JFS

Review Article
ISSN 2287-2396
Journal of Forest Science Journal of Forest Science
Vol. 29, No. 1, pp. 1-14, February, 2013
http://dx.doi.org/10.7747/JFS.2013.29.1.1

Acacia mangium Willd. - A Fast Growing Tree for

Tropical Plantation
Maheshwar Hegde1, K. Palanisamy1 and Jae Seon Yi2,*
1
Institute of Forest Genetics and Tree Breeding, R. S Puram, PB 1061 Coimbatore -641002, India
2
College of Forest and Environmental Sciences, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon 200-701, Republic of Korea

Abstract
Acacia mangium is an evergreen fast-growing tropical tree, which can grow up to 30 m tall and 50 cm thick, under
favorable conditions. It is a low-elevation species associated with rain forest margins and disturbed, well-drained acid
soils. It is native to Papua, Western Irian Jaya and the Maluku islands in Indonesia, Papua New Guinea and north-eastern
Queensland in Australia. Due to its rapid growth and tolerance of very poor soils, A. mangium was introduced into
some Asian, African and western hemisphere countries where it is used as a plantation tree. A. mangium has good
quality wood traits, such as a comparatively low proportion of parenchymatous cells and vessels, white and hard wood,
and high calorific value. Therefore, it is useful for a variety of purposes, such as furniture, cabinets, turnery, floors,
particleboard, plywood, veneer, fence posts, firewood, and charcoal. It is also being used in pulp and paper making
because it has good pulp traits, with high yields of pulp, quality of kraft, and produces paper with good optical, physical
and surface properties. Because there are significant provenance differences in growth rate, stem straightness, heartwood
formation and frequency of multiple leaders, the productivity and quality also varies depending upon environmental
conditions, so genetic improvement programmes have been undertaken in countries like Australia, India, Indonesia,
Malaysia, the Philippines, Taiwan and Thailand. The programme includes provenance identifications and testing, plus
tree selection and clonal multiplication, establishment of seed orchards and hybridization. The phenology, reproductive
biology, fruit characteristics, silvicultural practices for cultivation, pest and diseases problems, production of improved
planting stock, harvesting, wood properties and utilization have been discussed in this paper.

Key Words: Acacia mangium, fast-growing, growth traits, plantation

Taxonomy 1995). A. mangium is in Phyllodinae subgenus classed into

Acacia mangium Willd. belongs to Acacia genus, which
was originally described as Mangium montanum Rumph in
Herbarium Amboinense 3:123, t.81 (1750) but transferred
to Acacia by C.L. Willdenow in Sp. Plant 4: 1053 (1806).
The specific name is an allusion to Rumphius’ observation
that this tree resembled ‘mangge’ or mangroves in Indonesia.
Acacia contains 1,200-1,300 species and is divided into three
subgenus: Acacia, Aculeiferum and Phyllodinae (Maslin
seven sections, containing more than 900 species (Maslin
and McDonald 1996). A. mangium is assigned to section
Juliflorae (235 species), a group characterized by having
flowers in elongated spikes and numerous phyllodes, often
anatomizing by longitudinal nerves. A. mangium may easily
be confused with A. holosericea and A. neurocarpa, but it can
be readily distinguished by its arborescent habit, glabrous
phyllodes and branchlets, white to cream flower spikes and
seed with an orange aril (Maslin and McDonald 1996),

Received: October 16, 2012. Revised: January 24, 2013. Accepted: January 25, 2013

Corresponding author: Jae Seon Yi

College of Forest and Environmental Sciences, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon 200-701, Republic of Korea
Tel: 82-33-250-8312, Fax: 82-33-252-8310, E-mail: jasonyi@kangwon.ac.kr

