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Mathematics of Quantum Mechanics Malkiel Shoshan
Mathematics of Quantum Mechanics Malkiel Shoshan
Malkiel Shoshan
Shoshan 2
Contents
1. Introduction .............................................................................................................................................. 3
2. Mathematics of Vector Spaces ................................................................................................................. 4
2.1 Linear Vector Spaces ........................................................................................................................... 4
2.2 Inner Product Spaces .......................................................................................................................... 5
2.3 Linear Operators ................................................................................................................................. 6
2.4 Vector Components ............................................................................................................................ 7
2.5 Matrix Representation: Vectors and Operators ................................................................................. 7
2.6 Matrix Representation of the Inner Product and Dual Spaces ........................................................... 9
2.7 The Adjoint Operation: Kets, Scalars, and Operators ....................................................................... 10
2.8 The Projection Operator and the Completeness Relation ................................................................ 10
The Kronecker Delta and the Completeness Relation ........................................................................ 12
2.9 Operators: Eigenvectors and Eigenvalues ........................................................................................ 13
2.10 Hermitian Operators ....................................................................................................................... 14
2.11 Functions as Vectors in Infinite Dimensions ................................................................................... 16
2.12. Orthonormality of Continuous Basis Vectors and the Dirac 𝛅 Function........................................ 17
2.13. The Dirac 𝛅 and the Completeness Relation.................................................................................. 19
2.14. The Dirac 𝛅 Function: How it looks ................................................................................................ 19
The Derivative of the 𝛅 Function ........................................................................................................ 19
The δ Function and Fourier Transforms.............................................................................................. 21
2.15. The Operators K and X ................................................................................................................... 21
2.16. The propogator .............................................................................................................................. 26
3. The Postulates of Quantum Mechanics .................................................................................................. 30
3.1. The Postualtes .................................................................................................................................. 30
3.2. The continuous Eigenvalue Spectrum.............................................................................................. 32
3.3 Collapse of the Wave Function and the Dirac Delta Function .......................................................... 32
3.4. Measuring X and P ........................................................................................................................... 32
3.5. Schrodinger’s Equation .................................................................................................................... 35
4. Particle in a Box ....................................................................................................................................... 38
Conclusion ................................................................................................................................................... 39
Bibliography ................................................................................................................................................ 40
Shoshan 3
1. Introduction
The highly confident and optimistic attitude during the era before the quantum revolution was
that all known phenomena were explained by physics. The physicist Albert Michelson, in the 1800s said:
“…The more important fundamental laws and facts of physical science have all been discovered and
these are now so firmly established that the possibility of their ever being supplanted in consequence of
new discoveries is exceedingly remote.” And then, quantum mechanics came and shook the world of
physics at its very foundations.
Many different experiments were designed that demonstrated the inadequacy of classical
physics. They will not be enumerated here; we discuss only one. Most of the mysterious and peculiar
features are contained in the double slit experiment. We first do the (thought) experiment with bullets.
1 P1
2 P2
We have a source (gun), and two walls. Assume the walls are very, very far apart. The bullets
shoot off in different directions. Some go through the slits and hit the next wall. We close slit 2, and
measure the frequency of hits; we get a curve, P1. The curve has a maximum opposite slit 1 that is
where the bullets are most frequent. If we open both slits we get the curve P12.
1 P1
2 P2
Next, we repeat the experiment with light. By light, P1 and P2 interfere, so we get the wavy
pattern. The bullets, which are “lumps” (as Feynman liked to call them), don’t interfere.
If we stop here, everything will be fine. But, we repeat the experiment a third time, this time
with electrons. If we open only one slit we get P1 or P2 as expected. However, if we open both slits we
get the wavy pattern we got by light! How is this possible? Let’s look at the point represented by the red
dot in the figure. When only slit 2 was open, that point got many electrons. How is it that when another
slit is open that point gets fewer electrons? According to classical physics, each electron has a definite
trajectory. The electron going through slit 2 should follow that trajectory; they should not care if slit 1 is
open. Worse still, they should not even know that slit 1 is open. We will see that every particle has a
wave function associated with it that contains all the information about the particle.
These are the conundrums that perplexed physicists in the early 1900s. Many scientists
contributed to the development of quantum mechanics; Albert Einstein, Erwin Schrodinger, Paul Dirac,
Werner Heisenberg and Richard Feynman to name just a few.(At least) Three different but equivalent
mathematical treatments were developed. We use a combination of two approaches, Schrodinger’s
Wave Mechanics and Heisenberg’s Matrix Mechanics. First, we lay the mathematical foundation. Then,
the postulates of quantum mechanics will be explained, and a short example will be presented.
Shoshan 4
Definition: If we have a set of vectors |𝑉1 ⟩ , |𝑉2 ⟩, … , |𝑉𝑛 ⟩, that are related linearly by
𝑛
and (2.1.1) is true only if all the scalars ai = 0, then the set of vectors is linearly independent.
Consider two parallel vectors, |1⟩ and |2⟩, in the xy-plane. One can be written as a multiple of
the other; accordingly, they are not linearly independent. If they were not parallel, they would be
linearly independent. If we now bring in a third vector, |3⟩, into the plane, |3⟩ = 𝑎|1⟩ + 𝑏|2⟩ for some
scalars a and b; thus, |1⟩, |2⟩, and |3⟩ do not form a linearly independent set.
Definition: The dimension, n, of a vector space is the maximum number of linearly independent
vectors it can contain.
Theorem 1. Any vector, |𝑉⟩, in n – dimensional space can be written linearly in terms of a basis
in that space so that if |1⟩, |2⟩, … , |𝑛⟩ constitute a basis and the vi are scalars, then
𝑛
Proof. If |𝑉⟩ can’t be written in terms of a basis, the n – dimensional space will contain n+1
linearly independent vectors; the n vectors of a basis and the vector |𝑉⟩ itself. However, by definition an
n – dimesional space can only accommodate n linearly independent vectors.
