Variable-order fractal-fractional time delay

equations with power, exponential and

Mittag-Leffler laws and their numerical
solutions

J. E. Solís-Pérez & J. F. Gómez-Aguilar

Engineering with Computers

An International Journal for Simulation-
Based Engineering

ISSN 0177-0667

Engineering with Computers

DOI 10.1007/s00366-020-01065-0

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https://doi.org/10.1007/s00366-020-01065-0

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Variable‑order fractal‑fractional time delay equations with power,

exponential and Mittag‑Leffler laws and their numerical solutions
J. E. Solís‑Pérez1 · J. F. Gómez‑Aguilar1 

Received: 9 March 2020 / Accepted: 19 May 2020

© Springer-Verlag London Ltd., part of Springer Nature 2020

Abstract
In this paper, a numerical method based on the Lagrangian piece-wise interpolation is proposed to solve variable-order
fractal-fractional time delay equations with power law, exponential decay and Mittag-Leffler memories. These operators
permit to describe physical phenomena with variable memory and fractal variable dimension. Numerical methods were
applied to simulate the variable-order time delay Mackey–Glass and synaptically coupled FitzHugh–Nagumo models. Our
numerical simulations display several new attractors.

Keywords  Variable-order · Fractal-fractional · Delay time · Power law · Exponential decay kernel · Mittag-Leffler kernel ·
Numerical scheme · Lagrangian piece-wise interpolation

1 Introduction But the current literature testifies that those differential

Fractional differential and integral operators are useful to
capture heterogeneity, in particular those following natu-
ral laws including power law, exponential decay law and
those following both exponential decay law for earlier time
and power law for late time [1–9]. Mathematicians have
already suggested such mathematical operators, and they
are Riemann–Liouville, Caputo–Fabrizio and the Atan-
gana–Baleanu fractional differential and integral operators.
Samko [10] proposed an interesting extension of the clas-
sical FC introducing the study of fractional operators when
the order is a function. Many investigations have shown
that many complex physical problems can be described
with great success via variable-order fractional derivatives.
Variable-order fractional derivatives are very useful when
investigating the memory properties which change with time
and spatial location. These operators are presented as a use-
ful tool, with successful applications in diffusion [11–13],
groundwater flow equation [14, 15], fluids [16–18], electro-
magnetism [19] and in other phenomena where the order of
the derivative varies with time [20–24].
and integral operators cannot be used in all the real-world
problems; thus, where those three six operators fail, differ-
ential operators with variable orders could be used [25–34].
Nevertheless, very recently Atangana suggested a new class
of differential and integral operators called fractal-fractional
differential and integral operators, and these operators were
also extended by Atangana and Anum where they replaced
the fractal dimension with variable order [35–44]. Within
the literature, one will see that variable-order differential
operators have been used very intensively to solve many
complex real-world problems. In this paper, we aim to cap-
ture more heterogeneity by applying the fractal-fractional
differential and integral operators with variable order to
model some important real-world problems.
2 Mathematical preliminaries
In this section, we present the fractal-fractional derivatives
with power law, exponential decay law and Mittag-Leffler
kernel [35–44].

Definition 1 Let f(t) be differentiable in opened interval

* J. F. Gómez‑Aguilar
jose.ga@cenidet.tecnm.mx (a, b); if f(t) is fractal differentiable on (a, b) with order
𝛽(t) , the fractal-fractional derivative of f(t) with order 𝛼(t)
1
Tecnológico Nacional de México/CENIDET, Interior having power-law kernel is given as
Internado Palmira S/N, Col. Palmira, C.P. 62490,
Cuernavaca, Morelos, México

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df (s) t t

Γ(m − 𝛼(t)) dt𝛽(t) ∫0 AB(𝛼(t)) ∫0

FFP 𝛼(t),𝛽(t) 1 FFABC 𝛼(t),𝛽(t) 𝛼(t)𝛽(t)
D
0 t
{f (t)} = (t − s)m−𝛼(t)−1 ds, 0
It {f (t)} = s𝛼(t)−1 f (s)(t − s)𝛼(t)−1 ds
(1) 𝛽(t)(1 − 𝛼(t))t𝛽(t)−1
where m − 1 < 𝛼(t), 𝛽(t) ≤ m ∈ ℕ and 𝛽(t) = lim t𝛽(t) −s𝛽(t) .
d f (s) f (t)−f (s) + .
AB(𝛼(t))
ds t→s
(8)
Definition 2 Let f(t) be differentiable in opened interval
(a, b); if f(t) is fractal differentiable on (a, b) with order
𝛽(t) , then the fractal-fractional derivative of f(t) with order 3 Variable‑order fractal‑fractional delay
𝛼(t) having exponential decay kernel is given as differential equations
( )
M(𝛼(t)) df (s) t
1 − 𝛼(t) dt𝛽(t) ∫0
𝛼(t)
FFE 𝛼(t),𝛽(t)
D
0 t
{f (t)} = exp − (t − s) ds, In this section, a numerical scheme based on the Lagran-
1 − 𝛼(t)
gian piece-wise interpolation [44] to solve variable-order
(2)
where 𝛼(t) > 0, 𝛽(t) ≤ m ∈ ℕ and
fractal-fractional (VOFF) derivatives involving the Liou-
ville–Caputo (VOFFC) (1), Caputo–Fabrizio–Caputo

0 < 𝛼(t) ≤ 1.
2 (VOFFCFC) (2) and Atangana–Baleanu–Caputo (VOF-
M(𝛼(t)) = , (3) FABC) (4) operators is proposed. Let us consider the VOFF
2 − 𝛼(t)
time delay system of the form
Definition 3 Let f(t) be differentiable in opened interval
𝛼(t),𝛽(t)
(a, b); if f(t) is fractal differentiable on (a, b) with order 0 Dt {y(t)} =𝛽(t)t𝛽(t)−1 f (t, y(t), y(t − 𝛿)),
𝛿 ≤ t ≤ T, 0 < 𝛼(t), 𝛽(t) ≤ 1,
(9a)
𝛽(t) , then the fractal-fractional derivative of f with order
𝛼(t) having the generalized Mittag-Leffler kernel is given as
AB(𝛼(t)) df (s) t
[ ] y(t) = g(t), (9b)
1 − 𝛼(t) dt𝛽(t) ∫0 𝛼(t)
FFML 𝛼(t),𝛽(t) 𝛼(t) 𝛼(t)
0
Dt {f (t)} = E − (t − s) ds,
1 − 𝛼(t)
where 0 D𝛼(t),𝛽(t) means the fractal-fractional opera-
(4) t

where 0 < 𝛼(t), 𝛽(t) ≤ 1 and

tor with var iable orders 𝛼(t), 𝛽(t)   . In addition,
𝛿 ∈ ℝ+ is the delay, T ∈ ℝ+ , y(t) and y(t − 𝛿) rep-
𝛼(t) resent smooth functions. Consider a uniform grid
AB(𝛼(t)) = 1 − 𝛼(t) + . (5) tn = {nh ∶ n = − m, −m + 1, … , −1, 0, 1, … , N}, m and N
Γ(𝛼(t))
are integers such that m = 𝛿h and N = Th  . Let
Definition 4  Suppose that f(t) be continuous on an open
interval (a, b), then the fractal-fractional integral of f(t) with
y(tn ) = g(tn ), n = − m, −m + 1, … , −1, 0, (10)
variable-order 𝛼(t) involving the power-law kernel is defined and
as follows:
y(tn − 𝛿) = y(nh − mh) = y(tn−m ), n = 0, 1, … , N. (11)
t

Γ(𝛼(t)) ∫0
FFC 𝛼(t) 𝛿
I {f (t)}
0 t
= (t − s)𝛼(t)−1 s𝛼(t)−1 f (s)ds. (6)
3.1 Numerical scheme to solve variable‑order
Definition 5  Suppose that f(t) be continuous on an open fractal‑fractional Liouville–Caputo derivatives
interval (a, b), then the fractal-fractional integral of f(t) with
variable-order 𝛼(t) involving the decaying exponential kernel We consider a set of differential equations with delay of
is defined as follows: the form

𝛼(t)𝛽(t) t 𝛼(t)−1 FFC 𝛼(t),𝛽(t)

(12a)
M(𝛼(t)) ∫0
FFCFC 𝛼(t),𝛽(t) 0
Dt {x(t)} = f1 (x, y, z, t − 𝛿),
0
It {f (t)} = s f (s)ds

𝛽(t)(1 − 𝛼(t))t𝛽(t)−1 y(t)

+ .
FFC 𝛼(t),𝛽(t)
0
Dt {y(t)} = f2 (x, y, z, t − 𝛿), (12b)
M(𝛼(t)) (7)
Definition 6  Suppose that f(t) be continuous on an open FFC 𝛼(t),𝛽(t)
0
Dt {z(t)} = f3 (x, y, z, t − 𝛿), (12c)
interval (a, b), then the fractal-fractional integral of f(t) with
variable-order 𝛼(t) involving the generalized Mittag-Leffler where 𝛿 ∈ ℝ+ is a delay. Equation (12) can be converted
type kernel is defined as follows: to the Volterra case since the fractional integral is differ-
entiable; then, the fractal-fractional derivative in the Rie-
mann–Liouville sense can be converted to

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[ ] t

Γ(𝛼(t)) ∫0
RL 𝛼(t),𝛽(t) 𝛽(t)
D
0 t
(x) = 𝛽(t)(t − 𝛿)𝛽(t)−1 f1 (x, y, z, t − 𝛿) , (13a) x(t) = x(0) + (𝜆 − 𝛿)𝛽(t)−1 (t − 𝜆)𝛼(t)−1 f1 (x, y, z, 𝜆 − 𝛿)d𝜆,
(14a)
[ ]
RL 𝛼(t),𝛽(t) t
(13b)
𝛽(t)−1

Γ(𝛼(t)) ∫0
D
0 t
(y) = 𝛽(t)(t − 𝛿) f2 (x, y, z, t − 𝛿) , y(t) = y(0) +
𝛽(t)
(𝜆 − 𝛿)𝛽(t)−1 (t − 𝜆)𝛼(t)−1 f2 (x, y, z, 𝜆 − 𝛿)d𝜆,