J For Sci 29(1), 1-14 1

Acacia mangium - A Fast Growing Tree for Tropical Plantation
Fig. 1. Generalized range of natural distribution of Acacia mangium.
while other two occur naturally as shrubs or small trees on
drier sites.
Distribution
A. mangium has a fragmented natural distribution which
stretches from Indonesia (i. e. on the islands of Sula,
Ceram, Aru, and Iriyan Jaya), Papua New Guinea (PNG)
and north-eastern Queensland in Australia (Fig. 1). The
o o o o
range is 1 -18 -57'S latitudinal and 125 22'-146 17'E
longitudinal. The mean altitudinal range is from just above
sea level to about 100 m, with an upper limit of 780 m. In
Asia, the country with A. mangium natural population dis-
tribution is Indonesia. In Oceania, there were Australian
Northern Territory, Queensland and Papua New Guinea.
A detailed description of the natural distribution and ecol-
ogy about A. mangium is available in Awang and Taylor
(1993) and Krisnawati et al. (2011).
A. mangium was introduced into many countries. For ex-
ample, Indonesia and Malaysia have established large-scale
plantations for the production of paper pulp. In China, the
Philippines, Thailand and Vietnam, the commercial plant-
ing of A. mangium is increasing very quickly (Awang and
Taylor 1993). Of course, the species has also been in-
troduced to other countries as a plantation tree, such as other
Asia countries (Bangladesh, China, Taiwan, India, Indonesia,
Laos, Malaysia, the Philippines, Sri Lanka, Thailand, and
2 Journal of Forest Science http://jofs.or.kr
Vietnam), Africa (Benin, Congo, Côte d’Ivoire, Democrat-
ic Republic of Congo, Kenya, Madagascar and Zimbabwe)
and Western Hemisphere (Brazil, Costa Rica, Cuba and
Hawaii).
Environmental Conditions
Soil
A. mangium is typically a low elevation species chiefly as-
sociated with rainforest margins and disturbed sites on
well-drained acid soils (pH 4.5-6.5) of low fertility. It also
occurs behind mangroves, in seasonal swamps, along
streams, and on well-drained flats, low ridges and mountain
foot hills (Pinyopusarerk et al. 1993).
Climate
A. mangium distribution area is including the tropical
warm and hot climate, either humid or wet zones charac-
terized by a short winter dry season and high total annual
rainfall. The mean maximum of the hottest month is about
o
30-34 C and the mean minimum of the coolest about
o
15-22 C. It is unsuitable in the area where the absolute
o
minimum temperature falls below 0 C (Yan et al. 1996), so
its distribution area is frost-free. In a typical location, the
50% rainfall is 2,150 mm; the 10% is 1,300 mm; and the
lowest, on record, is 1,000 mm. It prefers wet sites with an
annual rainfall of 1,000-4,500 mm. Prolonged dry periods
will slow down the tree growth (Mergen et al. 1983).
While the annual rainfall of over 2,500 mm in the
Bengkoka/ Kudat region of Sabah is considered adequate
for growth. Moreover, it is still affected by seasonal con-
ditions (Pinyopusarerk et al. 1993). During the dry season,
when monthly rainfall is below 100 mm and the evapo-
ration rate exceeds 130 mm per month, the tree is under
drought stress.
Vegetation types
A. mangium grows on the margins of closed forest (rain
forest), in open forest and woodland, especially where there
is disturbance by fire. In northern Queensland it occurs in
tall forests on well-drained sites of the foothills and low-
lands associated with various eucalypts and acacias. As a
component of fringing vegetation on river banks, it is fre-
quently associated with rain forest species such as Flindersia

brayleyana and Cardwellia sublimis. Elsewhere, it occurs on
the slightly better-drained sites within the swampy coastal
plains where Melaleuca are locally dominant. Tracey (1982)
described the vegetation types in humid, tropical Queens-
land.
In Papua New Guinea, It occurs in tall woodland and
open forest, frequently in mixed associations with other
Acacia, Melaleuca and Lophostemon spp. These vegetation
types are described by Paijmans et al. (1971), Paijmans
(1976) and Skelton (1987). At the western extremity of its
range in Indonesia, A. mangium is dominant in small stands
on disturbed sites in or on the fringes, closed-forest and
Melaleuca spp. woodland.
Botanical Descriptions
Tree morphology
A. mangium is a kind of evergreen tree, up to 30 m tall.
The general feature is presented in Fig. 2. The bole can be
Fig. 2. Feature of Acacia mangium. 1-Habit of young tree; 2-flowering twig;
and 3-pods (Source: DFSC seed leaflet).
Hegde et al.
unbranched for more than half of the total tree height. It is
sometimes fluted at the base and the tree diameter rarely ex-
ceeds 50 cm. Bark is rough and furrowed, either grey or
brown in color. Small branches are winged. It may be re-
duced to a small tree or large shrub of 7-10 m on un-
favorable sites. The bark surface is rough, furrowed longi-
tudinally, and varies in colour from pale grey-brown to
brown. The lower bole is sometimes fluted. Detailed bota-
nical description refers to Pedley (1975).
Leaves (phyllodes)
Borne on very acutely angled, glabrous and stout
branchlets, the mature phyllodes of A. mangium are very
large, normally 11-27 cm long and 3-10 cm broad. They
are dark green, glabrous on a glabrous pulvinus 0.6-1 cm
long. The phyllodes are characterized by four (rarely three
or five) main longitudinal nerves, basally confluent but dis-
tinct from lower margin, minor nerves strongly anatomiz-
ing to form a prominent reticulum (Maslin and McDonald
1996). A gland (extra floral nectary) is conspicuous at the
Fig. 3. Phyllode of A. mangium with four longitudinal veins.
J For Sci 29(1), 1-14 3
Acacia mangium - A Fast Growing Tree for Tropical Plantation

base of the phyllode (Fig. 3). seed (Fig. 4).