Definition: The coefficients, vi, in (2.1.2) are called the components of |𝑉⟩ in the |𝑖⟩ basis.
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Definition: A subset of a vector space, 𝕍, that forms a vector space is called a subspace.
A subspace 𝕍 of dimension n is written as 𝕍n. We may give a subspace a label such as 𝕍1𝑦 . The
subscript 𝑦 is the label; it tells us that 𝕍1𝑦 contains all vectors along the 𝑦 axis. The superscript tells us
that the subspace is one dimensional. 𝕍1𝑦 is a subspace of 𝕍3(R) which represents 3 – d space.
• 𝐴⃗ ⋅ 𝐵 �⃗ ∙ 𝐴⃗ (symetry)
�⃗ = 𝐵
• 𝐴⃗ ∙ 𝐴⃗ ≥ 0
• 𝐴⃗ ∙ �𝑏𝐵�⃗ + 𝑐𝐶⃗� = 𝑏𝐴⃗ ∙ 𝐵
�⃗ + 𝑐𝐴⃗ ∙ 𝐶⃗ (linearity)
We now define an operation called the inner product between any two vectors |𝑉⟩ and |𝑊⟩. It is
denoted by ⟨𝑉|𝑊⟩, and satisfies three properties that are analogous to those of the dot product:
• ⟨𝑉|𝑊⟩ = ⟨𝑊|𝑉⟩* (skew symetry; the * says: take the complex conjugate)
• ⟨𝑉|𝑉⟩ ≥ 0
• ⟨𝑉|(𝑎|𝑊⟩ + 𝑏|𝑍⟩) = 𝑎⟨𝑉|𝑊⟩ + 𝑏⟨𝑉|𝑍⟩ (linearity)
The first axiom says the inner product depends on the order of the vectors; the results are
complex conjugates of each other. As with arrows where 𝑎⃗ ∙ 𝑎⃗ is the norm or length squared of the
vector, we want ⟨𝑉|𝑉⟩ to also represent the length squared of the vector, so ⟨𝑉|𝑉⟩ better be positive;
the second axiom expresses this. In addition, ⟨𝑉|𝑉⟩ should be real. The first axiom ensures this:
⟨𝑉|𝑉⟩ = ⟨𝑉|𝑉⟩*
𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖 = 𝑎 − 𝑏𝑖 (2.2.1)
where i = √−1, and a, b are constants. (2.2.1) can only be true if b = 0 so that ⟨𝑉|𝑉⟩ = 𝑎 is real.
The third axiom expresses the linearity of the inner product when a linear combination of
vectors occurs in the second factor. The axiom says that the scalars a, b,…, can come out of the inner
product. If a linear combination occurs in the first factor, we first envoke skew-symetry:
In short, when there is a linear combination in the first factor, the scalars in the first factor get
complex conjugated and taken out of the inner product.
Definition: Two vectors are orthogonal if their inner product is zero.
Definition: A set of basis vectors, all of unit norm and mutually orthogonal, is referred to as an
orthonormal basis.
We can now derive a formula for the inner product. Given |𝑉⟩ and |𝑊⟩ with components vi and
wj, respectively, written in terms of an orthonormal basis |1⟩, |2⟩, … , |𝑛⟩,
|𝑉⟩ = � 𝑣𝑖 |𝑖⟩
𝑖
|𝑊⟩ = � 𝑤𝑗 | 𝑗⟩,
𝑗
By (2.2.2), the components, vi, of |𝑉⟩ (the vector in the first factor) can come out of the inner
product provided we take their complex conjugate. Thus,
However, we still need to know the inner product between the basis vectors, ⟨𝑖|𝑗⟩. We know
that the inner product between an orthonormal vector and itself is, by definition, the norm of the
orthonormal vector which, also by definition, equals one. In addition, the inner product between two
different orthonormal vectors is, by defintion, zero. Thus, the value of ⟨𝑖|𝑗⟩ will be one or zero
depending if i = j or i ≠ j:
1 if 𝑖 = 𝑗
⟨𝑖|𝑗⟩ = � ≡ 𝛿𝑖𝑗 (2.2.4)
0 if 𝑖 ≠ 𝑗
where δij, called the Kronecker delta, is shorthand for the function in (2.2.4). Due to the Kronecker delta,
only the terms that occur with i = j will survive. So, (2.2.3) now collapses to
⟨𝑉|𝑊⟩ = ∑𝑖 𝑣𝑖 * 𝑤𝑖 (2.2.5)
We calculate the norm as defined before, �⟨𝑉|𝑉⟩. A vector is normalized if its norm equals one.
The kronecker delta combines the orthogonality and normalization of orthonormal basis vectors
into one entity. If 𝑖 = 𝑗, we get the inner product between a vector and itself; for the basis vectors this
inner product equals one, so we know they are normalized. If 𝑖 ≠ 𝑗, we get an inner product of zero, so
they are orthogonal. Simply put, if we know that ⟨𝑖|𝑗⟩ = 𝛿𝑖𝑗 , the basis is orthonormal.
We will deal only with linear operators, operators that satisfy the following criterion:
Ω(𝑎|𝑉⟩ + 𝑏|𝑊⟩) = 𝑎Ω|𝑉⟩ + 𝑏Ω|𝑊⟩ (2.3.2)
Two examples of operators include the identity operator, I, and the rotation operator Rπ(k)
I|𝑉⟩ = |𝑉⟩
R|𝒌⟩ = |𝒌⟩
R|𝒊⟩ = −|𝒊⟩
The identity operator leaves the vector unchanged, the rotation operator rotates vectors in 3 – d space
around the z-axis by π.