[ ] (14b)
RL 𝛼(t),𝛽(t)
(13c)
𝛽(t)−1
D (z) = 𝛽(t)(t − 𝛿) f3 (x, y, z, t − 𝛿) . t

Γ(𝛼(t)) ∫0
0 t 𝛽(t)
z(t) = z(0) + (𝜆 − 𝛿)𝛽(t)−1 (t − 𝜆)𝛼(t)−1 f3 (x, y, z, 𝜆 − 𝛿)d𝜆.
In order to use integer initial conditions, the operator of (14c)
Riemann–Liouville is replaced by the Liouville–Caputo At tn+1 , the system (14) becomes
operator (1) and by applying the fractal-fractional integral (6)
in both sides of Eq. (13) the following equations are obtained:
tn+1
𝛽(tn )
Γ(𝛼(tn )) ∫0
( )𝛼(t)−1
xn+1 (t) = x0 + (𝜆 − 𝛿)𝛽(t)−1 tn+1 − 𝜆 f1 (x, y, z, 𝜆 − 𝛿)d𝜆, (15a)

tn+1
𝛽(tn )
Γ(𝛼(tn )) ∫0
( )𝛼(t)−1
yn+1(t) = y0 + (𝜆 − 𝛿)𝛽(t)−1 tn+1 − 𝜆 f2 (x, y, z, 𝜆 − 𝛿)d𝜆, (15b)

tn+1
𝛽(tn )
∫
( )𝛼(t)−1
zn+1 (t) = z0 + (𝜆 − 𝛿)𝛽(t)−1 tn+1 − 𝜆 f3 (x, y, z, 𝜆 − 𝛿)d𝜆. (15c)
Γ(𝛼(tn )) 0

Now, approximating the above integrals, the following

expressions are obtained:

n
𝛽(tn ) ∑ tj+1
Γ(𝛼(tn )) j=m ∫tj
( )𝛼(t)−1
xn+1 (t) = x0 + (𝜆 − 𝛿)𝛽(t)−1 tn+1 − 𝜆 f1 (x, y, z, 𝜆 − 𝛿)d𝜆, (16a)

n
𝛽(tn ) ∑ tj+1
Γ(𝛼(tn )) j=m ∫tj
( )𝛼(t)−1
yn+1 (t) = y0 + (𝜆 − 𝛿)𝛽(t)−1 tn+1 − 𝜆 f2 (x, y, z, 𝜆 − 𝛿)d𝜆, (16b)

n
𝛽(tn ) ∑ tj+1
Γ(𝛼(tn )) j=m ∫tj
( )𝛼(t)−1
zn+1 (t) = z0 + (𝜆 − 𝛿)𝛽(t)−1 tn+1 − 𝜆 f3 (x, y, z, 𝜆 − 𝛿)d𝜆. (16c)

The integrals in (16) are approximated by using the

Lagrangian piece-wise interpolation in a finite inter-
val [tj , tj+1 ] such that the following numerical scheme is
obtained:
n
𝛽(tn )(Δt)𝛼(tn ) ∑ [ (
xn+1 (t) = x0 + (tj − m)𝛽(tj )−1 f1 (xj , yj , zj , tj − m) (n + 1 − j)𝛼(tj ) (n − j + 2 + 𝛼(tj ))
Γ(𝛼(tn ) + 2) j=m
)
− (n − j)𝛼(tj ) (n − j + 2 + 2𝛼(tj )) − (tj−1 − m)𝛽(tj−1 )−1 f1 (xj−1 , yj−1 , zj−1 , tj−1 − m)
( )]
× (n + 1 − j)𝛼(tj−1 )+1 − (n − j)𝛼(tj−1 ) (n − j + 1 + 𝛼(tj−1 )) , (17a)

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n
𝛽(tn )(Δt)𝛼(tn ) ∑ [ (
yn+1 (t) = y0 + (tj − m)𝛽(tj )−1 f2 (xj , yj , zj , tj − m) (n + 1 − j)𝛼(tj ) (n − j + 2 + 𝛼(tj ))
Γ(𝛼(tn ) + 2) j=m
)
− (n − j)𝛼(tj ) (n − j + 2 + 2𝛼(tj )) − (tj−1 − m)𝛽(tj−1 )−1 f2 (xj−1 , yj−1 , zj−1 , tj−1 − m)
( )]
× (n + 1 − j)𝛼(tj−1 )+1 − (n − j)𝛼(tj−1 ) (n − j + 1 + 𝛼(tj−1 )) ,
(17b)

n
𝛽(tn )(Δt)𝛼(tn ) ∑ [ (
zn+1 (t) = z0 + (tj − m)𝛽(tj )−1 f3 (xj , yj , zj , tj − m) (n + 1 − j)𝛼(tj ) (n − j + 2 + 𝛼(tj ))
Γ(𝛼(tn ) + 2) j=m
)
− (n − j)𝛼(tj ) (n − j + 2 + 2𝛼(tj )) − (tj−1 − m)𝛽(tj−1 )−1 f3 (xj−1 , yj−1 , zj−1 , tj−1 − m)
( )]
× (n + 1 − j)𝛼(tj−1 )+1 − (n − j)𝛼(tj−1 ) (n − j + 1 + 𝛼(tj−1 )) . (17c)

3.2 Numerical scheme to solve variable‑order

𝛽(tn )(tn − 𝛿)𝛽(tn )−1 (1 − 𝛼(tn ))
fractal‑fractional Caputo–Fabrizio–Caputo x(tn+1 ) = x(0) + f1 (xn , yn , zn , tn − 𝛿)
M(𝛼(tn ))
derivatives
𝛼(tn )𝛽(tn ) tn+1
M(𝛼(tn )) ∫0
+ (𝜆 − 𝛿)𝛽(t)−1 f1 (x, y, z, 𝜆 − 𝛿)d𝜆,
We consider the following variable-order fractal-fractional
Caputo–Fabrizio–Caputo system with delay (20a)
𝛽(tn )(tn − 𝛿)𝛽(tn )−1 (1 − 𝛼(tn ))
y(tn+1 ) = y(0) + f2 (xn , yn , zn , tn − 𝛿)
[ ] M(𝛼(tn ))
FFCFC 𝛼(t),𝛽(t)
Dt {x(t)} = 𝛽(t)(t − 𝛿)𝛽(t)−1 f1 (x, y, z, t − 𝛿) , 𝛼(tn )𝛽(tn ) tn+1
M(𝛼(tn )) ∫0
0 + (𝜆 − 𝛿)𝛽(t)−1 f2 (x, y, z, 𝜆 − 𝛿)d𝜆,
(18a)
[ ] (20b)
FFCFC 𝛼(t),𝛽(t)
Dt {y(t)} = 𝛽(t)(t − 𝛿)𝛽(t)−1 f2 (x, y, z, t − 𝛿) ,
0 𝛽(tn )(tn − 𝛿)𝛽(tn )−1 (1 − 𝛼(tn ))
(18b) z(tn+1 ) = z(0) + f3 (xn , yn , zn , tn − 𝛿)
M(𝛼(tn ))
[ ]
𝛼(tn )𝛽(tn ) tn+1
M(𝛼(tn )) ∫0
FFCFC 𝛼(t),𝛽(t)
0
Dt {z(t)} = 𝛽(t)(t − 𝛿)𝛽(t)−1 f3 (x, y, z, t − 𝛿) . + (𝜆 − 𝛿)𝛽(t)−1 f3 (x, y, z, 𝜆 − 𝛿)d𝜆,
(18c) (20c)
Applying the Caputo–Fabrizio fractal-fractional integral and
(7) in both sides of the system (18), the following system is
obtained

𝛽(t)(t − 𝛿)𝛽(t)−1 (1 − 𝛼(t)) 𝛼(t)𝛽(t) t

M(𝛼(t)) ∫0
x(t) = x(0) + f1 (x, y, z, t − 𝛿) + (𝜆 − 𝛿)𝛽(t)−1 f1 (x, y, z, 𝜆 − 𝛿)d𝜆, (19a)
M(𝛼(t))

𝛽(t)(t − 𝛿)𝛽(t)−1 (1 − 𝛼(t)) 𝛼(t)𝛽(t) t

M(𝛼(t)) ∫0
y(t) = y(0) + f2 (x, y, z, t − 𝛿) + (𝜆 − 𝛿)𝛽(t)−1 f2 (x, y, z, 𝜆 − 𝛿)d𝜆, (19b)
M(𝛼(t))

𝛽(t)(t − 𝛿)𝛽(t)−1 (1 − 𝛼(t)) 𝛼(t)𝛽(t) t

M(𝛼(t)) ∫0
z(t) = z(0) + f3 (x, y, z, t − 𝛿) + (𝜆 − 𝛿)𝛽(t)−1 f3 (x, y, z, 𝜆 − 𝛿)d𝜆. (19c)
M(𝛼(t))

At a given point t = tn+1 and t = tn with n = 0, 1, 2, … , Eq.