Growth phenology
Reproductive Biology and Breeding System
A. mangium is able to grow throughout the year if con-
Floral biology
ditions are suitable. In Thailand, it has been observed that
growth appears to slow down or cease in response to the A. mangium flower is regular in symmetry, consisting of
combination of low rainfall and cool temperatures in five sepals, five petals, numerous stamens and one gynoe-
January-February. Trees start to grow actively again in cium. It has a mild and sweet fragrance, which is partic-
April before the start of the wet season (Atipanumpai, ularly distinct in the early morning when individual flowers
1989). are in boom. (Zakaria 1993). Stigma is non-papillate, meas-
ure 63 microns in diameter and forms a cup shaped depres-
Flowering phenology
sion at the tip of style. Stigma and anthers lie in same plane.
Flowering in Acacias is precocious. A. mangium starts to The anther is bilobed and measures 183 microns. Each lobe
flower and produce seeds 18-20 months after planting has four separate loculi with each loculus enclosing a polyad
(Mergen et al. 1983). Mature fruits occur 3-4 months after (Composite pollen grains). The polyad is spherical in shape
flowering period. The time from the onset of flower buds to with diameter of 30-40 microns and each polyad consists of
pod maturity is about 199 days (Zakaria 1993). Flowering 16 pollens. On an average, there are about 113 stamens per
phenology differs throughout its natural and planted range. flower. The ovary is sessile, normally with minute hairs,
In natural habitat, its flowers are present during February with 12-14 ovules per ovary. Flowers are generally herma-
to May in Australia and the seed matures in October- phroditic. However, in some inflorescence staminate flow-
December (Sedgley et al. 1992). Farther north the fruits
mature earlier with seed available from July in Indonesia,
and late September in Papua New Guinea (Skelton 1987;
Turnbull et al. 1983).
As an exotic, the normal flowering cycle may be dis-
rupted and flowering can occur throughout the year.
However, a distinct peak is usually discernible (Awang and
Taylor 1993). The peak is reported to be June-July in
Peninsular Malaysia (Zakaria and Kamis 1991), January in
Sabah (Sedgley et al. 1992), October-November in Taiwan
(Kiang et al. 1989) and September in Thailand (Kijkar
1992).

Inflorescences, flowers and fruits

The inflorescence consisting of many tiny flowers, occur
as rather loose spikes up to 10 cm long, singly or in pairs in
the upper axils (Fig. 4). The whitish (or cream) flowers are
in rather loose spikes 5-12 cm long on peduncles 0.6-1 cm
long, singly or in pairs in the upper axils. The seed pods are
linear, tightly coiled when ripe, sometimes tightly spirally
coiled, slightly woody, 7-8 cm long and 0.3-0.5 cm wide.
The seeds are black and shiny, longitudinal, ovate to ob-
long 3-5x2-3 mm with a yellow or bright orange (rarely
red) funicle folded to form an oily, fleshy aril beneath the Fig. 4. A. mangium inflorescence in blooming stage.

4 Journal of Forest Science http://jofs.or.kr


ers are also present (Zakaria and Kamis 1991).
Breeding system
A. mangium is generally an outcrossing species with the
tendency toward selfing (Zakaria 1993). In A. mangium an-
dromonoecy-spatial separation of sexes is not prominent. In
terms of temporal separation of sexes, protogynous dichog-
amy is not prevalent. Anthesis occurs very early in the day,
with flowers opening in the preceding night at about 21:00
hr. The synchronous emergence of styles and stamens, the
immediate anther dehiscence, and stigma receptivity after
anthesis signify that the flowers of A. mangium are homog-
amous (Zakaria 1993). Zakaria (1993) also found that the
species index of self-incompatibility (ISI) rating was 0.38,
which could lead it to be classified as an out-crossing spe-
cies with some degree of selfing despite being partially
self-incompatible. Its partial self-incompatibility is prob-
ably due to the presence post zygotic lethal genes as in case
some other Acacia species.
A. mangium requires biotic agents to transfer pollen from
anthers to the stigmas. Pollinators are mainly entomophilic,
with Trigona and Apis spp., as the consistent pollen vectors.
The most active time of day for these pollinators is between
07:30 and 11:00, after which their activity decreases; and
very few pollinators are observed in the day. In spite of
dense and conspicuous inflorescence, A. mangium fails to at-
tract a more varied spectrum of pollinators, probably be-
cause it lacks floral nectaries (Zakaria 1993).
Hybridization
A. mangium has a chromosome number of 2n=26 as same
as in A. auriculiformis, so it often readily hybridizes with A.
auriculiformis. Hybrids of A. mangium x A. auriculiformis
have the potential to become an important source of planting
material for plantation forestry. The hybrid seems to be
more resistant to heart rot than A. mangium. Moreover, the
hybrid has the straight bole and stem of A. mangium and the
self-pruning ability of A. auriculiformis (Zakaria 1993). F1
hybrid trees between A. mangium and A. auriculiformis in
Vietnam produced 300-500% greater wood volume than the
parental species at 2.5-3 years and at 4.5 years old hybrids,
on average, twice the wood volume of A. mangium (Le
1996). Sedgley et al. (1992) found that the cross A. auric-
uliformis x A. mangium was more successful than the recip-
Hegde et al.
rocal, but fertile seed was produced following interspecific
pollination in both directions. Vacuum drying of pollen and
storage in a deep freeze is recommended for the medium
length storage (3 years) of pollen used in crossing pro-
grammers of these species (Harbard and Sedgley 1994).
Genetics and Improvement
Initial plantings of A. mangium outside its natural dis-
tribution range had generally relied on unimproved materi-
als usually from a narrow genetic base. Consequently, the
growth obtained was variable and productivity tended to
decline over several generations due to genetic erosion
(Awang and Bhumibhamon 1993). Elaborate tree improve-
ment activities are now being taken up in many countries
where it has been introduced for production of better plant-
ing materials with consistent, desirable characteristics.
Provenance variation
A. mangium has a fragmented natural distribution stretch-
ing from the Moluccas islands in Indonesia to Western
Province of Papua New Guinea and northeastern Queensland
in Australia. Many provenances highly adapted to their nat-
ural habitats have been identified and studies have shown
variation among them in all respects (Awang and Bhumib-
hamon 1993). For example, there are large provenance dif-
ferences in growth rate, stem straightness and frequency of
multiple leaders. International provenance trials were estab-
lished during the 1980s (Doran and Skelton 1982). One of
the international provenance trials are shown in Table 1
(Awang and Taylor 1993).
Results of these trials were reported by Harwood and
Williams (1992). Highly significant provenance differences
in growth trait among experimental sites and provenance
regions were observed. For example, growth was generally
faster at near-equatorial trial sites with mean annual height
increment around 3-4 m, and slower at sites further from
the equator. Papua New Guinea provenances were con-
sistently the best performers, closely followed by the
Claudie River provenance from north Queensland. The
slowest growing provenances were from the Maluku prov-
ince of Indonesia and southern parts of the distribution in
Queensland. Other studies have given similar results (Nguyen
and Le 1996; Otsamo et al. 1996; Tuomela et al. 1996).
J For Sci 29(1), 1-14 5
Acacia mangium - A Fast Growing Tree for Tropical Plantation