By (2.1.2), any vector |𝑉⟩ can be written as a linear combination of basis vectors. Therefore if
we know how an operator transforms the basis vectors, we will know how it transform |𝑉⟩. So, if
Ω|𝑖⟩ = |𝑖′⟩
where i is an index for the basis |1⟩, |2⟩, … , |𝑛⟩, then for a vector |𝑉⟩ which can be expressed as
𝑛
|𝑉⟩ = � 𝑣𝑖 |𝑖⟩
𝑖
we have
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
𝑛
⟨𝑘|𝑊⟩ = � 𝑤𝑖 ⟨𝑘|𝑖⟩ = 𝑤𝑖 𝛿𝑘𝑖
𝑖=1
⟨𝑘|𝑊⟩ = 𝑤𝑖 (2.4.1)
5
⎡ 3⎤
⎢ ⎥
|𝑉⟩ ↔ ⎢ −4 ⎥
⎢ 0⎥
⎣ 2⎦
and the basis vectors, |𝑛⟩, will then be represented by n × 1 column matrices where the nth
element is 1. Then,
1 0 0
⎡0⎤ ⎡1⎤ ⎡0⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
|1⟩ ↔ ⎢0⎥ |2⟩ ↔ ⎢0⎥ |5⟩ ↔ ⎢0⎥
⎢0⎥ ⎢0⎥ ⎢0⎥
⎣0⎦ ⎣0⎦ ⎣1⎦
and,
5 1 0 0 0
⎡ 3⎤ ⎡0⎤ ⎡1⎤ ⎡0⎤ ⎡0⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
|𝑉⟩ ↔ ⎢−4⎥ = 5 ⎢0⎥ + 3 ⎢0⎥ − 4 ⎢1⎥ + 2 ⎢0⎥
⎢ 0⎥ ⎢0⎥ ⎢0⎥ ⎢0⎥ ⎢0⎥
⎣ 2⎦ ⎣0⎦ ⎣0⎦ ⎣0⎦ ⎣1⎦
Ω|𝑖⟩ = |𝑖′⟩
then any vector V written in terms of this basis will be transformed, according to (2.3.4), into
𝑛
According to (2.4.1), to find the components of |𝑖′⟩, the transformed basis vector, in terms of the
original basis vector |𝑖⟩, we take the inner product between them:
where |𝑗⟩ and |𝑖⟩ are different indices refering to the same basis, and Ω𝑗𝑖 is a shorthand.
We can then build an n × n matrix representing Ω. The Ω𝑗𝑖 from (2.5.2) are the n × n
elements; Ω𝑗𝑖 is the element in the jth column and the 𝑖th row.
If we have
Ω|𝑉⟩ = |𝑉 ′ ⟩,
we can write the new components, vi’ , in terms of the original components, vi , as in (2.5.2):
or,
These two equations say that the vector, |𝑉′⟩, resulting from the action of Ω on V, can be
represented by the product of the matrix representing Ω and the matrix representing V. Simply put, to
see how an operator, Ω, transforms a vector, V, multiply their matrices.
𝑣1 𝑤1
𝑣2 𝑤2
|𝑉⟩ ↔ � ⋮ � |𝑊⟩ ↔ � ⋮ � ,
𝑣𝑛 𝑤𝑛
we can’t write the inner product, ⟨𝑉|𝑊⟩, as a product of matrices because we can’t multiply two column
vectors together. However, if we take the adjoint or transpose conjugate of the first vector, so that the
matrix for |𝑉⟩ will be
[𝑣1 * 𝑣2 * ⋯ 𝑣𝑛 *]
This serves as motivation for the notation attributed to Paul Dirac. Just as we associate with
each column matrix a ket, we will associate with each row matrix a new entity called a bra. Ket V is
written as |𝑉⟩, and bra V is written as ⟨𝑉|. The two entities are adjoints of each other. That is, to get bra
V, take the transpose conjugate of the column matrix representing V as we did above.
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Thus, we have two distinct vector spaces, the space of bras and the space of kets. The inner
product is defined between a bra and a ket. Above we had an inner product between ket |𝑊⟩ and bra
⟨𝑉|; together, ⟨𝑉|𝑊⟩, they form a bra – ket (or bracket).
𝑎|𝑉⟩ = |𝑎𝑉⟩
⟨𝑎𝑉| = ⟨𝑉|𝑎*
𝑎𝑣1
𝑎𝑣2
𝑎|𝑉⟩ = |𝑎𝑉⟩ ↔ � ⋮ �
𝑎𝑣𝑛
The adjoint of this matrix is
(where |Ω𝑉⟩ is the vector that results after Ω acts on |𝑉⟩). The corresponding bra is
Equations (2.7.1) and (2.7.2) say if Ω acts on ket V to produce |𝑉′⟩, Ω† acts on bra V to produce
⟨𝑉 ′
|. It follows that Ω† also has a matrix associated with it. We can calculate its elements in a basis as
we did in (2.5.2)
Thus, to find the adjoint of an operator take the transpose conjugate of its matrix.
𝑛 𝑛
Consider, the object in the summation, |𝑖⟩⟨𝑖|𝑉⟩, gives us the component of V along the 𝑖th basis vector
multiplied by that basis vector. Alternatively, it is the projection of |𝑉⟩ along |𝑖⟩. The entity, |𝑖⟩⟨𝑖|, can be
thought of as the projection operator. It acts on |𝑉⟩ to give
|𝑖⟩⟨𝑖|𝑉⟩ = |𝑖⟩𝑣𝑖
We see that after the operator acts on |𝑉⟩, the result remains |𝑉⟩; then the operator must be
the identity operator I. Therefore, we get
𝑛 𝑛
Equation (2.8.4) is called the completeness relation. It says the sum of all the projections of a
vector V along its basis vectors is the vector V itself. (2.8.4) expresses the fact that basis vectors are
complete; meaning any vector V can be written as a linear combination of the basis vectors.