(19) is reformulated as follows:

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𝛽(tn−1 )(tn−1 − 𝛿)𝛽(tn−1 )−1 (1 − 𝛼(tn−1 ))

x(tn ) = x(0) + f1 (xn−1 , yn−1 , zn−1 , tn−1 − 𝛿)
M(𝛼(tn−1 ))
𝛼(tn−1 )𝛽(tn−1 ) tn+1
M(𝛼(tn−1 )) ∫0
+ (𝜆 − 𝛿)𝛽(t)−1 f1 (x, y, z, 𝜆 − 𝛿)d𝜆,
(21a)

𝛽(tn−1 )(tn−1 − 𝛿)𝛽(tn−1 )−1 (1 − 𝛼(tn−1 ))

y(tn ) = y(0) + f2 (xn−1 , yn−1 , zn−1 , tn−1 − 𝛿)
M(𝛼(tn−1 ))
𝛼(tn−1 )𝛽(tn−1 ) tn+1
M(𝛼(tn−1 )) ∫0
+ (𝜆 − 𝛿)𝛽(t)−1 f2 (x, y, z, 𝜆 − 𝛿)d𝜆,
(21b)

𝛽(tn−1 )(tn−1 − 𝛿)𝛽(tn−1 )−1 (1 − 𝛼(tn−1 ))

z(tn ) = z(0) + f3 (xn−1 , yn−1 , zn−1 , tn−1 − 𝛿)
M(𝛼(tn−1 ))
𝛼(tn−1 )𝛽(tn−1 ) tn+1
M(𝛼(tn−1 )) ∫0
+ (𝜆 − 𝛿)𝛽(t)−1 f3 (x, y, z, 𝜆 − 𝛿)d𝜆.
(21c)

Removing Eq. (21) from Eq. (20), we have

𝛽(tn )(tn − 𝛿)𝛽(tn )−1 (1 − 𝛼(tn )) { }

x(tn+1 ) = x(tn ) + f1 (xn , yn , zn , tn − 𝛿) − f1 (xn−1 , yn−1 , zn−1 , tn−1 − 𝛿)
M(𝛼(tn ))
𝛽(tn )(tn − 𝛿) n )−1 𝛼(tn ) tn+1
𝛽(t

∫tn
+ f1 (x, y, z, 𝜆 − 𝛿)d𝜆,
M(𝛼(tn )) (22a)

𝛽(tn )(tn − 𝛿)𝛽(tn )−1 (1 − 𝛼(tn )) { }

y(tn+1 ) = y(tn ) + f2 (xn , yn , zn , tn − 𝛿) − f2 (xn−1 , yn−1 , zn−1 , tn−1 − 𝛿)
M(𝛼(tn ))
𝛽(tn )(tn − 𝛿) n )−1 𝛼(tn ) tn+1
𝛽(t

∫tn
+ f2 (x, y, z, 𝜆 − 𝛿)d𝜆,
M(𝛼(tn )) (22b)

𝛽(tn )(tn − 𝛿)𝛽(tn )−1 (1 − 𝛼(tn )) { }

z(tn+1 ) = z(tn ) + f3 (xn , yn , zn , tn − 𝛿) − f3 (xn−1 , yn−1 , zn−1 , tn−1 − 𝛿)
M(𝛼(tn ))
𝛽(tn )(tn − 𝛿) n )−1 𝛼(tn ) tn+1
𝛽(t

∫tn
+ f3 (x, y, z, 𝜆 − 𝛿)d𝜆,
M(𝛼(tn )) (22c)

where
tn+1 tn+1
∫tn
∫tn
f1 (x, y, z, 𝜆 − 𝛿)d𝜆 3(Δt)
f2 (x, y, z, 𝜆 − 𝛿)d𝜆 = f (x , y , z , t − 𝛿)
{ 2 1 n n n n
tn+1
f1 (xn , yn , zn , 𝜆n − 𝛿)
∫ tn (Δt)
= (𝜆 − 𝜆n−1 )
(Δt) − f (x , y , z , t − 𝛿),
f (x , y , z , 𝜆 − 𝛿)
} 2 2 n−1 n−1 n−1 n−1 (23b)
− 1 n−1 n−1 n−1 n−1 (𝜆 − 𝜆n ) d𝜆,
(Δt)
3(Δt) (Δt)
= f (x , y , z , t − 𝛿) − f (x , y , z , t − 𝛿),
2 1 n n n n 2 1 n−1 n−1 n−1 n−1 (23a)

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tn+1 Applying the Atangana–Baleanu fractal-fractional inte-

∫tn
3(Δt)
f3 (x, y, z, 𝜆 − 𝛿)d𝜆 = f (x , y , z , t − 𝛿) gral (8) in both sides of Eq. (25), we have
2 1 n n n n
(Δt)
− f (x , y , z , t − 𝛿).
2 3 n−1 n−1 n−1 n−1 (23c)
Finally, the following numerical scheme is obtained:
( )
1 − 𝛼(tn ) 3𝛼(tn )(Δt)
xn+1 (t) = xn + 𝛽(tn )(tn − m)𝛽(tn )−1 + f (x , y , z , t − m)
M(𝛼(tn ) 2M(𝛼(tn )) 1 n n n n
( )
𝛽(tn−1 )−1 1 − 𝛼(tn−1 ) 3𝛼(tn−1 )(Δt)
+ 𝛽(tn−1 )(tn−1 − m) + f (x , y , z , t − m),
M(𝛼(tn−1 ) 2M(𝛼(tn−1 )) 1 n−1 n−1 n−1 n−1 (24a)

( )
1 − 𝛼(tn ) 3𝛼(tn )(Δt)
yn+1 (t) = yn + 𝛽(tn )(tn − m)𝛽(tn )−1 + f (x , y , z , t − m)
M(𝛼(tn ) 2M(𝛼(tn )) 2 n n n n
( )
1 − 𝛼(tn−1 ) 3𝛼(tn−1 )(Δt)
+ 𝛽(tn−1 )(tn−1 − m)𝛽(tn−1 )−1 + f (x , y , z , t − m),
M(𝛼(tn−1 ) 2M(𝛼(tn−1 )) 2 n−1 n−1 n−1 n−1 (24b)

( )
1 − 𝛼(tn ) 3𝛼(tn )(Δt)
𝛽(tn )−1
zn+1 (t) = zn + 𝛽(tn )(tn − m) + f (x , y , z , t − m)
M(𝛼(tn ) 2M(𝛼(tn )) 3 n n n n
( )
𝛽(tn−1 )−1 1 − 𝛼(tn−1 ) 3𝛼(tn−1 )(Δt)
+ 𝛽(tn−1 )(tn−1 − m) + f (x , y , z , t − m).
M(𝛼(tn−1 ) 2M(𝛼(tn−1 )) 3 n−1 n−1 n−1 n−1 (24c)

3.3 Numerical scheme to solve variable‑order 𝛽(t)(t − 𝛿)𝛽(t)−1 (1 − 𝛼(t))

x(t) = x(0) + f1 (x, y, z, t)
fractal‑fractional Atangana–Baleanu–Caputo AB(𝛼(t))
t
derivatives
Γ(𝛼(t))AB(𝛼(t)) ∫0
𝛽(t)𝛼(t)
+ (𝜆 − 𝛿)𝛽(t)−1 (t − 𝜆)𝛼(t)−1 f1 (x, y, z, 𝜆)d𝜆,

We consider the following variable-order fractal-fractional (26a)

Atangana–Baleanu-Caputo system with delay 𝛽(t)(t − 𝛿)𝛽(t)−1 (1 − 𝛼(t))
y(t) = y(0) + f2 (x, y, z, t)
[ ] AB(𝛼(t))
FFABC 𝛼(t),𝛽(t)
Dt {x(t)} = 𝛽(t)(t − 𝛿)𝛽(t)−1 f1 (x, y, z, t − 𝛿) , t

∫
𝛽(t)𝛼(t)
0 + (𝜆 − 𝛿)𝛽(t)−1 (t − 𝜆)𝛼(t)−1 f2 (x, y, z, 𝜆)d𝜆,
(25a) Γ(𝛼(t))AB(𝛼(t)) 0
[ ] (26b)
FFABC 𝛼(t),𝛽(t)
0
Dt {y(t)} = 𝛽(t)(t − 𝛿)𝛽(t)−1 f2 (x, y, z, t − 𝛿) , 𝛽(t)(t − 𝛿)𝛽(t)−1 (1 − 𝛼(t))
z(t) = z(0) + f3 (x, y, z, t)
(25b) AB(𝛼(t))
[ ] t

Γ(𝛼(t))AB(𝛼(t)) ∫0
𝛽(t)𝛼(t)
FFABC 𝛼(t),𝛽(t)
Dt {z(t)} = 𝛽(t)(t − 𝛿)𝛽(t)−1 f3 (x, y, z, t − 𝛿) . + (𝜆 − 𝛿)𝛽(t)−1 (t − 𝜆)𝛼(t)−1 f3 (x, y, z, 𝜆)d𝜆.
0
(25c) (26c)
Considering a point at tn+1 , we get

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𝛽(tn )(tn − 𝛿)𝛽(tn )−1 (1 − 𝛼(tn ))

xn+1 (t) = x0 + f1 (xn , yn , zn , tn )
AB(𝛼(tn ))
tn+1
𝛽(tn )𝛼(tn )
Γ(𝛼(tn ))AB(𝛼(tn )) ∫0
+ (𝜆 − 𝛿)𝛽(tn+1 )−1 (tn+1 − 𝜆)𝛼(tn+1 )−1 f1 (x, y, z, 𝜆)d𝜆,
(27a)

𝛽(tn )(tn − 𝛿)𝛽(tn )−1 (1 − 𝛼(tn ))

yn+1 (t) = y0 + f2 (xn , yn , zn , tn )
AB(𝛼(tn ))
tn+1
𝛽(tn )𝛼(tn )
Γ(𝛼(tn ))AB(𝛼(tn )) ∫0
+ (𝜆 − 𝛿)𝛽(tn+1 )−1 (tn+1 − 𝜆)𝛼(tn+1 )−1 f2 (x, y, z, 𝜆)d𝜆,
(27b)

𝛽(tn )(tn − 𝛿)𝛽(tn )−1 (1 − 𝛼(tn ))

zn+1 (t) = z0 + f3 (xn , yn , zn , tn )
AB(𝛼(tn ))
tn+1
𝛽(tn )𝛼(tn )
Γ(𝛼(tn ))AB(𝛼(tn )) ∫0
+ (𝜆 − 𝛿)𝛽(tn+1 )−1 (tn+1 − 𝜆)𝛼(tn+1 )−1 f3 (x, y, z, 𝜆)d𝜆.
(27c)

Approximating the above integrals, we have

𝛽(tn )(tn − 𝛿)𝛽(tn )−1 (1 − 𝛼(tn ))

xn+1 (t) = x0 + f1 (xn , yn , zn , tn )
AB(𝛼(tn ))
n tj+1
𝛽(tn )𝛼(tn ) ∑
Γ(𝛼(tn ))AB(𝛼(tn )) j=m ∫tj
+ (𝜆 − 𝛿)𝛽(tn+1 )−1 (tn+1 − 𝜆)𝛼(tn+1 )−1 f1 (x, y, z, 𝜆)d𝜆,
(28a)