Table 1. A. mangium provenances in the international provenance trials (Awang and Taylor 1993)
Provenance location
Sl. No. Provenance region Lat. (oS) Long. (oE) Altitude (m)
(CSIRO seedlot No.)
1 Julatten (12990) Queensland Cairns Region 16 34 145 35 400
2 Daintree (12991) Queensland Cairns Region 16 17 145 31 60
3 Rex Range (12992) Queensland Cairns Region 16 30 145 32 30
4 Claudie River (13229) Far North Queensland 12 44 143 13 60
5 Mission Beach (13230) Queensland Cairns Region 17 53 146 06 5
6 NW of Silkwood (13231) Queensland Cairns Region 17 42 145 57 40
7 Cowley Beach (13232) Queensland Cairns Region 17 41 146 05 5
8 NE Walshs Pyramid (13233) Queensland Cairns Region 17 06 145 48 20
9 E of Cairns (13234) Queensland Cairns Region 17 02 145 48 20
10 Mourilayan Bay (13235) Queensland CairnsRegion 17 35 146 05 20
11 Kurrimine (13236) Queensland Cairns Region 17 46 146 05 10
12 El Arish (13237) Queensland Cairns Region 17 50 146 01 20
13 Mission Beach (13238) Queensland Cairns Region 17 56 146 02 70
14 Tully (13239) Queensland Cairns Region 17 55 145 52 50
15 Cardwell-Ellerbeck (13240) Queensland Cairns Region 18 14 145 50 60
16 Broken Pole Creek (13241) Queensland Cairns Region 18 21 146 03 50
17 Abergowrie S. F (13242) Queensland Cairns Region 18 26 146 01 60
18 Daintree (13279) Queensland Cairns Region 16 17 145 31 60
19 Morehead (13459) Papua New Guinea 8 45 141 25 30
20 Oriomo River (13460) Papua New Guinea 8 50 143 08 10
21 Cassowary Range (13534) Queensland Cairns Region 16 32 145 25 60
22 Piru, Ceram (13621) Ceram, Indonesia 3 04 128 12 150
23 Sidei (13622) Irian Jaya, Indonesia 0 46 133 34 30
24 Mossman (13846) Queensland Cairns Region 16 31 145 24 60

Though variation of wood density among provenances
was not significant, the heartwood formation variation was
significant among 5-year-old trees of 23 families from 7
seed sources (Bhumington et al. 1992). It is highly herit-
able trait by the narrow heritability (Awang and Bhumibha-
mon 1993).
Plus tree selection
Plus tree selection and progeny testing for selected mate-
rials has taken place in several countries where A. mangium
is planted on a large scale. Generally, the characteristics
considered for plus tree selection are superior height, good
diameter at breast height, stem straightness, good branch-
ing habit, good self pruning ability, resistance to pest and
diseases and wood properties (density).
Seed stands and seed orchards
Since establishment of provenance trials, these countries
have started further comprehensive seed collections. For ex-
ample, Australian and several South East Asian organ-
izations are developing improved breeds from wide bases of
the best provenances with low levels of genotype-by-envi-
ronment interaction at the provenance level (Harwood
1996). A. mangium seed orchards have been established in
Australia, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines,
Taiwan and Thailand (Varghese et al. 1999). Expected gain
in seedling volume production in progeny from seed or-
chards of A. mangium in Indonesia is more than 50-70%
compared to local seeds planted (Kurinobu and Nirsatmanto
1996). Because of asynchronous flowering among trees and
families in seed orchard (Awang and Bhumibhamon 1993),
the seed production of most of the first generation is low. In
Fig. 5 the seed orchard in India is shown.
To build up a base for clonal forestry programme (Arisman
and Havmoller 1994), A. mangium x A. auriculiformis ex-
perimental hybrid seed orchards have been established in