This highlights the difference between a basis and any other linearly independent set of vectors.
Any vector can’t necessarily be expressed as a linear combination of a linear independent set, but it
must be able to be expressed as a linear combination of basis vectors.
For example, in 3 – d space, if we have the unit vectors i and j, they form a linearly independent
set but not a basis, and we can’t write the unit vector k in terms of i and j. However, if we have all three
i, j, k they form a basis and any vector can be written as
v = ai + bj + ck
In short, all basis are complete.
We now look at the matrix representation of the operator, ℙ, and of (2.8.4). We have the basis
ket
0
⎡0⎤
⎢ ⎥
⋮
|𝑖⟩ ↔ ⎢ ⎥
1
⎢ ⎥
⎢⋮⎥
⎣0⎦
Shoshan 12
⟨𝑖| ↔ [0 0 ⋯ 1 ⋯ 0]
0 0 0 ⋯ 0
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
⎢0⎥ ⎢0 ⋱ ⋮⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⋮ ⎢⋮ ⋱ ⎥
ℙ = |𝑖⟩⟨𝑖| = ⎢ ⎥ [0 0 ⋯ 1 ⋯ 0] = ⎢ ⎥
⎢1⎥ ⎢ 1 ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢⋮⎥ ⎢ ⋱ ⎥
⎣0⎦ ⎣0 ⋯ 0⎦
1 0 0
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
⎢0⎥ ⎢ 1⎥ ⎢0⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⋮ ⎥ [1 0 … 0 0] + ⎢0⎥ [0 1 0 ⋯ 0] + ⎢1⎥ [0 0 1 0 ⋯] + ⋯
⎢0⎥ ⎢⋮⎥ ⎢0⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣0⎦ ⎣ 0⎦ ⎣⋮⎦
1 0 ⋯ 0 0 0 ⋯ 0 0 0 ⋯ 0
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
⎢0 0 ⋮⎥ ⎢0 1 ⋮⎥ ⎢0 0 ⋮⎥
= ⎢⋮ ⋱ ⎥ + ⎢⋮ 0 ⎥ + ⎢⋮ 1 ⎥ + ⋯
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⋱ ⎥ ⎢ ⋱ ⎥
⎣0 ⋯ 0⎦ ⎣0 ⋯ 0⎦ ⎣0 ⋯ 0⎦
1 0 ⋯ 0
⎡ ⎤
⎢0 1 ⋮⎥
= ⎢⋮ ⋱ ⎥
⎢ 1 0⎥
⎣0 ⋯ 0 1⎦
|Ψ⟩ = �|𝑥⟩⟨𝑥|Ψ⟩
𝑥
If |Ψ⟩ itself is a basis vector, |𝑦⟩, the completeness relation should still hold in an orthonormal basis,
Shoshan 13
|y⟩ = �|𝑥⟩⟨𝑥|y⟩
𝑥
But |𝑥⟩ and |𝑦⟩ are basis vectors so ⟨𝑥|𝑦⟩ = 𝛿𝑥𝑦 and
|𝑦⟩ = �|𝑥⟩𝛿𝑥𝑦
𝑥
the δxy will kill all terms except for the term that occurs when x = y , so we’re left with
|𝑦⟩ = |𝑦⟩
Thus, the kronecker delta was defined in a way that is consistent with the completeness relation.
The vectors, |𝑊⟩, that satisfy (2.9.1) are called the eigenvectors of Ω, and the scale factors, ω,
are its eigenvalues; (2.9.1) is known as an eigenvalue equation. In general, if |𝑊⟩ is an eigenvector of Ω,
𝑎|𝑊⟩ will also be an eigenvector:
Ω𝑎|𝑊⟩ = 𝑎Ω|𝑊⟩ = 𝑎𝜔|𝑊⟩
Thus, the vector 𝑎|𝑊⟩ has also been rescaled by the factor ω, so, it, too, is an eigenvector. For
now, we look at two examples of operators and their eigenvectors; later we will meet more.
We know that if ω = 1, any vector will satisfy (2.9.2) because the vector just remains the same.
Hence, I has an infinite number of eigenvectors; in fact, every vector is an eigenvector of I. I has only
one eigenvalue which is 1; i.e. the scale of the vectors doesn’t change.
Once again, this operator rotates all vectos in 3 – d space π radians around the z – axis.
Obviously, the only vectors in real space it doesn’t rotate are the vectors that lay along the z – axis.
Some of its eigenvectors include the unit vector k (or |3⟩ as we have called it before) and any multiple of
k, ak. For these eigenvectors, its eigenvalue is one since it doesn’t rescale.
We now develop a method to find solutions to the eigenvalue equation. We first rearrange
(2.9.1):
(Ω − 𝐼𝜔)|𝑊⟩ = 0 (2.9.3)
Shoshan 14
and
𝐶𝑜𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝐴𝑇
𝐴−1 = 𝐷𝑒𝑡 𝐴
After expanding the determinant of (Ω − 𝜔𝐼), we will get a polynomial with powers of ω and
coefficients, a0, a1, …, an; (2.9.5) will be of the form
𝑛
� 𝑎𝑚 𝜔𝑚 = 0 (2.9.6)
𝑚=0
(2.9.6) is known as the characteristic equation. Solving the characteristic equation gives us the
eigenvalues, after which we can find the eigenvectors.
Because operators can be written as matrices, we also have the following definition.