𝛽(tn )(tn − 𝛿)𝛽(tn )−1 (1 − 𝛼(tn ))

yn+1 (t) = y0 + f2 (xn , yn , zn , tn )
AB(𝛼(tn ))
n tj+1
𝛽(tn )𝛼(tn ) ∑
Γ(𝛼(tn ))AB(𝛼(tn )) j=m ∫tj
+ (𝜆 − 𝛿)𝛽(tn+1 )−1 (tn+1 − 𝜆)𝛼(tn+1 )−1 f2 (x, y, z, 𝜆)d𝜆,
(28b)

𝛽(tn )(tn − 𝛿)𝛽(tn )−1 (1 − 𝛼(tn ))

zn+1 (t) = z0 + f3 (xn , yn , zn , tn )
AB(𝛼(tn ))
n tj+1
𝛽(tn )𝛼(tn ) ∑
Γ(𝛼(tn ))AB(𝛼(tn )) j=m ∫tj
+ (𝜆 − 𝛿)𝛽(tn+1 )−1 (tn+1 − 𝜆)𝛼(tn+1 )−1 f3 (x, y, z, 𝜆)d𝜆.
(28c)

A numerical solution in [tj , tj+1 ] is obtained approximating

(t − 𝛿)𝛽(t)−1 f1 (x, y, z, 𝜆 − 𝛿) as follows:

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1.4 1.4

1.2 1.2
1.2

1 1
1

0.8 0.8 0.8

0.6 0.6 0.6

0.4 0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2 0.2

0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2

(a) Variable-Order Fractal-Fractional (b) Variable-Order Fractal-Fractional (c) Variable-Order Fractal-Fractional

Mackey-Glass equation (31) in the Mackey-Glass equation (33) in the Mackey-Glass equation (35) in the
Liouville-Caputo sense with β = 1 and Caputo-Fabrizio-Caputo sense with β = Atangana-Baleanu-Caputo sense with
α = 0.96. 1 and α = 0.96. β = 1 and α = 0.96.
1.4 1.4

1.2 1.2
1.2

1 1
1

0.8 0.8 0.8

0.6 0.6 0.6

0.4 0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2 0.2

0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2

(d) Variable-Order Fractal-Fractional (e) Variable-Order Fractal-Fractional (f) Variable-Order Fractal-Fractional

Mackey-Glass equation (31) in the Mackey-Glass (33) equation in the Mackey-Glass equation (35) in the
Liouville-Caputo sense with β = 0.97 Caputo-Fabrizio-Caputo sense with β = Atangana-Baleanu-Caputo sense with
and α = 0.96. 0.97 and α = 0.96. β = 0.97 and α = 0.96.

Fig. 1  Variable-order fractal-fractional Mackey–Glass equation with delay time, for 𝛾 = 1, B = 2, 𝛿 = 6 and 𝜖 = 10

𝛽(tn )(tn − m)𝛽(tn )−1 (1 − 𝛼(tn )) 𝛽(tn )(Δt)𝛼(tn )

xn+1 (t) = x0 + f1 (xn , yn , zn , tn − m) +
AB(𝛼(tn )) AB(𝛼(tn ))Γ(𝛼(tn ) + 2)
n [ (
∑
× (tj − m)𝛽(tj )−1 f1 (xj , yj , zj , tj − m) (n + 1 − j)𝛼(tj ) (n − j + 2 + 𝛼(tj ))
j=m
)
− (n − j)𝛼(tj ) (n − j + 2 + 2𝛼(tj ) − (tj−1 − m)𝛽(tj−1 )−1 f1 (xj−1 , yj−1 , zj−1 , tj−1 − m)
( )]
𝛼(tj−1 )+1 𝛼(tj−1 )
× (n − j + 1) − (n − j) (n − j + 1 + 𝛼(tj−1 )) ,
(29a)

𝛽(tn )(tn − m)𝛽(tn )−1 (1 − 𝛼(tn )) 𝛽(tn )(Δt)𝛼(tn )

yn+1 (t) = y0 + f2 (xn , yn , zn , tn − m) +
AB(𝛼(tn )) AB(𝛼(tn ))Γ(𝛼(tn ) + 2)
n [ (
∑
× (tj − m)𝛽(tj )−1 f2 (xj , yj , zj , tj − m) (n + 1 − j)𝛼(tj ) (n − j + 2 + 𝛼(tj ))
j=m
)
− (n − j)𝛼(tj ) (n − j + 2 + 2𝛼(tj ) − (tj−1 − m)𝛽(tj−1 )−1 f2 (xj−1 , yj−1 , zj−1 , tj−1 − m)
( )]
𝛼(tj−1 )+1 𝛼(tj−1 )
× (n − j + 1) − (n − j) (n − j + 1 + 𝛼(tj−1 )) ,
(29b)

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1.2 1.2 1.2

1 1 1

0.8 0.8 0.8

0.6 0.6 0.6

0.4 0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2 0.2

0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2

(a) Variable-Order Fractal-Fractional (b) Variable-Order Fractal-Fractional (c) Variable-Order Fractal-Fractional

Mackey-Glass equation (31) in the Mackey-Glass equation (33) in the Mackey-Glass equation (35) in the
Liouville-Caputo sense with β(t) = Caputo-Fabrizio-Caputo sense with Atangana-Baleanu-Caputo sense with
1
4
cos(t + 3) and α = 1. β(t) = 14 cos(t + 3) and α = 1. β(t) = 14 cos(t + 3) and α = 1.
5
1.6
4.5 1.2
1.4
4
1 1.2
3.5

3 1
0.8
2.5
0.8
2 0.6

0.6
1.5
0.4
1 0.4

0.5 0.2 0.2

0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6

(d) Variable-Order Fractal-Fractional (e) Variable-Order Fractal-Fractional (f) Variable-Order Fractal-Fractional

Mackey-Glass equation (31) in the Mackey-Glass equation (33) in the Mackey-Glass equation (35) in the
Liouville-Caputo sense with β = 0.97 Caputo-Fabrizio-Caputo sense with β = Atangana-Baleanu-Caputo sense with
and α(t) = 14 cos(t + 3). 0.97 and α(t) = 14 cos(t + 3). β = 0.97 and α(t) = 14 cos(t + 3).

Fig. 2  Variable-order fractal-fractional Mackey–Glass equation with delay time, for 𝛾 = 1, B = 2, 𝛿 = 6 and 𝜖 = 10

𝛽(tn )(tn − m)𝛽(tn )−1 (1 − 𝛼(tn )) 𝛽(tn )(Δt)𝛼(tn )

zn+1 (t) = z0 + f3 (xn , yn , zn , tn − m) +
AB(𝛼(tn )) AB(𝛼(tn ))Γ(𝛼(tn ) + 2)
n [ (
∑
× (tj − m)𝛽(tj )−1 f3 (xj , yj , zj , tj − m) (n + 1 − j)𝛼(tj ) (n − j + 2 + 𝛼(tj ))
j=m
)
− (n − j)𝛼(tj ) (n − j + 2 + 2𝛼(tj ) − (tj−1 − m)𝛽(tj−1 )−1 f3 (xj−1 , yj−1 , zj−1 , tj−1 − m)
( )]
𝛼(tj−1 )+1 𝛼(tj−1 )
× (n − j + 1) − (n − j) (n − j + 1 + 𝛼(tj−1 )) .
(29c)

4 Numerical examples 4.1 Mackey–Glass system

The Mackey–Glass equation is a nonlinear time delay differ-

This section is devoted to finding the numerical solutions
ential equation proposed by Michael Mackey and Leon Glass
of the variable-order time delay Mackey–Glass and syn-
[45]. This equation characterizes the arterial CO2 concentra-
aptically coupled FitzHugh–Nagumo models under frac-
tion in the case of normal and abnormal respiration
tional operators of Liouville–Caputo, Caputo–Fabrizio and
Atangana–Baleanu. Bx(t − 𝛿)
x(t)
̇ = − 𝛾x(t), (30)
1 + x𝜖 (t − 𝛿)

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1.2

1.2

1.2 1
1

1 0.8
0.8

0.8 0.6
0.6

0.6
0.4
0.4

0.4
0.2 0.2

0.2 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2

0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2

(b) Variable-Order Fractal-Fractional (c) Variable-Order Fractal-Fractional

(a) Variable-Order Fractal-Fractional Mackey-Glass equation (33) in Mackey-Glass equation (35) in the
Mackey-Glass equation (31) in the the Caputo-Fabrizio-Caputo sense Atangana-Baleanu-Caputo sense with
1
Liouville-Caputo sense with β(t) = with β(t) = 4
cos(t + 3) and β(t) = 14 cos(t + 3) and α(t) = tanh(t +
1
4
cos(t + 3) and α(t) = tanh(t + 1). α(t) = tanh(t + 1). 1).

1.2
1.2

1.2 1
1

1 0.8
0.8

0.8
0.6
0.6

0.6
0.4 0.4

0.4
0.2 0.2

0.2
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2

0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2

(e) Variable-Order Fractal-Fractional (f) Variable-Order Fractal-Fractional

(d) Variable-Order Fractal-Fractional Mackey-Glass equation (33) in Mackey-Glass equation (35) in the
Mackey-Glass equation (31) in the the Caputo-Fabrizio-Caputo sense Atangana-Baleanu-Caputo sense with
Liouville-Caputo sense with β(t) = with β(t) =
sin(t)
| 2 | + 12 and
sin(t)
β(t) = | 2 | + 12 and α(t) = tanh(t +
sin(t)
| 2 | + 12 and α(t) = tanh(t + 1). α(t) = tanh(t + 1). 1).

