =  .351,  p  =  0.02)  as  well  as  negative  correlations  to  the  relax-­‐ratings  (r  =  -­‐.458,  p  =  
0.03;    =   -­‐.312,   p   =   0.04).   This   may   be   explained   by   the   fact   that   citywide   (r=3000m)   integration  
values   are   also   associated   to   high   volumes   of   inner-­‐city   pedestrian   movement.   We   may   assume   that  
participants   experience   street   segments   of   high   citywide   integration   more   often   as   pedestrians   than  
street  segments  characterized  by  high  global  integration.  This  may  explain  that  they  are  more  often  
exposed   to   traffic   as   pedestrians,   and   therefore   rate   stressful   OPS   with   higher   significance.   The  
investigation  of  the  spatial  distribution  confirms  that  stressful  OPS  rated  by  the  participants  tend  to  
be   located   along   roads   with   high   values   in   global   integration   and   therefore   associated   with   highly  
motorized  traffic  (Figure  4).  

High  values  of  global  and  citywide  integration  are  positively  related  to  ratings  of  OPS  as  exposed  to  
traffic  (Table  5).  Pearson`s  correlation  coefficients  are  marginally  significant  for  citywide  integration  
(r   =   .393,   p   =   0.07)   and   significant   for   global   integration   (r   =   432,   p   =   0.04).   Kendall   tau   b-­‐coefficients  
are   marginally   significant   for   global   integration   (  =   .299,   p   =   0.05)   and   significant   for   citywide  
integration  (  =  .316,  p  =  0.04).  OPS  with  high  values  of  global  integration  are  significantly  rated  as  
unsafe   OPS   (r   =   .449,   p   =   0.04;    =   .264,   p   =   0.09).   The   same   relation   does   not   exist   for   citywide  
integration.  No  correlations  were  found  between  OPS-­‐ratings  and  local  integration,  or  between  OPS-­‐
ratings  and  axial  or  segmented  connectivity.  We  assumed  a  relation  to  stress  ratings,  which  was  not  
found  in  our  study.  

M  Knöll,  Y  Li,  K  Neuheuser  &  A  Rudolph-­‐Cleff     123:12  

Using  space  syntax  to  analyse  stress  of  open  public  spaces  
SSS10  Proceedings  of  the  10th  International  Space  Syntax  Symposium    

 
Figure  4  shows  map  of  Darmstadt  and  the  global  integration  (r=n)  of  its  street  segments  as  well  as  ratings  of  
stressful  OPS.  

5.  Discussion  
Overall,  the  methodology  and  set  of  syntactic  properties  used  in  this  study  allowed  a  time-­‐efficient  
description  of  the  sample  of  22  OPS  on  the  basis  of  available  plan  material.  The  focus  of  this  study  on  
measures   gained   from   point-­‐based   (isovist   analysis)   and   line-­‐based   models   (street   network  
characteristics),   as   is   described   in   (Dara-­‐Abrams,   2009),   leaves   open   how   polygon-­‐based   measures  
such   as   convex   spaces   are   related   to   stress   ratings.   Future   work   should   address   this   question   by  
including  convex  space  analysis  of  a  selection  of  OPS.  The  data  constructed  in  this  article  provides  a  
basis  on  which  to  chose  this  sample.  

Regarding   the   isovist   analysis,   it   is   important   to   note   that   depthmapX   Software   (Varoudis,   2012)  
does  not  support  the  counting  of  vertices  so  far.  A  work  around  was  therefore  developed  (which  is  
described  above),  which  may  result  in  inaccurate  values  due  to  the  lack  of  compatibility  between  the  
two  software  applications.  However,  the  authors  have  included  the  values  on  vertices  number  and  
vertices  density,  as  the  work  around  method  was  consistently  applied  to  all  OPS.  Overall,  the  point-­‐
based   isovist   properties   were   not   significantly   related   to   users’   ratings   of   outdoor   spaces   in   this  
sample.  This  findings  are  contrary  to  earlier  works,  in  which  the  same  isovist  properties  were  used  to  
describe  indoor  spaces  using  both  VR  representations  and  real  building  set  ups.  The  findings  of  this  
study,   however,   do   not   suggest   to   exclude   the   test   set   of   isovist   properties   from   further   research  
describing   outdoor   spaces   for   the   following   reasons.   First,   the   sample   of   OPS   was   small.   Second,   the  
subjects  were  not  present  in  the  OPS  while  they  rated,  but  had  to  recall  their  experience  in  everyday  
life.   Future   work   addressing   point-­‐based   isovist   properties   in   particular   should   further   develop  
experimental   set   ups   “in   the   wild”   (Rogers,   2011),   in   which   subjects’   experience   an   OPS   in   a   most  
undisturbed  way,  in  which  the  precise  reference  point  can  be  better  controlled  for.    