Proof. If
Ω|𝑊⟩ = 𝜔|𝑊⟩
0 = (𝜔 − 𝜔*)⟨𝑊|𝑊⟩
Theorem 3. The eigenvectors of every hermitian operator form an orthonormal basis; in this
basis, Ω, can be written as a diagonal matrix with its eigenvalues as diagonal entries.
Proof: Following the method of solving eigenvalue equations developed earlier, we solve the
characteristic equation of Ω. We will get at least one root ω1 that corresponds to an eigenvector |𝑊1 ⟩.
Assuming Ω operates in the vector space 𝕍n, we look at the subspace 𝕍n-1 that is orthogonal to |𝑊1 ⟩.
We then take any n – 1 orthonormal vectors from 𝕍n-1 and the original normalized |𝑊1 ⟩, and form a
basis.
𝜔1 0 0 ⋯ 0
⎡ ⎤
⎢0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
Ω ↔ ⎢0 ⎥ (2.10.3)
⎢ ⋮ ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣0 ⎦
The first element is ω1 because (as was discussed in section 2.5 on operators)
Ω11 = ⟨1|Ω|1⟩,
The rest of the column is zero because the basis is orthogonal; thus, if |𝑖⟩ is any of the other basis
vectors,
⟨𝑖|Ω|𝑊1 ⟩ = 𝜔1 ⟨𝑖|𝑊1 ⟩ = 0
The rest of the row is zero because Ω is hermitian and must be symetric along the diagonal. The blank
part of the matrix consists of elements about to be determined.
Consider, the blank part of the matrix in (2.10.3), which we’ll call M, can itself be a matrix of
dimension n – 1; we can solve its eigenvalue earlier too. Once again, the characteristic equation yields a
root, ω2, corresponding to an eigenvector (which we normalize) |𝑊2 ⟩. Once again, we choose a
subspace one dimension less, 𝕍n-2, that is orthogonal to |𝑊2 ⟩. We choose any n – 2 orthonormal vectors
from 𝕍n-2 and our original |𝑊2 ⟩ to form a basis.
𝜔2 0 0 ⋯ 0
⎡ ⎤
⎢0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
𝑀 = ⎢0 ⎥ (2.10.4)
⎢ ⋮ ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣0 ⎦
𝜔 0 ⋯ 0
⎡ 1 ⎤
⎢0 𝜔2 0 ⋯ 0⎥
⎢ ⎥
Ω ↔ ⎢ ⋮ 0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⋮ ⎥
⎣0 0 ⎦
We then repeat the process on the blank part in Ω until we are finally left with
𝜔 0 0 ⋯ 0
⎡ 1 ⎤
⎢0 𝜔2 0 ⋯ 0⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢0 0 𝜔3 0 ⋯ 0⎥
Ω ↔ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⋮ ⋮ 0 ⋱ ⋮ ⎥
⎢ ⋮ 𝜔𝑛−1 0⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣0 0 0 … 0 𝜔𝑛 ⎦
The eigenvectors |𝜔1 ⟩, |𝜔2 ⟩, … , |𝜔𝑛 ⟩ form an orthonormal basis because each subspace 𝕍n-1,
𝕍 , … , 𝕍1 was chosen to be orthogonal to the previous one.
n-2
We first look at discrete functions. Let us look at a function f. It is defined at x1, x2, … , xn with
values f(x1), f(x2), … , f(xn), respectively. The basis vectors, |𝑥⟩, will constitute of functions that are
nonzero at only one point, xi with the value f(xi) = 1.
To find the component of f along a basis vector |𝑥⟩, we follow the typical method, we take the inner
product between f and that basis vector
⟨𝑥|𝑓⟩ = 𝑓(𝑥).
Now, we would like to extend the above to continuous functions. The basis vectors are the same
as before only now there is a basis vector for every point x, i.e. there is an infinite number of basis
vectors. A function f will then be a vector in infinite dimensions. Continuous functions have relations
similar to equations (2.11.1), (2.11.2), (2.11.3); just in each case the summation is replaced by an
integral.
�|𝑥⟩⟨𝑥|𝑑𝑥 = 𝐼
(2.11.2) will become
|𝑓⟩ = �𝑓(𝑥)|𝑥⟩ 𝑑𝑥
and the inner product will be
⟨𝑓|𝑔⟩ = � 𝑓*(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
�|𝑦⟩⟨𝑦|𝑑𝑦 = 𝐼
𝑎
We then take the inner product with a ket |𝑓⟩ and a bra ⟨𝑥|
Shoshan 18
�⟨𝑥|𝑦⟩⟨𝑦|𝑓⟩𝑑𝑦 = ⟨𝑥|𝑓⟩
𝑎
�⟨𝑥|𝑦⟩𝑓(𝑦)𝑑𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑎
We know that 𝛿(𝑥, 𝑦) is zero wherever 𝑥 ≠ 𝑦 (since they’re orthogonal), so we can limit the integral to
the infinitesimal region where 𝑥 = 𝑦
𝑥+𝛼
We see that the integral of the delta function together with 𝑓(𝑦) is 𝑓(𝑥). If we take the limit as α → 0,
𝑓(𝑦) → 𝑓(𝑥). Then, in the limit, we can pull 𝑓(𝑦) out of the integral as 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥+𝛼
𝑥+𝛼
So 𝛿(𝑥, 𝑦) is a very peculiar function. It’s zero everywhere except for one point, 𝑥 = 𝑦. At that point
it can’t be finite because then the integral in (2.12.2), which is over an infinitesimal region, will be zero
not one. At 𝑥 = 𝑦, 𝛿(𝑥, 𝑦) must be infinite in such a way that the integral sums to one.
Nowhere did we care about the actual values of 𝑥 and 𝑦, only about whether they were equal or
not. This leads us to denote the delta function by 𝛿(𝑥 − 𝑦). It’s known as the Dirac Delta function with
the following values.