Fig. 3  Variable-order fractal-fractional Mackey–Glass equation with delay time, for 𝛾 = 1, B = 2, 𝛿 = 6 and 𝜖 = 10

where 𝛾 is the CO2 production rate, 𝛿 is the time between 4.1.1 Liouville–Caputo sense
oxygenation of blood in the lungs and stimulation of chem-
Bx(t − 𝛿)
oreceptors in the brain stem, and n, 𝜖 and B are positive FFC 𝛼(t),𝛽(t)
0 Dt {x(t)} = − 𝛾x(t). (31)
constants. 1 + x𝜖 (t − 𝛿)
Now, the model (30) considered the VOFFC, VOFFCFC By employing the numerical scheme given by Eq. (17), we
and VOFFABC operators given by Eqs. (1), (2) and (4). have

n [
{ }
𝛽(tn )(Δt)𝛼(tn ) ∑ Bxj (tj − m) (
𝛽(tj )−1
xn+1 (t) = x0 + (tj − m) − 𝛾x(t j ) (n + 1 − j)𝛼(tj )
Γ(𝛼(tn ) + 2) j=m 1 + xj𝜖 (tj − m)
)
× (n − j + 2 + 𝛼(tj )) − (n − j)𝛼(tj ) (n − j + 2 + 2𝛼(tj )) − (tj−1 − m)𝛽(tj−1 )−1
{ }
Bxj−1 (tj−1 − m) ( )]
𝛼(tj−1 )+1 𝛼(tj−1 )
× − 𝛾x(tj−1 ) (n + 1 − j) − (n − j) × (n − j + 1 + 𝛼(tj−1 )) .
𝜖
1 + xj−1 (tj−1 − m) (32)

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1.2 1.6

4.5
1.4
1
4
1.2
3.5
0.8
1
3

0.6 0.8
2.5

2 0.6
0.4
1.5 0.4

1 0.2
0.2
0.5 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6

0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5

(b) Variable-Order Fractal-Fractional (c) Variable-Order Fractal-Fractional

(a) Variable-Order Fractal-Fractional Mackey-Glass equation (33) in Mackey-Glass equation (35) in the
Mackey-Glass equation (31) in the the Caputo-Fabrizio-Caputo sense Atangana-Baleanu-Caputo sense with
sin(t) 1
Liouville-Caputo sense with β(t) = with β(t) = | 2 | + 2
and sin(t)
β(t) = | 2 | + 12 and α(t) = 14 cos(t +
sin(t)
| 2 | + 12 and α(t) = 14 cos(t + 3). 1
α(t) = 4 cos(t + 3). 3).

1.8

6 1.2
1.6

1.4
1
5
1.2
0.8
4 1

0.6 0.8
3
0.6
0.4
2
0.4

0.2 0.2
1

0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8

1 2 3 4 5 6

(e) Variable-Order Fractal-Fractional (f) Variable-Order Fractal-Fractional

(d) Variable-Order Fractal-Fractional Mackey-Glass equation (33) in Mackey-Glass equation (35) in the
Mackey-Glass equation (31) in the the Caputo-Fabrizio-Caputo sense Atangana-Baleanu-Caputo sense with
sin(t)
Liouville-Caputo sense with β(t) = with β(t) = tanh(t + 1) and β(t) = tanh(t + 1) and α(t) = | 2 | +
sin(t) sin(t)
tanh(t + 1) and α(t) = | 2 | + 12 . α(t) = | 2 | + 12 . 1
2
.

Fig. 4  Variable-order fractal-fractional Mackey–Glass equation with delay time, for 𝛾 = 1, B = 2, 𝛿 = 6 and 𝜖 = 10

4.1.2 Caputo–Fabrizio–Caputo sense 4.1.3 Atangana–Baleanu–Caputo sense

FFCFC 𝛼(t),𝛽(t) Bx(t − 𝛿) FFABC 𝛼(t),𝛽(t) Bx(t − 𝛿)

0 Dt {x(t)} = − 𝛾x(t). (33) 0 Dt {x(t)} = − 𝛾x(t). (35)
1 + x𝜖 (t − 𝛿) 1 + x𝜖 (t − 𝛿)

Now, considering the scheme (24), we get Finally, by applying the numerical approximation (29), we
get
( ){ }
1 − 𝛼(tn ) 3𝛼(tn )(Δt) Bxn (tn − m)
xn+1 (t) = xn + 𝛽(tn )(tn − m)𝛽(tn )−1 + − 𝛾x(t n )
M(𝛼(tn ) 2M(𝛼(tn )) 1 + xn𝜖 (tn − m)
( ){ } (34)
𝛽(tn−1 )−1 1 − 𝛼(tn−1 ) 3𝛼(tn−1 )(Δt) Bxn−1 (tn−1 − m)
+ 𝛽(tn−1 )(tn−1 − m) + 𝜖 − 𝛾x(tn−1 ) .
M(𝛼(tn−1 ) 2M(𝛼(tn−1 )) 1 + xn−1 (tn−1 − m)

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{ }
𝛽(tn )(tn − m)𝛽(tn )−1 (1 − 𝛼(tn )) Bxn (tn − m) 𝛽(tn )(Δt)𝛼(tn )
xn+1 (t) = x0 + − 𝛾x(t n ) +
AB(𝛼(tn )) 1 + xn𝜖 (tn − m) AB(𝛼(tn ))Γ(𝛼(tn ) + 2)
n [
{ }
∑ Bxj (tj − m) (
× (tj − m)𝛽(tj )−1 𝜖 − 𝛾x(tj ) (n + 1 − j)𝛼(tj ) (n − j + 2 + 𝛼(tj ))
j=m
1 + x j
(tj − m)
)
− (n − j) (n − j + 2 + 2𝛼(tj ) − (tj−1 − m)𝛽(tj−1 )−1 f1 (xj−1 , yj−1 , zj−1 , tj−1 − m)
𝛼(tj )

( )]
𝛼(tj−1 )+1 𝛼(tj−1 )
× (n − j + 1) − (n − j) (n − j + 1 + 𝛼(tj−1 )) . (36)

applied as variable-order functions 𝛼(t) or 𝛽(t) to Eqs. (31),

In order to display numerical solutions from the proposed
(33) and (35).
numerical schemes, several cases are considered.
4.2 Synaptically coupled FitzHugh–Nagumo model
4.1.4 Case 1
Wang et al. [46] proposed a dynamic model with two cou-
Figure 1a–c shows the numerical approximations from the
pled non-identical FitzHugh–Nagumo (FHN) models. They
models given by Eqs. (31), (33) and (35) for 𝛽 = 1, 𝛼 = 0.96 ;
suppose that the dynamic in their model not only is influ-
parameters B = 2, 𝛾 = 1, 𝜖 = 10 ; initial condition x(0) = 0.1 ;
enced of the ith unit on the jth unit at the time t but also
simulation time and step size of t = 300[s], Δt = 1 × 10−2 ,
depends on the state of the ith unit at some earlier time
respectively.
t − 𝛿 . This model has the sigmoid function to describe the
effect of neuron synapse, and it is governed by the following
4.1.5 Case 2
expressions:
( )
The simulations developed in Fig. 1d–f were setting with the v̇ 1 (t) = −v31 (t) + av1 (t) − w1 (t) + c1 tanh v2 (t − 𝛿) , (38a)
same parameters and the orders 𝛽 = 0.96, 𝛼 = 0.97 arbitrar-
ily chosen.
ẇ 1 (t) = v1 (t) − b1 w1 (t), (38b)
4.1.6 Case 3 ( )
v̇ 2 (t) = −v32 (t) + av2 (t) − w2 (t) + c2 tanh v1 (t − 𝛿) , (38c)
Now, to show the effect of the variable order in the fractal
operator, the orders 𝛽(t) = 14 (cos(t) + 3), 𝛼 = 1 were selected ẇ 2 (t) = v2 (t) − b2 w2 (t), (38d)
to show the dynamic behaviors in Fig. 2a–c.
where ci (i = 1, 2) is the coupling strength and 𝛿 is the time
4.1.7 Case 4 delay in two coupled FHN neurons with synaptic connec-
tion. Also, the subscript 1 (or 2) represents the neuron 1 (or
In the other hand, by considering a variable order for 2), respectively.
𝛼(t) = 14 (cos(t) + 3) in the fractional operator and a con- In the same way, the classical operator (⋅)(t)
̇ in the syn-
stant order for 𝛽 = 0.97 in the fractal part, Fig.  2d–f aptically coupled FHN model (38) is generalized by the
exhibits the numerical solutions for the model (30) in the VOFFC, VOFFCFC and VOFFABC operators.
Liouville–Caputo, Caputo–Fabrizio–Caputo and Atan-
gana–Baleanu–Caputo sense. 4.2.1 Liouville–Caputo sense
FFC 𝛼(t),𝛽(t)
( )
4.1.8 Case 5 0
Dt {v1 (t)} = −v31 (t) + av1 (t) − w1 (t) + c1 tanh v2 (t − 𝛿) ,
(39a)
Finally, in Figs.  3 and 4, we consider combinations of the FFC 𝛼(t),𝛽(t)
Dt {w1 (t)} = v1 (t) − b1 w1 (t), (39b)
0
following functions:
FFC 𝛼(t),𝛽(t)
( )
1 | sin(t) | 1 Dt {v2 (t)} = −v32 (t) + av2 (t) − w2 (t) + c2 tanh v1 (t − 𝛿) ,
g1 (t) = (cos(t + 3)), g2 = tanh(t + 1), g3 = || |+ ,
| 0
4 | 2 | 2 (39c)
(37) C 𝛼(t),𝛽(t)
D
0 t
{w2 (t)} = v2 (t) − b2 w2 (t). (39d)

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-0.1 -0.1
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-0.2
-0.4 -0.4

-0.4 -0.5
-0.5

-0.6 -0.6 -0.6

-0.6 -0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 -0.6 -0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1

(a) Variable-Order Fractal-Fractional (b) Variable-Order Fractal-Fractional (c) Variable-Order Fractal-Fractional

Synaptically coupled FHN model (39) Synaptically coupled FHN model (41) Synaptically coupled FHN model (43)
in the Liouville-Caputo sense with β = in the Caputo-Fabrizio sense with β = 1 in the Atangana-Baleanu sense with
1 and α = 0.96. and α = 0.96. β = 1 and α = 0.96.
0.8
0.6

0.6 0.4
0.4
0.4
0.2
0.2
0.2

0 0
0

-0.2 -0.2 -0.2

-0.4
-0.4
-0.4
-0.6
-0.6
-0.6
-0.8
-0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4

(d) Variable-Order Fractal-Fractional (e) Variable-Order Fractal-Fractional (f) Variable-Order Fractal-Fractional

Synaptically coupled FHN model (39) Synaptically coupled FHN model (41) Synaptically coupled FHN model (43)
in the Liouville-Caputo sense with β = in the Caputo-Fabrizio sense with β = 1 in the Atangana-Baleanu sense with
1 and α = 0.96. and α = 0.96. β = 1 and α = 0.96.