6 Journal of Forest Science http://jofs.or.kr


Fig. 5. Acacia mangium seed orchard at Nilambur, Kerala, India.
Indonesia. Hybrid clones with outstanding growth and
form selected and propagated by tissue culture are being
tested in Vietnam (Le 1996). Vegetative propagation of the
hybrid by striking cuttings from coppice shoots is being
used in Bangladesh (Banik et al. 1995).
A breeding programme has been initiated by Institute of
Forest Genetics and Tree Breeding, India (IFGTB) by ob-
taining seeds from established seedling seed orchards of
Australia, Fiji and Indonesia as well as from identified natu-
ral provenances, and raising pedigreed as well as bulked
seed orchards after culling inferior families (Varghese et al.
2001).
Seed Biology
Seed harvesting and collection
In India and Indonesia seeds are collected from planta-
tions or orchards by locally hired climbers who cut off
branches and strip the fruits into bags. After air drying, the
pods are hand threshed and seeds are cleaned. Seeds can be
produced from the 18 to 20-month-old trees, but the flow-
ering and fruiting seasons are quite different based on the
locations. In Indonesia fruits ripen in July, while in Papua
New Guinea they ripen in September (Krisnawati et al.
2011).
Seed extraction and cleaning
Seeds can be extracted manually after sun-drying for
several days (24-48 hours) until the pods turn brown/black
Hegde et al.
Fig. 6. Fruits of A. mangium.
o
and split. The drying temperature should remain below 43 C
to avoid loss of seed viability (Krisnawati et al. 2011).
The pods should be processed as soon as possible after
harvest. If pods and seeds are not thoroughly dried, the best
storage during transport is cloth bags. Otherwise, the heat
and humidity encourage the development of fungi. In
India, seeds are extracted manually after sun drying for sev-
eral days until the pods turning brown and/or black and
split. Pods and seeds should not be left long to dry in the
o
sun, as temperatures over 43 C can reduce viability. In
Malaysia, pods are dried in a simple drying chamber equip-
ped with an electric heater and a domestic fan (Adjers and
Srivastava 1993). Seed moisture content should be reduced
below 13% to prevent fungus development. Extraction with
flailing thresher followed by winnowing as described in
Doran et al. (1983) is suitable for this species. Because
threshing of pods and seeds produces a highly irritating
dust, workers need protection (Adjers and Srivastava
1993). In Fig. 6, fruits are shown.
J For Sci 29(1), 1-14 7
Acacia mangium - A Fast Growing Tree for Tropical Plantation
Seed storage
The hard impermeable seed coat confers A. mangium
seed long viability under almost any conditions if seeds are
kept dry and free from insect pests. FAO (1987) recom-
mended storing A. mangium seeds in sealed, air-tight con-
o
tainers in a refrigerator between 0-5 C temperatures. Sup-
riadi and Valli (1988) recommended using clean jerry cans
or small jars that could be closed tightly for storing seed.
These jars can be stored in a dry, cold storage especially de-
signed for forest tree seeds. This technique has been used to
store seeds of A. mangium for several years without serious
problems (Adjers and Srivastava 1993).
Dormancy and pretreatment
Germination in A. mangium is inhibited by hard im-
permeable seed coat. To obtain even and quick germination
in nursery, it is necessary to use scarification or some other
pretreatment to make the permeable testa being moistened.
The most common and practical pretreatment method is
the hot water treatment (Adjers and Srivastava 1993). Seeds
are pretreated by immersion in boiling water for 30 seconds
followed by soaking in cold water for 24 hours alternatively,
they can be manually scarified. Germination rate is high
(75-90%) after this treatment.
Seed germination and nursery practices
Seeds can be sown in seedbeds, germination trays (wet
towel method) or directly in containers. Adjers and Srivastava
(1993) gave a detailed description of nursery techniques.
The optimum seedling container size for best results is 300
cc. For substratum in container use either top soil mixed
with compost or a mixture of tropical peat or rice husk
(between 70:30 and 90:10, depending on the characteristic
of peat). The optimum height of seedlings for out-planting
is 25-40 cm which can be achieved in 12 weeks with proper
fertilizer applications. After 3-4 weeks for proper harden-
ing, the seedlings will be ready for planting in 15-16 weeks
after sowing in nursery.
Vegetative propagation
A. mangium stem cuttings can be easily rooted if cutting
materials from 6 to 12 month-old seedlings are used. Rooting
percentage drastically reduced with older planting stocks.
8 Journal of Forest Science http://jofs.or.kr
At six-month age of stock plant, rooting percentage was
71% and at 24 months it reduced to 15% (Darus 1993).
High air humidity (70-90%) and fairly constant temper-
o
ature (28 C) required in the rooting chamber. Use of cut-
tings with one half or one phyllode and applications of aux-
ins such as 500-1,000 ppm IBA or a hormone rooting pow-
der improved rooting. Rooting medium with high pH
(5.8-neutral) and high water holding capacity increased
rooting (Darus 1993). Micropropagation technique for A.
mangium has also been successfully developed and reported.
For optimum induction of multiple shoots, Murashige and
Skoog basal medium supplemented with 0.5 mg/l of BAP
was found to be most suitable (Darus 1993).
Silviculture and Management
Silvicultural characteristics
A. mangium is a fast-growing, sensitive to frost, intolerant
of shade and relatively short-lived (30-50 years) tree
(Guzman et al. 1997), adapted to a wide range of acidic
soils (pH 4.5-6.5) in moist tropical lowlands. In China, It
grows slowly when mean monthly temperatures fall below
o
17 C. While it grows better on fertile sites with good drain-
age (but not excessively well drained), it will tolerate soils of
low fertility and impeded drainage. It is killed by fire only if
the stem diameter is less than about 10 cm. The root system
is shallow and vigorous. Branches are persistent as the spe-
cies does not naturally self-prune. Stem heart rot sometimes
develops from dead branch stubs. Fluting of the bole is of-
ten a problem.
In some locations, A. mangium has a tendency to form
multiple stems. The reason of this is not fully understood
although it does appear to be partly related to soil fertility,
competition, and use of oversized spindly seedlings.
Higher phosphate levels and less competition appear to en-
courage it. Turvey (1995) showed that the number of dom-
inant stems increased as mean tree volume increased, sug-
gesting a relation to conditions favoring faster growth
rates. Stem straightness also varies with site fertility where
growth is fast (Mead and Miller 1991). It is also very sus-
ceptible to typhoon damage in areas prone to high winds
such as Hainan Island (China), the Philippines and
Vietnam.