Thus, ⟨𝑥|𝑦⟩ = 𝛿(𝑥 − 𝑦). In the continuous case, basis vectors are not normalized to one, rather
they are normalized to the Dirac delta function.
Shoshan 19
|𝑦⟩ = �|𝑥⟩⟨𝑥|𝑦⟩𝑑𝑥
𝑎
If ⟨𝑥|𝑥⟩ would equal one, as in the discrete case, that is, if ⟨𝑥|𝑥⟩ = 𝛿(𝑥 − 𝑥) = 𝛿(0) = 1, (2.13.1)
would not be true. However, now that 𝛿(0) does not equal one, rather it follows (2.12.3b), (2.13.1) is of
the form of the following equation shown earlier:
𝑥+𝛼
The Dirac delta collapses the integral to the one term when 𝑥 = 𝑦. It is the counterpart of the Kronecker
delta. The Kronecker delta collapses sums; the Dirac delta collapses integrals.
We have the familiar bell curve of width Δ. The area under it is one. The delta function could
then be the limit of the Gaussian as Δ → 0.
The area would still be one, and we’ll have a very sharp peak at 𝑥. The peak has to be high “enough” so
that the area should still be one. The delta function has a value of zero or infinite.
𝑑
𝛿(𝑥 − 𝑥′) = 𝛿′(𝑥 − 𝑥′)
𝑑𝑥
We first look at its graph, and as before we compare it to the Gaussian. The derivative of the
Gaussian, graph A, will be
𝑑𝑔(𝑥 ′ − 𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
Graph A is the Delta function spiked at 𝑥. In B there are two rescaled δ functions, one is positive
at 𝑥 − 𝛼, one is negative at 𝑥 + 𝛼 .
We had earlier (2.12.1), when we integrate the delta function with another function we get back
the function itself. In particular for a coordinate 𝑥
the δ function picks out the value 𝑓(𝑥). We see this in Graph C.
The derivative of δ, 𝛿 ′ (𝑥 − 𝑥 ′ ), will pick out two values, one at 𝑥 − 𝛼 and one at 𝑥 + 𝛼; one
gives the value 𝑓(𝑥 − 𝛼), one gives the value – 𝑓(𝑥 + 𝛼)
We then have
𝑓(𝑥 − 𝛼) − 𝑓(𝑥 + 𝛼)
� 𝛿′(𝑥 − 𝑥 ′ )𝑓(𝑥 ′ )𝑑𝑥 ′ = (2.14.1)
2𝛼
𝑑𝑓(𝑥)
𝑓(𝑥 − 𝛼) − 𝑓(𝑥 + 𝛼) = 2𝛼 (2.14.2)
𝑑𝑥 ′
This is the amount the function 𝑓 changes by over the interval [𝑥 − 𝛼, 𝑥 + 𝛼]. Putting (2.14.1)
into (2.14.2) we get
𝑑𝑓(𝑥)
� 𝛿′(𝑥 − 𝑥 ′ )𝑓(𝑥 ′ )𝑑𝑥 ′ = (2.14.3)
𝑑𝑥 ′
For comparison, the integral of 𝛿(𝑥 − 𝑥 ′ ) with𝑓(𝑥 ′ ) gives us 𝑓(𝑥), the integral of 𝛿′(𝑥 − 𝑥′)
with 𝑓(𝑥 ′ ) gives us 𝑓′(𝑥). Thus,
Shoshan 21
𝛿 ′ (𝑥 − 𝑥 ′ )𝑓(𝑥 ′ )
gives the same result as
𝑑
𝛿(𝑥 − 𝑥 ′ ) 𝑓(𝑥 ′ )
𝑑𝑥 ′
because
𝑑
� 𝛿(𝑥 − 𝑥 ′ ) 𝑓(𝑥 ′ )
𝑑𝑥 ′
= � 𝛿(𝑥 − 𝑥 ′ )𝑓 ′ (𝑥 ′ ) = 𝑓′(𝑥)
so we can write
𝑑
𝛿 ′ (𝑥 − 𝑥 ′ ) = 𝛿(𝑥 − 𝑥 ′ )
𝑑𝑥
∞ ∞
1
= � 𝑓(𝑢)𝑑𝑢 � � 𝑒 𝑖𝜔(𝑡−𝑢) 𝑑𝜔�
2𝜋
−∞ −∞
Ω|𝑓⟩ = |𝑓̃⟩
Later on, we will look at two important operators, 𝑋 and 𝐾. For now, we look at the
differentiation operator 𝐷.
𝑑𝑓
𝐷|𝑓⟩ = � � = |𝑓′⟩ (2.15.1)
𝑑𝑥
We know that we can compute the matrix elements, Ω𝑖𝑗 , of an operator Ω by taking the inner
product with basis kets and bras.