Fig. 5  Variable-order fractal-fractional synaptically coupled FHN model with time delay, for a1 = 1.05, b1 = 1.128, b2 = 0.58, c1 = 0.225 and
c2 = 0.225 . State v1 (t) against v1 (t − 𝛿) in a–c; v2 (t) against v2 (t − 𝛿) in d–f 

By applying the scheme (17), the numerical approxima-

tion is computed by the following expressions:

n [
𝛽(tn )(Δt)𝛼(tn ) ∑ { ( )}
v1n+1 (t) = v10 + (tj − m)𝛽(tj )−1 −v31 (tj ) + av1 (tj ) − w1 (tj ) + c1 tanh v2 (tj − m)
Γ(𝛼(tn ) + 2) j=m
( )
× (n + 1 − j)𝛼(tj ) (n − j + 2 + 𝛼(tj )) − (n − j)𝛼(tj ) (n − j + 2 + 2𝛼(tj )) − (tj−1 − m)𝛽(tj−1 )−1
{ ( )}(
× −v31 (tj−1 ) + av1 (tj−1 ) − w1 (tj−1 ) + c1 tanh v2 (tj−1 − m) (n + 1 − j)𝛼(tj−1 )+1
)]
− (n − j)𝛼(tj−1 ) (n − j + 1 + 𝛼(tj−1 )) ,
(40a)

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0.1

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0

-0.1 0.2 0.2

-0.2
0 0

-0.3
-0.2 -0.2
-0.4

-0.4 -0.4
-0.5

-0.6 -0.6 -0.6

-0.6 -0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6

(a) Variable-Order Fractal-Fractional (b) Variable-Order Fractal-Fractional (c) Variable-Order Fractal-Fractional

Synaptically coupled FHN model (39) Synaptically coupled FHN model (41) Synaptically coupled FHN model (43)
in the Liouville-Caputo sense with β = in the Liouville-Caputo sense with β = in the Liouville-Caputo sense with β =
0.96 and α = 0.97. 0.96 and α = 0.97. 0.96 and α = 0.97.
0.6 0.6

0.6
0.4 0.4
0.4

0.2 0.2
0.2

0 0
0

-0.2 -0.2
-0.2

-0.4
-0.4
-0.4
-0.6
-0.6
-0.6
-0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6

(d) Variable-Order Fractal-Fractional (e) Variable-Order Fractal-Fractional (f) Variable-Order Fractal-Fractional

Synaptically coupled FHN model (39) Synaptically coupled FHN model (41) Synaptically coupled FHN model (43)
in the Liouville-Caputo sense with β = in the Liouville-Caputo sense with β = in the Liouville-Caputo sense with β =
0.96 and α = 0.97. 0.96 and α = 0.97. 0.96 and α = 0.97.

Fig. 6  Variable-order fractal-fractional synaptically coupled FHN model with time delay, for a1 = 1.05, b1 = 1.128, b2 = 0.58, c1 = 0.225 and
c2 = 0.225 . State v1 (t) against v1 (t − 𝛿) in a–c; v2 (t) against v2 (t − 𝛿) in d–f 

n [
𝛽(tn )(Δt)𝛼(tn ) ∑ 𝛽(tj )−1 { }(
w1n+1 (t) = w10 + tj v1 (tj ) − b1 w1 (tj ) (n + 1 − j)𝛼(tj )
Γ(𝛼(tn ) + 2) j=m
) 𝛽(t )−1
× (n − j + 2 + 𝛼(tj )) − (n − j)𝛼(tj ) (n − j + 2 + 2𝛼(tj )) − tj−1j−1
{ }( )]
× v1 (tj−1 ) − b1 w1 (tj−1 ) (n + 1 − j)𝛼(tj−1 )+1 − (n − j)𝛼(tj−1 ) (n − j + 1 + 𝛼(tj−1 )) ,
(40b)

n [
𝛽(tn )(Δt)𝛼(tn ) ∑ { ( )}
v2n+1 (t) = v20 + (tj − m)𝛽(tj )−1 −v32 (tj ) + av2 (tj ) − w2 (tj ) + c2 tanh v1 (tj − m)
Γ(𝛼(tn ) + 2) j=m
( )
× (n + 1 − j)𝛼(tj ) (n − j + 2 + 𝛼(tj )) − (n − j)𝛼(tj ) (n − j + 2 + 2𝛼(tj )) − (tj−1 − m)𝛽(tj−1 )−1
{ ( )}(
× −v32 (tj−1 ) + av2 (tj−1 ) − w2 (tj−1 ) + c2 tanh v1 (tj−1 − m) (n + 1 − j)𝛼(tj−1 )+1
)]
𝛼(tj−1 )
− (n − j) (n − j + 1 + 𝛼(tj−1 )) ,
(40c)

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0 0 0

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-0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6

(a) Variable-Order Fractal-Fractional (b) Variable-Order Fractal-Fractional (c) Variable-Order Fractal-Fractional

Synaptically coupled FHN model (39) Synaptically coupled FHN model (41) Synaptically coupled FHN model (43)
in the Liouville-Caputo sense with in the Liouville-Caputo sense with in the Liouville-Caputo sense with
β(t) = 14 (cos(t) + 3) and α = 1. β(t) = 14 (cos(t) + 3) and α = 1. β(t) = 14 (cos(t) + 3) and α = 1.

0.6 0.6 0.6

0.4 0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2 0.2

0 0 0

-0.2 -0.2 -0.2

-0.4 -0.4 -0.4

-0.6 -0.6 -0.6

-0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6

(d) Variable-Order Fractal-Fractional (e) Variable-Order Fractal-Fractional (f) Variable-Order Fractal-Fractional

Synaptically coupled FHN model (39) Synaptically coupled FHN model (41) Synaptically coupled FHN model (43)
in the Liouville-Caputo sense with in the Liouville-Caputo sense with in the Liouville-Caputo sense with
β(t) = 14 (cos(t) + 3) and α = 1. β(t) = 14 (cos(t) + 3) and α = 1. β(t) = 14 (cos(t) + 3) and α = 1.

Fig. 7  Variable-order fractal-fractional synaptically coupled FHN model with time delay, for a1 = 1.05, b1 = 1.128, b2 = 0.58, c1 = 0.225 and
c2 = 0.225 . State v1 (t) against v1 (t − 𝛿) in a–c; v2 (t) against v2 (t − 𝛿) in d–f 

n [
𝛽(tn )(Δt)𝛼(tn ) ∑ 𝛽(tj )−1 { }(
w2n+1 (t) = w20 + tj v2 (tj ) − b2 w2 (tj ) (n + 1 − j)𝛼(tj )
Γ(𝛼(tn ) + 2) j=m
) 𝛽(t )−1
× (n − j + 2 + 𝛼(tj )) − (n − j)𝛼(tj ) (n − j + 2 + 2𝛼(tj )) − tj−1j−1
{ }( )]
× v2 (tj−1 ) − b2 w2 (tj−1 ) (n + 1 − j)𝛼(tj−1 )+1 − (n − j)𝛼(tj−1 ) (n − j + 1 + 𝛼(tj−1 )) .
(40d)

4.2.2 Caputo–Fabrizio–Caputo sense
( ) FFCFC 𝛼(t),𝛽(t)
( )
FFCFC 𝛼(t),𝛽(t)
Dt {v1 (t)} = −v31 (t) + av1 (t) − w1 (t) + c1 tanh v2 (t − 𝛿) , 0
Dt {v2 (t)} = −v32 (t) + av2 (t) − w2 (t) + c2 tanh v1 (t − 𝛿) ,
(41c)
0
(41a)
FFCFC 𝛼(t),𝛽(t)
Dt {w1 (t)} = v1 (t) − b1 w1 (t), (41b)
FFCFC 𝛼(t),𝛽(t)
0
Dt {w2 (t)} = v2 (t) − b2 w2 (t). (41d)
0

By using the numerical scheme (24), the numerical solu-

tion for the variable-order fractal-fractional model (41) is
given by the following expressions:

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0.6
-0.2
-0.2
-0.3 0.4

-0.4
0.2
-0.5
-0.4
-0.6 0

-0.7
-0.2
-0.8
-0.6
-0.9 -0.4

-1
-0.6
-1 -0.9 -0.8 -0.7 -0.6 -0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2

(a) Variable-Order Fractal-Fractional (b) Variable-Order Fractal-Fractional (c) Variable-Order Fractal-Fractional

Synaptically coupled FHN model (39) Synaptically coupled FHN model (41) Synaptically coupled FHN model (43)
in the Liouville-Caputo sense with β = in the Liouville-Caputo sense with β = in the Liouville-Caputo sense with β =
0.97 and α(t) = 14 (cos(t) + 3). 0.97 and α(t) = 14 (cos(t) + 3). 0.97 and α(t) = 14 (cos(t) + 3).

0.4
0.6
0.6
0.3
0.5
0.4 0.2
0.4
0.1
0.2
0.3
0

0.2
0
-0.1

0.1 -0.2 -0.2

0 -0.3
-0.4

-0.1 -0.4
-0.6
-0.5
-0.2

-0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 -0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4

(d) Variable-Order Fractal-Fractional (e) Variable-Order Fractal-Fractional (f) Variable-Order Fractal-Fractional

Synaptically coupled FHN model (39) Synaptically coupled FHN model (41) Synaptically coupled FHN model (43)
in the Liouville-Caputo sense with β = in the Liouville-Caputo sense with β = in the Liouville-Caputo sense with β =
0.97 and α(t) = 14 (cos(t) + 3). 0.97 and α(t) = 14 (cos(t) + 3). 0.97 and α(t) = 14 (cos(t) + 3).