The  results  show  that  street  network  characteristics  relate  more  significantly  to  participants’  ratings  
of   spatial   qualities   as   well   as   stress   perception.   One   explanation   might   be   that   street   network  
characteristics   are   collinear   to   motorized   traffic,   noise   as   well   as   lack   of   green   space,   which   have  
been   shown   to   be   closely   related   to   ratings   of   stress   and   relaxing   (Knöll,   Neuheuser,   Vogt,   &  
Rudolph-­‐Cleff,  2014).  Future  works  should  not  only  check  these  collinearities,  but  also  set  the  chosen  
syntactic  properties  in  comparison  with  objective  data  on  environmental  stressors,  for  example  on  
noise,  with  the  data  gained  from  noise  maps.      

M  Knöll,  Y  Li,  K  Neuheuser  &  A  Rudolph-­‐Cleff     123:13  

Using  space  syntax  to  analyse  stress  of  open  public  spaces  
SSS10  Proceedings  of  the  10th  International  Space  Syntax  Symposium    

The  results  are  preliminary  in  so  far,  for  the  number  of  OPS  in  the  sample  is  restricted  to  n=22  in  a  
variety  of  typologies.  Future  studies  should  compare  the  syntactic  properties  within  the  categories  of  
park,   square,   courtyard   and   different   street   types.   They   should   be   conducted   addressing   a   bigger  
sample  of  OPS  and  more  equal  distribution  of  participants  rating  an  OPS.  Besides,  they  should  also  
identify   and   classify   the   sample   OPS   according   to   their   syntactic   properties.   The   methodology  
presented  in  this  study  can  contribute  to  identifying  those  outdoor  spaces  as  well  as  research  design.    

6.  Conclusion  
This   article   contributes   with   a   set   of   extracted   syntactic   properties,   which   have   been   related   to  
stress-­‐related  cognitive  measures  in  previous  space  syntax  research.  It  provides  preliminary  data  on  
how   line-­‐based   and   point-­‐based   properties   relate   to   users’   ratings   of   stress   in   open   public   spaces  
(OPS).  It  shows  significant  relations  between  global  (r=N),  citywide  (r=3000m)  integration  values  of  
street   segments   and   users’   ratings   of   OPS   as   being   stressful,   relaxing,   safe   and   exposed   to   traffic.  
Global   and   citywide   integration   have   been   shown   positivley   related   to   high   ratings   of   an   OPS   as  
being   stressful.   The   article   shows   a   weak   relation   between   vertices   density   of   outdoor   isovist   and  
participants’  ratings  of  safety.  Overall,  the  results  indicate  specific  street  network  characteristics  as  
valid  measures  to  analyse  pedestrians’  stress  perception  of  open  public  spaces  and  provide  a  further  
basis  to  investigate  the  role  of  point-­‐based  and  polygon-­‐based  properties.  

7.  Acknowledgements  
The  authors  are  grateful  to  Prof.  Dr.  Joachim  Vogt,  who  contributed  to  the  original  study  and  to  Prof.  
Dr.  Thomas  Cleff,  who  advised  on  the  statistical  analysis,  and  Michael  Schütz,  who  contributed  to  the  
analysis  and  illustrations  using  depthmapX.    

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M  Knöll,  Y  Li,  K  Neuheuser  &  A  Rudolph-­‐Cleff     123:15  

Using  space  syntax  to  analyse  stress  of  open  public  spaces