Ω𝑖𝑗 = ⟨𝑖|Ω|𝑗⟩
𝐷𝑥𝑥' = ⟨𝑥|𝐷|𝑥′⟩
We start with (2.15.1), and take the inner product with a basis bra ⟨𝑥|,
𝑑𝑓(𝑥)
⟨𝑥|𝐷|𝑓⟩ =
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑓(𝑥)
�|𝑥′⟩⟨𝑥 ′ |𝑑𝑥 ′ ⟨𝑥|𝐷|𝑓⟩ = �⟨𝑥|𝐷|𝑥 ′ ⟩⟨𝑥′|𝑓⟩𝑑𝑥 ′ =
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑓(𝑥)
= �⟨𝑥|𝐷|𝑥 ′ ⟩𝑓(𝑥 ′)𝑑𝑥′ = (2.15.2)
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑓(𝑥)
� 𝛿′(𝑥 − 𝑥 ′ )𝑓(𝑥 ′ )𝑑𝑥 ′ = (2.14.3)
𝑑𝑥 ′
If we compare, we see that
⟨𝑥|𝐷|𝑥′⟩ = 𝛿′(𝑥 − 𝑥 ′ )
or
𝑑
𝐷𝑥𝑥' = 𝛿(𝑥 − 𝑥 ′ )
𝑑𝑥'
As of now it seems that 𝐾 is Hermitian, but we now use a different approach. If we have two
vectors |𝑓⟩ and |𝑔⟩, we should have
⟨𝑔|𝐾|𝑓⟩ = ⟨𝑔|𝐾𝑓⟩ (2.15.5)
by skew symetry we have
⟨𝑔|𝐾𝑓⟩ = ⟨𝐾𝑓|𝑔⟩*
Taking equations (2.15.5) and (2.15.6), we conclude that if 𝐾 is Hermitian, we must have
⟨𝑔|𝐾|𝑓⟩ = ⟨𝑓|𝐾|𝑔⟩*
We rewrite both sides in terms of inegrals: we interpose the completeness relation twice, so we
get double integrals. Is the following equation true?
𝑏 𝑏 ∗
We now simplify the integrals. We start with the left side. First, by skew symetry
⟨𝑔|𝑥⟩ = ⟨𝑥|𝑔⟩*
Shoshan 24
⟨𝑥|𝑔⟩* = 𝑔*(𝑥)
also,
⟨𝑥 ′ |𝑓⟩ = 𝑓(𝑥 ′ ).
Next, we have
𝑑
⟨𝑥|𝐾|𝑥′⟩ = 𝐾𝑥𝑥' = −𝑖𝐷𝑥𝑥' = −𝑖𝛿 ′ (𝑥 − 𝑥 ′ ) = −𝑖𝛿(𝑥 − 𝑥 ′ )
𝑑𝑥'
this operates on whatever follows it in the integral, i.e. 𝑓(𝑥 ′ ). Then the inner integral on the left
side of (2.15.7) looks like
𝑏
𝑑
� 𝑔*(𝑥)(−𝑖)𝛿(𝑥 − 𝑥 ′ ) 𝑓(𝑥 ′ )𝑑𝑥 ′
𝑑𝑥'
𝑎
𝑏
−𝑖𝑑𝑓(𝑥)
= 𝑔*(𝑥)(−𝑖) � 𝛿(𝑥 − 𝑥 ′ )𝑓 ′ (𝑥 ′ )𝑑𝑥 ′ = 𝑔*(𝑥) � �
𝑑𝑥
𝑎
Once again, the delta function kills off the integral. For the outer integral we have
𝑏
−𝑖𝑑𝑓(𝑥)
� 𝑔*(𝑥) � � 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑎
We do the same simplification to the right side of (2.15.7) and we’re left with
𝑏 𝑏 ∗
−𝑖𝑑𝑓(𝑥) −𝑖𝑑𝑔(𝑥)
� 𝑔*(𝑥) � � 𝑑𝑥 = �� 𝑓*(𝑥) � � 𝑑𝑥 � (2.15.8)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑎
𝑏
𝑑𝑔*(𝑥)
𝑖 � 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑎
We now integrate the left side of (2.15.8) by parts with the following substitutions
𝑑𝑓(𝑥)
𝑢 = −𝑖𝑔*(𝑥) 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑔*(𝑥)
𝑑𝑢 = −𝑖 𝑣 = 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
Shoshan 25
Finally, we have
𝑏 𝑏
𝑑𝑔*(𝑥) 𝑑𝑔*(𝑥)
[−𝑖𝑔*(𝑥)𝑓(𝑥)]𝑏𝑎 + 𝑖 � 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑖 � 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑎
or
[−𝑖𝑔*(𝑥)𝑓(𝑥)]𝑏𝑎 = 0 (2.15.9)
[−𝑖𝑔*(𝑥)𝑓(𝑥)]𝑏𝑎 = 0 − 0 = 0
[−𝑖𝑔*(𝑥)𝑓(𝑥)]2𝜋
0 = −𝑖𝑔*(2𝜋)𝑓(2𝜋) + 𝑖𝑔*(0)𝑓(0) = 0
𝐾|Ψ𝑘 ⟩ = 𝑘|Ψ𝑘 ⟩
To find components in the |𝑥⟩ basis, we follow the typical procedure: taking the inner product
with a bra ⟨𝑥|
⟨𝑥|𝐾|Ψ𝑘 ⟩ = 𝑘⟨𝑥|Ψ𝑘 ⟩
�⟨𝑥|𝐾|𝑥′⟩⟨𝑥′|Ψ𝑘 ⟩ = 𝑘⟨𝑥|Ψ𝑘 ⟩
𝑑
−𝑖 Ψ (𝑥) = 𝑘Ψ𝑘 (𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 𝑘
We know that the function whose derivative is the function itself is the exponential
1