Fig. 8  Variable-order fractal-fractional synaptically coupled FHN model with time delay, for a1 = 1.05, b1 = 1.128, b2 = 0.58, c1 = 0.225 and
c2 = 0.225 . State v1 (t) against v1 (t − 𝛿) in a–c; v2 (t) against v2 (t − 𝛿) in d–f

) (
1 − 𝛼(tn ) 3𝛼(tn )(Δt) { 3 𝛽(tn )−1
v1n+1 (t) = v1n + 𝛽(tn )(tn − m) + −v1 (tn ) + av1 (tn ) − w1 (tn )+
M(𝛼(tn ) 2M(𝛼(tn ))
( )
( )} 1 − 𝛼(tn−1 ) 3𝛼(tn−1 )(Δt)
+ c1 tanh v2 (tn − m) + 𝛽(tn−1 )(tn−1 − m)𝛽(tn−1 )−1 +
M(𝛼(tn−1 ) 2M(𝛼(tn−1 ))
{ 3 ( )}
× −v1 (tn−1 ) + av1 (tn−1 ) − w1 (tn−1 ) + c1 tanh v2 (tn−1 − m) , (42a)

) (
1 − 𝛼(tn ) 3𝛼(tn )(Δt) { }
w1n+1 (t) = w1n + 𝛽(tn )tn𝛽(tn )−1
+ v1 (tn ) − b1 w1 (tn )
M(𝛼(tn ) 2M(𝛼(tn ))
( )
𝛽(t )−1 1 − 𝛼(tn−1 ) 3𝛼(tn−1 )(Δt) { }
+ 𝛽(tn−1 )tn−1n−1 + v1 (tn−1 ) − b1 w1 (tn−1 ) ,
M(𝛼(tn−1 ) 2M(𝛼(tn−1 )) (42b)

) (
1 − 𝛼(tn ) 3𝛼(tn )(Δt) { 3 𝛽(tn )−1
v2n+1 (t) = v2n + 𝛽(tn )(tn − m) + −v2 (tn ) + av2 (tn ) − w2 (tn )+
M(𝛼(tn ) 2M(𝛼(tn ))
( )
𝛽(tn−1 )−1 1 − 𝛼(tn−1 ) 3𝛼(tn−1 )(Δt)
( )}
+ c2 tanh v1 (tn − m) + 𝛽(tn−1 )(tn−1 − m) +
M(𝛼(tn−1 ) 2M(𝛼(tn−1 ))
{ 3 ( )}
× −v2 (tn−1 ) + av2 (tn−1 ) − w2 (tn−1 ) + c2 tanh v1 (tn−1 − m) , (42c)

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0.6 0.6 0.6

0.4 0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2 0.2

0 0 0

-0.2 -0.2 -0.2

-0.4 -0.4 -0.4

-0.6 -0.6 -0.6

-0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6

(a) Variable-Order Fractal-Fractional (b) Variable-Order Fractal-Fractional (c) Variable-Order Fractal-Fractional

Synaptically coupled FHN model (39) Synaptically coupled FHN model (41) Synaptically coupled FHN model (43)
in the Liouville-Caputo sense with in the Liouville-Caputo sense with in the Liouville-Caputo sense with
β(t) = 14 (cos(t)+3) and α(t) = tanh(t+ β(t) = 14 (cos(t)+3) and α(t) = tanh(t+ β(t) = 14 (cos(t)+3) and α(t) = tanh(t+
1). 1). 1).

0.6 0.6 0.6

0.4 0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2 0.2

0 0 0

-0.2 -0.2 -0.2

-0.4 -0.4 -0.4

-0.6 -0.6
-0.6

-0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6

(d) Variable-Order Fractal-Fractional (e) Variable-Order Fractal-Fractional (f) Variable-Order Fractal-Fractional

Synaptically coupled FHN model (39) Synaptically coupled FHN model (41) Synaptically coupled FHN model (43)
in the Liouville-Caputo sense with in the Liouville-Caputo sense with in the Liouville-Caputo sense with
β(t) = 14 (cos(t)+3) and α(t) = tanh(t+ β(t) = 14 (cos(t)+3) and α(t) = tanh(t+ β(t) = 14 (cos(t)+3) and α(t) = tanh(t+
1). 1). 1).

Fig. 9  Variable-order fractal-fractional synaptically coupled FHN model with time delay, for a1 = 1.05, b1 = 1.128, b2 = 0.58, c1 = 0.225 and
c2 = 0.225 . State v1 (t) against v1 (t − 𝛿) in a–c; v2 (t) against v2 (t − 𝛿) in d–f 

) (
1 − 𝛼(tn ) 3𝛼(tn )(Δt) { }
w2n+1 (t) = w2n + 𝛽(tn )tn𝛽(tn )−1
+ v2 (tn ) − b2 w2 (tn )
M(𝛼(tn ) 2M(𝛼(tn ))
( )
𝛽(tn−1 )−1 1 − 𝛼(tn−1 ) 3𝛼(tn−1 )(Δt) { }
+ 𝛽(tn−1 )tn−1 + v2 (tn−1 ) − b2 w2 (tn−1 ) .
M(𝛼(tn−1 ) 2M(𝛼(tn−1 )) (42d)

4.2.3 Atangana–Baleanu–Caputo sense ( )
FFABC 𝛼(t),𝛽(t)
( ) 0
Dt {v2 (t)} = −v32 (t) + av2 (t) − w2 (t) + c2 tanh v1 (t − 𝛿) ,
FFABC 𝛼(t),𝛽(t)
0
Dt {v1 (t)} = −v31 (t) + av1 (t) − w1 (t) + c1 tanh v2 (t − 𝛿) , (43c)
(43a) FFABC 𝛼(t),𝛽(t)
0
Dt {w2 (t)} = v2 (t) − b2 w2 (t). (43d)
FFABC 𝛼(t),𝛽(t)
0
Dt {w1 (t)} = v1 (t) − b1 w1 (t), (43b)
By employing the numerical scheme (29), it is possible to
get a numerical solution to the above system. The numerical
scheme is given as follows:

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0.6 0.6 0.6

0.4 0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2 0.2

0 0 0

-0.2 -0.2 -0.2

-0.4 -0.4 -0.4

-0.6 -0.6 -0.6

-0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6

(a) Variable-Order Fractal-Fractional (b) Variable-Order Fractal-Fractional (c) Variable-Order Fractal-Fractional

Synaptically coupled FHN model (39) Synaptically coupled FHN model (41) Synaptically coupled FHN model (43)
in the Liouville-Caputo sense with in the Liouville-Caputo sense with in the Liouville-Caputo sense with
sin(t) sin(t) sin(t)
β(t) = | 2 | + 12 and α(t) = tanh(t + β(t) = | 2 | + 12 and α(t) = tanh(t + β(t) = | 2 | + 12 and α(t) = tanh(t +
1). 1). 1).

0.6 0.6 0.6

0.4 0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2 0.2

0 0 0

-0.2 -0.2 -0.2

-0.4 -0.4 -0.4

-0.6 -0.6 -0.6

-0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6

(d) Variable-Order Fractal-Fractional (e) Variable-Order Fractal-Fractional (f) Variable-Order Fractal-Fractional

Synaptically coupled FHN model (39) Synaptically coupled FHN model (41) Synaptically coupled FHN model (43)
in the Liouville-Caputo sense with in the Liouville-Caputo sense with in the Liouville-Caputo sense with
sin(t) sin(t) sin(t)
β(t) = | 2 | + 12 and α(t) = tanh(t + β(t) = | 2 | + 12 and α(t) = tanh(t + β(t) = | 2 | + 12 and α(t) = tanh(t +
1). 1). 1).

Fig. 10  Variable-order fractal-fractional synaptically coupled FHN model with time delay, for a1 = 1.05, b1 = 1.128, b2 = 0.58, c1 = 0.225 and
c2 = 0.225 . State v1 (t) against v1 (t − 𝛿) in a–c; v2 (t) against v2 (t − 𝛿) in d–f 

𝛽(tn )(tn − m)𝛽(tn )−1 (1 − 𝛼(tn )) { 3 ( )}

v1n+1 (t) = v10 + −v1 (tn ) + av1 (tn ) − w1 (tn ) + c1 tanh v2 (tn − m)
AB(𝛼(tn ))
n [
𝛽(tn )(Δt)𝛼(tn ) ∑ { ( )}
+ (t − m)𝛽(tj )−1 −v31 (tj ) + av1 (tj ) − w1 (tj ) + c1 tanh v2 (tj − m)
AB(𝛼(tn ))Γ(𝛼(tn ) + 2) j=m j
( )
× (n + 1 − j)𝛼(tj ) (n − j + 2 + 𝛼(tj )) − (n − j)𝛼(tj ) (n − j + 2 + 2𝛼(tj ) − (tj−1 − m)𝛽(tj−1 )−1
{ 3 ( )}(
× −v1 (tj−1 ) + av1 (tj−1 ) − w1 (tj−1 ) + c1 tanh v2 (tj−1 − m) (n − j + 1)𝛼(tj−1 )+1
)]
− (n − j)𝛼(tj−1 ) (n − j + 1 + 𝛼(tj−1 )) ,
(44a)

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-0.2 0.6

-0.2
-0.4
0.4

-0.6
0.2
-0.8
-0.4

-1 0

-1.2
-0.2

-1.4 -0.6
-0.4
-1.6

-0.6
-1.8
-1.8 -1.6 -1.4 -1.2 -1 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2

(a) Variable-Order Fractal-Fractional (b) Variable-Order Fractal-Fractional (c) Variable-Order Fractal-Fractional

Synaptically coupled FHN model (39) Synaptically coupled FHN model (41) Synaptically coupled FHN model (43)
in the Liouville-Caputo sense with in the Liouville-Caputo sense with in the Liouville-Caputo sense with
sin(t) sin(t) sin(t)
β(t) = | 2 |+ 12 and α(t) = 14 (cos(t)+ β(t) = | 2 |+ 12 and α(t) = 14 (cos(t)+ β(t) = | 2 |+ 12 and α(t) = 14 (cos(t)+
3). 3). 3).