Silvicultural practices
Srivastava (1993) has given detailed cases of silvicultural
practices for A. mangium in different growing conditions.
Site preparation
The site preparation depends on seven factors-past and
present vegetation at planting site, climate, topography, soil
type, soil fertility, equipment and labors available. When the
logged over forest is to be converted to plantations, clear
felling followed by burning is recommended. Disc plowing
and harrowing can also be done in grass lands (Srivastava
1993).
Spacing
In Sabah, 3x3 m is the most common spacing for A.
mangium. It can also be reduced from 2x2 m to 2.5x2.5 m
that is be beneficial to initial fast growth. Some agencies
adopted 4x2 m spacing (Srivastava 1993). In Papua New
Guinea the most commonly employed spacing is 4x4 m.
Fertilizer application
In China, application of 100 kg/ha N, 50 kg/ha P and 50
kg/ha K resulted in 179% volume production increased at
age of 2.6 years for A. mangium (Simpson 1992). The appli-
cation of suitable fertilizers in adequate amount at the prop-
er intervals has great potential to increase early growth. The
type and amount of fertilizer will vary with soil and other
site conditions.
Pruning and thinning schedule
A. mangium stands need regular pruning and thinning
only if the plantation objective is to produce quality saw logs
on a 15-20 year rotation. These operations are not generally
done in pulp wood plantations with 6-8 years rotations.
Thinning schedule depends on initial spacing, growth rate
and end use. Generally, it does not start earlier than 2 years
of planting. Second thinning can be done at 4-5 years and
third may be at 8-9 years. Although A. mangium shows
strong apical dominance, on many sites it tends to develop
multiple shoots. This character is controlled by genotype as
well site conditions. In Malaysia the standard practice is to
remove all shoots besides the leader at 4-6 months after
planting. If it is delayed there is a danger of rot fungus en-
Hegde et al.
tering through large diameter scars (Srivastava 1993).
Coppicing and second rotation
A. mangium stump coppice profusely if a stump hiugher
than 50 cm is left. But unlike other species its coppice shoot
do not develop into tree size. Therefore, it is not possible to
obtain a second rotation by coppicing (Srivastava 1993). In
some sites profuse natural regeneration is reported after
clear felling.
Growth and yield
The considerable amount of information published on
the growth of A. mangium confirms that the species can ach-
ieve the mean annual increment (MAI) in DBH of up to 5
cm and MAI in height of up to 5 m in the first four or five
years. However, growth declines rapidly after seven or eight
years, except under very ideal conditions or over long (＞20
years) periods, the tree will probably not grow beyond 35
cm in DBH and 35 m in height (Tsai 1993).
In the studies on this species in Indonesia, growth rate
varies considerably with site, age and spacing (Krisnawati et
al. 2011). Comparisons can be made on the basis of the
mean annual increment (MAI) values. The MAI for diam-
eter ranges from 1.4 to 7.3 cm/year. High DBH MAI val-
ues (more than 4 cm/year) are recorded for stands less than
3 years old and after this age the diameter MAI values gen-
erally decline towards 1.5-2 cm/year. The MAI for height
ranges from 1.8 to 5.8 m/year, and high values of height
MAI (more than 4 m/year) have been recorded for stands
less than 3 years old, although a height MAI of more than 4
m/year has also been reported in older stands in several sites
in Riau and in South Sumatra. As with diameter MAI,
height MAI drops, declining towards 2-2.5 m/year. Growth
generally declines rapidly after 8 years.
Choice of the correct provenance for a particular plant-
ing site can have a major influence on growth rate and yield.
On an Imperata grassland site in South Kalimantan and
Indonesia, Tuomela et al. (1996) reported there was up to a
threefold differences in volume production between the
3
best growing provenances (60-90 m /ha) and the poorest
3
performers (30-50 m /ha) at 26 months. In the same study,
growth after singling and pruning at 8 months was found to
be only about 70% of that of untreated plots. These treat-
ments were deemed by the authors as being undesirable if
J For Sci 29(1), 1-14 9
Acacia mangium - A Fast Growing Tree for Tropical Plantation
growth rate is the first priority. In another trial in the same
region, Otsamo et al. (1996) reported the MAI for A. man-