0.2
0.6
0.15 -0.05

0.1 0.4
-0.1
0.05
0.2
0
-0.15
-0.05 0

-0.1 -0.2
-0.2
-0.15

-0.2 -0.4 -0.25

-0.25
-0.6 -0.3
-0.3

-0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 -0.3 -0.25 -0.2 -0.15 -0.1 -0.05

(d) Variable-Order Fractal-Fractional (e) Variable-Order Fractal-Fractional (f) Variable-Order Fractal-Fractional

Synaptically coupled FHN model (39) Synaptically coupled FHN model (41) Synaptically coupled FHN model (43)
in the Liouville-Caputo sense with in the Liouville-Caputo sense with in the Liouville-Caputo sense with
sin(t) sin(t) sin(t)
β(t) = | 2 |+ 12 and α(t) = 14 (cos(t)+ β(t) = | 2 |+ 12 and α(t) = 14 (cos(t)+ β(t) = | 2 |+ 12 and α(t) = 14 (cos(t)+
3). 3). 3).

Fig. 11  Variable-order fractal-fractional synaptically coupled FHN model with time delay, for a1 = 1.05, b1 = 1.128, b2 = 0.58, c1 = 0.225 and
c2 = 0.225 . State v1 (t) against v1 (t − 𝛿) in a–c; v2 (t) against v2 (t − 𝛿) in d–f 

𝛽(t )−1
𝛽(tn )tn n (1 − 𝛼(tn )) { } 𝛽(tn )(Δt)𝛼(tn )
w1n+1 (t) = w10 + v1 (tn ) − b1 w1 (tn ) +
AB(𝛼(tn )) AB(𝛼(tn ))Γ(𝛼(tn ) + 2)
n [ (
∑ 𝛽(tj )−1 { }
× tj v1 (tj ) − b1 w1 (tj ) (n + 1 − j)𝛼(tj ) (n − j + 2 + 𝛼(tj ))
j=m
) 𝛽(t )−1 { }
− (n − j)𝛼(tj ) (n − j + 2 + 2𝛼(tj ) − tj−1j−1 v1 (tj−1 ) − b1 w1 (tj−1 )
( )]
𝛼(tj−1 )+1 𝛼(tj−1 )
× (n − j + 1) − (n − j) (n − j + 1 + 𝛼(tj−1 )) , (44b)

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0.6
-0.2
-0.2
0.4
-0.4

0.2

-0.6
-0.4
0

-0.8
-0.2

-0.6
-1
-0.4

-1.2 -0.6

-1.2 -1 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2

(a) Variable-Order Fractal-Fractional (b) Variable-Order Fractal-Fractional (c) Variable-Order Fractal-Fractional

Synaptically coupled FHN model (39) Synaptically coupled FHN model (41) Synaptically coupled FHN model (43)
in the Liouville-Caputo sense with in the Liouville-Caputo sense with in the Liouville-Caputo sense with
sin(t) sin(t) sin(t)
β(t) = tanh(t + 1) and α(t) = | 2 | + β(t) = tanh(t + 1) and α(t) = | 2 | + β(t) = tanh(t + 1) and α(t) = | 2 | +
1 1 1
2
. 2
. 2
.
0.4

0.3 0.6
0.4
0.2
0.4 0.3
0.1
0.2 0.2
0
0.1
-0.1 0
0
-0.2
-0.2
-0.3 -0.1

-0.4
-0.4 -0.2

-0.5 -0.6 -0.3

-0.6
-0.4
-0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6
-0.5
-0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4

(d) Variable-Order Fractal-Fractional (e) Variable-Order Fractal-Fractional

Synaptically coupled FHN model (39) Synaptically coupled FHN model (41) (f) Variable-Order Fractal-Fractional
in the Liouville-Caputo sense with in the Liouville-Caputo sense with Synaptically coupled FHN model (43)
sin(t) sin(t)
β(t) = tanh(t + 1) and α(t) = | 2 | + β(t) = tanh(t + 1) and α(t) = | 2 | + in the Liouville-Caputo sense with β =
1 1 sin(t)
2
. 2
. tanh(t + 1) and α = | 2 | + 12 .

Fig. 12  Variable-order fractal-fractional synaptically coupled FHN model with time delay, for a1 = 1.05, b1 = 1.128, b2 = 0.58, c1 = 0.225 and
c2 = 0.225 . State v1 (t) against v1 (t − 𝛿) in a–c; v2 (t) against v2 (t − 𝛿) in d–f 

𝛽(tn )(tn − m)𝛽(tn )−1 (1 − 𝛼(tn )) { 3 ( )}

v2n+1 (t) = v20 + −v2 (tn ) + av2 (tn ) − w2 (tn ) + c2 tanh v1 (tn − m)
AB(𝛼(tn ))
n [
𝛽(tn )(Δt)𝛼(tn ) ∑ { ( )}
+ (tj − m)𝛽(tj )−1 −v32 (tj ) + av2 (tj ) − w2 (tj ) + c2 tanh v1 (tj − m)
AB(𝛼(tn ))Γ(𝛼(tn ) + 2) j=m
( )
× (n + 1 − j)𝛼(tj ) (n − j + 2 + 𝛼(tj )) − (n − j)𝛼(tj ) (n − j + 2 + 2𝛼(tj ) − (tj−1 − m)𝛽(tj−1 )−1
{ 3 ( )}(
× −v2 (tj−1 ) + av2 (tj−1 ) − w2 (tj−1 ) + c2 tanh v1 (tj−1 − m) (n − j + 1)𝛼(tj−1 )+1
)]
𝛼(tj−1 )
− (n − j) (n − j + 1 + 𝛼(tj−1 )) ,
(44c)

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𝛽(t )−1
𝛽(tn )tn n (1 − 𝛼(tn )) { } 𝛽(tn )(Δt)𝛼(tn )
w2n+1 (t) = w20 + v2 (tn ) − b2 w2 (tn ) +
AB(𝛼(tn ))
n [
∑ 𝛽(tj )−1 { }(
× tj v2 (tj ) − b2 w2 (tj ) (n + 1 − j)𝛼(tj ) (n − j + 2 + 𝛼(tj ))
j=m
) 𝛽(t )−1 {
− (n − j)𝛼(tj ) (n − j + 2 + 2𝛼(tj ) − tj−1j−1 v2 (tj−1 ) − b2 w2 (tj−1 )
( )]
× (n − j + 1)𝛼(tj−1 )+1 − (n − j)𝛼(tj−1 ) (n − j + 1 + 𝛼(tj−1 )) .
Now, numerical examples are presented so as to display
new chaotical behaviors by using variable-order fractal-
fractional time delay equations. The following cases are
considered.
4.2.4 Case 1
Figure  5 shows the numerical results from the var-
iable-order fractal-fractional models (39), (41) and
(43) by setting the simulation with the parameters:
a = 1.05, b1 = 1.128, b2 = 0.58, c1 = 0.225 and c2 = 0.225 ;
initial conditions: v1 (0) = −0.1, w1 (0) = −0.1, v2 (0) = −0.1
and w2 (0) = −0.1 ; a step size of Δt = 1 × 10−2 and simula-
tion time t = 300[s].
4.2.5 Case 2
By using the same parameters and the orders
𝛽 = 0.96, 𝛼 = 0.97 arbitrarily chosen, Fig. 6 displays fractal-
fractional time delay behaviors.
4.2.6 Case 3
The simulations developed and shown in Fig. 7 were con-
figured with the orders 𝛽(t) = 14 (cos(t) + 3), 𝛼 = 1 so as to
show the effect of the variable order in the fractal operator.
4.2.7 Case 4
Next, by setting a variable order of 𝛼(t) = 14 (cos(t) + 3) in
the fractional operator and a constant order of 𝛽 = 0.97 in
the fractal part, Fig. 8 shows the numerical solutions for the
model (38) in Liouville–Caputo, Caputo–Fabrizio–Caputo
and Atangana–Baleanu–Caputo sense.
4.2.8 Case 5
And finally, combinations of the variable-order functions
(37) are chosen to show numerical simulations to the sys-
tems (39), (41) and (43), see Figs. 9, 10, 11 and 12.
AB(𝛼(tn ))Γ(𝛼(tn ) + 2)
}
(44d)
5 Conclusions
In this work, a numerical scheme based on the Lagrangian
piece-wise interpolation was suggested to obtain numeri-
cal solutions for variable-order fractal-fractional time delay
equations. The developing of the numerical methods for
solving variable-order fractal-fractional equations involv-
ing the Liouville–Caputo, Caputo–Fabrizio and Atan-
gana–Baleanu fractional derivatives has not been reported
in the literature yet. The Mackey–Glass and synaptically
coupled FHN models were considered to obtain several
new chaotical systems involving the Liouville–Caputo,
Caputo–Fabrizio–Caputo and Atangana–Baleanu–Caputo
derivatives. The numerical solutions permit to display novel
dynamics behaviors because the memory effect and the frac-
tal behavior are present in the formulations of the consid-
ered models. For several variable orders, the systems tend to
have a stable periodic orbits, whereas than other orders, rich
dynamics can be exhibited. The proposed approach could
apply to a wider class of biological systems, such as math-
ematical modeling of infectious diseases dynamics and other
important areas of studies such as economics, finance and
engineering. We strongly believe that this paper will open
many new doors of investigation toward modeling real-world
problems.
Acknowledgements  Jesús Emmanuel Solís Pérez acknowledges the
support provided by CONACyT through the assignment doctoral fel-
lowship. José Francisco Gómez Aguilar acknowledges the support pro-
vided by CONACyT: cátedras CONACyT para jóvenes investigadores
2014 and SNI-CONACyT.
Compliance with ethical standards 
Conflict of interest  The authors declare that they have no conflict of
interest.
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