3
gium at 41 months was up to 39 m /ha. At Kampar Kiri-
Riau, Indonesia, the best provenance in a trial was reported
3
as giving an MAI of 41.4 m /ha at 2.5 years (Leksono et al.
1996).
In a study conducted in Kerala state in India (Buvane-
swaran 2005), the MAI in terms of GBH was worked out
for three agro-climatic zones in Kerala and the comparison
of the results showed that high altitude zone registered
greater MAI in girth (9.6 cm/year) than in southern (8.0
cm/year) and northern zone (9.4 cm/year). Generally, it is
observed that within a plantation and within a zone varia-
tion in GBH of A. mangium GBH was greater than that of
zones in Kerala. However, in humid regions, the pro-
3
ductivity ranged from 35 to 45 m /ha/year particularly in
the southern zone of Kerala. On the other hand, in sub-hu-
mid climatic condition with red loamy soils as observed in
some belt of northern zone, the productivity ranged from
3
20 to 25 m /ha/year. A. mangium was observed to be a spe-
cies for wet zones and hence, localities with long dry spell
were not being appropriate for establishing A. mangium
plantation. Heart rot / root rot diseases were being risk fac-
tors involved in cultivation of Mangium in these dry
regions.
Pest and Diseases
Important insect-pests
Hutacharern (1993) has described 30 insect species at-
tacking A. mangium, together with other 48 insect species
reported on A. mangium. Among theses, only a few species
have profound effects. Important insect pests are root feed-
ers (Stenocera aequisignata and termite), branch and stem
borers (Synoxylon spp.), and the red coffee borer (Zeuzera
coffeae). These can cause death, deformity, or reduced bio-
mass production of A. mangium, and thus are the insects
that must be carefully monitored and for which preventive
measures should be employed (Hutacharern 1993).
For preventive control measures of Stenocera in the nurs-
ery isobenzan (Telodrin) application at 1.3 gallon per ha to
the soils or beds or, where polythene sleeves are used, mix-
ing the filling soil with one part isobenzan in 500 parts wa-
ter before or after filling is recommended (Sharma et al.
10 Journal of Forest Science http://jofs.or.kr
1966). Further application of the chemical around the collar
of each plant for two consecutive years after planting in
March is required in areas with dense Sternocera populations.
For controlling red coffee borer insecticides can be injected
into the holes where larva pushes out their frass. To save the
trees, this direct injection must be done at the earliest de-
tection of insects (Hutacharern 1993). The adults of branch
and stem borers (Synoxylon spp.) attack shoots and young
stems and kill or render them to breakage. To control these
insects, removing and burning broken branches in which
breeding has taken place is recommended.
Important diseases
Detailed accounts of diseases of A. mangium have been
given by See (1993). The common diseases of A. mangium
seedlings in nursery are damping off, powdery mildew,
stem galls, die-back, leaf spots, charcoal root rot disease and
root knot. All these are mostly common diseases of many
tree species and can be controlled by conventional nursery
management techniques and prophylactic fungicidal sprays
(See 1993).
Important tree diseases in plantations are root rots, heart
rot, pink disease, die-back and stem canker. Root rots are
caused by many fungal species like-Ganoderma spp.,
Phellenus spp. and Rigidoporus lignosus. Initial root rot symp-
toms resemble those of nutrient deficiencies. In more ad-
vanced stages when major portions of roots decayed, fallen
trees or standing dead trees are good indicators of root rots
(See 1993). There are no specific control measures for these
diseases. Only dead and diseased trees can be destroyed to
avoid spread of the disease.
The heart rot is only evident upon felling of trees be-
cause diseased trees outwardly appear healthy and
vigorous. The dieback is caused probably because of com-
bination of several factors like prolonged drought period
and fungal infections. Cankers associated with decayed
branch stubs and pruning wounds are good indicators of
heart rot. Infected trees can continue to grow vigorously to
maturity. Management options include adopting silvicul-
tural practices that limit wounds to the stem, including
early singling of multistemmed trees, short rotations and
selecting provenances for slender branches and single
stems. At present there are no practical measures for this
disease.

Wood Properties and Utilization
Anatomical, physical and mechanical properties of
A. mangium wood
The sapwood of A. mangium is white and sharply defined
from the darker brown heartwood. The wood has fine tex-
ture and straight or interlocked grain. The average values
for fiber length, diameter, lumen diameter and wall thick-
ness are 934, 25, 18 and 3.3 μm for 4-year-old samples and
1017, 20, 12 and 4.3 μm for 8-year-old samples
respectively. The fibre length increases from pith to bark
and decreases with stem height. The vessel percentage de-
creases with increasing tree height. The wood is dif-
fuse-porous with mostly solitary vessels. The rays are
uniseriate. The average percentage of fibres, vessels and
rays are 85, 7-11 and 5-6 respectively. The average fibre
length is reported to be 1.0-1.2 mm (1,000-1,200 μm).
A. mangium has a comparatively low proportion of paren-
chymatous cells, a relatively high proportion of prosen-
chymatous cells and a low proportion of vessels, indicating
satisfactory strength properties. It is short fibred (870 μm),
characterized with small fibre diameter (18.9 μm) and
small wall thickness (2.7 μm). Wu et al. (1988) studied the
anatomical structure of A. mangium wood. They observed
libriform fibres with inclusions, small longitudinal paren-
chyma with calcium crystals and vessels with silica crystals.
Although the mean value of specific gravity of trees in natu-
ral stands is 0.56-0.60, plantation grown lumber is found to
have a low range of specific gravity (0.40-0.45) (Mergen et
al. 1983). Peh and Khoo (1984) also reported a low density
3
for A. mangium wood (380-480 kg/m ). Scharai-Rad
Kambey (1989), from Indonesia, reported about the prop-
erties and possible uses of the wood of mangium, and the
3
wood density of 501 kg/m .
Ong (1985) reported the shrinkage, density, strength
and hardness of wood from 12-year-old trees. There were
considerable variations between and within trees. Scharai-
Rad and Budiarso (1988) classified this as a species of me-
dium strength properties. According to them its bending
2 2
strength is 83.5 N/mm , crushing strength is 37.0 N/mm
2
and modulus of elasticity (MOE) is 10.6 kN/mm . The
wood is reported to be moderately strong with an average
2
bending strength value of 65 N/mm in green condition
(Sattar et al. 1993). An investigation of the variation of
Hegde et al.
wood density, fibre length and shrinkage within and be-
tween trees as well as between 3 provenances of 8-year-old
A. mangium in Sabah by Sining (1989) showed that basic
3
density ranged from 430 to 500 kg/m . The variations of
wood properties among provenances and among trees were
less significant than within trees. Basic density and fibre
length increased from pith to bark, shrinkage increased as
basic density increased from pith to bark. However, among
parameters, the shrinkage decreased as the basic density
increased. Wu and Wang (1988) compared the wood prop-
erties of A. mangium with A. auriculiformis. They found that
its shrinkage and variation were generally less, and strength
properties were greater in A. auriculiformis.
Utilization of wood
A. mangium wood makes attractive furniture and cab-
inets, molding, door and window components (Mergen et
al. 1983). The wood is also suitable for light structural
works, agricultural implements, boxes and crates (Awang
and Taylor 1993).
A. mangium is generally regarded as non-durable timber
(Razali and Mohd 1993). It is quite amenable to preserva-
tive treatment (Mergen et al. 1983). The treated wood may
not give good performance in ground contact. It has a rela-
tively narrow sapwood band and is not a suitable species to
be used for exterior and outdoor purposes. The wood sea-
sons fairly rapidly without serious defects. Warping, end
splitting and surface checking are negligible. The timber
kiln-dries well and fairly rapidly, without serious defects
when suitable kiln schedules are used (Awang and Taylor
1993).
It has high incidence of knots, which causes good-quality
sawn timber to be unobtainable in significant quantities.
Knots can be eliminated through proper pruning regimes.
The presence of flutes and incidence of rots and termite at-
tack all detract from both quality and quantity of sawn tim-
ber (Razali and Mohd 1993).
Peh et al. (1982) and Peh and Khoo (1984) reported the
suitability of A .mangium for pulping with high yields,
quality of kraft, NSSC pulps and produced paper with
good optical, physical and surface properties (Logan 1987).
A. mangium has the highest pulp yield and required the least
cooking chemicals when compared with other species like
Eucalyptus deglupta and Gmelina arborea (Becker 1987). So,
J For Sci 29(1), 1-14 11
Acacia mangium - A Fast Growing Tree for Tropical Plantation
Fig. 7. A. mangium tree with heart rot.
it is currently being grown with the primary use for pulp
and paper in Sumatra, Sabah and Vietnam.
A. mangium timber is reported to be easily peeled and the
green veneers of tight, smooth and acceptable quality were
obtained (Chai 1989). The timber is also suitable for the
production of decorative veneers.
Wood of A. mangium has been successfully utilized for
the manufacture of particle boards (Mergen et al. 1983). It
is reported to be suitable for many re-constituted wood
products, such as being medium density fibre board
(MDF) (Tomimura et al. 1987). The calorific value of the
timber is also relatively high, 4,800-4,900 k cal per kg, so
the wood can make good biofuel, reasonably good quality
charcoal, charcoal briquettes and activated carbon (Awang
and Taylor 1993). Trans-sectional view of wood is finely
shown in Fig. 7.
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