Ψ𝑘 (𝑥) = 𝐴𝑒 𝑖𝑘𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑖𝑘𝑥
√2𝜋
Thus, 𝐾 has an infinite number of eigenvectors |𝑘⟩, one for every real number. We choose 𝐴 to
normalize them to the Dirac δ
∞ ∞
′ �𝑥 1
⟨𝑘|𝑘′⟩ = � ⟨𝑘|𝑥⟩⟨𝑥|𝑘 ′⟩𝑑𝑥 = 𝐴 � 𝑒 −𝑖�𝑘−𝑘
2
𝑑𝑥 = 𝛿(𝑘 − 𝑘 ′ )
2𝜋
−∞ −∞
We now look at the 𝑋 operator. Its action on a vector is to multiply the vector by 𝑥, so
𝑋|𝑓⟩ = 𝑥|𝑓⟩
Shoshan 26
By dotting both sides with a basis bra ⟨𝑥|, we have, in the |𝑥⟩ basis
𝑋|𝑥⟩ = 𝑥|𝑥⟩
In the |𝑥⟩ basis
|𝑥⟩ = 𝛿(𝑥 ′ − 𝑥)
𝑋 is a Hermitian operator because
1 1
� 𝑓*(𝑥)𝑥𝑔(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = �[𝑥𝑓*(𝑥)]𝑔(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
−1 −1
𝜕2Ψ 𝜕2Ψ
=
𝜕𝑡 2 𝜕𝑥 2
𝜕
Since 𝐾 = −𝑖 , the right side can be written as −𝐾 2 |Ψ⟩ so we have
𝜕𝑥
Meaning, for any initial state |Ψ(0)⟩ we just multiply it by a function 𝑈(𝑡) and the result will be
|Ψ(𝑡)⟩; 𝑈(𝑡) is called the propogator. The utility of the propogator comes from the fact that once we
find the propogator we have completely solved the problem. The first step in constructing the
propogator is solving the eigenvalue problem of the operator, here −𝐾 2 . The eigenvalue equation is
−𝐾 2 |Ψ⟩ = −𝑘 2 |Ψ⟩
or
𝐾 2 |Ψ⟩ = 𝑘 2 |Ψ⟩ (2.16.3)
In the |𝑥⟩ basis we have
Shoshan 27
𝐾 2 ⟨𝑥|Ψ⟩ = 𝑘 2 ⟨𝑥|Ψ⟩
𝑑2
− Ψ (𝑥) = 𝑘 2 Ψ𝑘 (𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑘
The solution to this differential equation gives us the eigenvectors
Ψ𝑘 (0) = 0
then,
𝐴 cos 𝑘(0) + 𝐵 sin 𝑘(0) = 0
𝐴=0
Also,
Ψ𝑘 (𝐿) = 0
So
𝐵 sin 𝑘𝐿 = 0
𝑘𝐿 = 𝑚𝜋 𝑚 = 1, 2, 3, ⋯
𝐿
𝑚𝜋𝑥
𝐵 � 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 �
2
� 𝑑𝑥 = 1
𝐿
0
𝐿
𝐵2 2𝑚𝜋𝑥
� �1 − cos � �� 𝑑𝑥 = 1
2 𝐿
0
𝐿𝐵2 2
=1 ⟹ 𝐵= �
2 𝐿
Shoshan 28
then (2.16.5) is
2 𝑚𝜋𝑥
Ψ𝑚 (𝑥) = � sin � �
𝐿 𝐿
2 𝑚𝜋𝑥
|𝑚⟩ → � sin � �
𝐿 𝐿
𝑚𝜋 2
in the |𝑥⟩ basis with eigenvalues � � . The eigenbasis is orthonormal, i.e. ⟨𝑚|𝑛⟩ = 𝛿𝑚𝑛 . When 𝑚 = 𝑛,
𝑙
⟨𝑚|𝑛⟩ = 1, because we normalized the vectors above. if 𝑚 ≠ 𝑛, we have
𝐿
2 𝑚𝜋𝑥 𝑛𝜋𝑥
⟨𝑚|𝑛⟩ = � sin � � sin � � 𝑑𝑥
𝐿 𝐿 𝐿
0
𝜋𝑥
Making the substitution 𝑢 =
𝐿
𝜋
2
⟨𝑚|𝑛⟩ = � sin(𝑚𝑢) sin(𝑛𝑢) 𝑑𝑢
𝜋
0
1
sin 𝐴 sin 𝐵 = [cos(𝐴 − 𝐵) − cos(𝐴 + 𝐵)]
2
𝜋 𝜋
1
⟨𝑚|𝑛⟩ = �� cos(𝑚𝑢 − 𝑛𝑢)𝑑𝑢 − � cos(𝑚𝑢 + 𝑛𝑢)𝑑𝑢�
𝜋
0 0
𝜋 𝜋
1 sin(𝑚 − 𝑛)𝑢 1 sin(𝑚 + 𝑛)𝑢
= � � − � �
𝜋 𝑚− 𝑛 0
𝜋 𝑚+ 𝑛 0
⟨𝑚|𝑛⟩ = 0
Now that we have solved the eigenvalue problem of −𝐾 2 we need to construct the propogator in terms
of the eigenbasis. We write (2.16.1) in this eigenbasis; we dot both sides with bra ⟨𝑚|
𝑑2
⟨𝑚|Ψ(𝑡)⟩ = −𝐾 2 ⟨𝑚|Ψ(𝑡)⟩
𝑑𝑡 2
But by the eigenvalue equation we had before the right side becomes
Shoshan 29
𝑚𝜋 2
−𝐾 2 ⟨𝑚|Ψ(𝑡)⟩ = −𝑘 2 ⟨𝑚|Ψ(𝑡)⟩ = − � � ⟨𝑚|Ψ(𝑡)⟩
𝐿
or
𝑑2 𝑚𝜋 2
⟨𝑚|Ψ(𝑡)⟩ = − � � ⟨𝑚|Ψ(𝑡)⟩
𝑑𝑡 2 𝐿
𝑚𝜋𝑡
⟨𝑚|Ψ(𝑡)⟩ = ⟨𝑚|Ψ(0)⟩ cos � �
𝐿
|Ψ(𝑡)⟩ = �|𝑚⟩⟨𝑚|Ψ(𝑡)⟩
𝑚
𝑚𝜋𝑡
|Ψ(𝑡)⟩ = �|𝑚⟩⟨𝑚|Ψ(0)⟩ cos � �
𝐿
𝑚
|Ψ(𝑡)⟩ = 𝑈(𝑡)|Ψ(0)⟩
we see that
𝑚𝜋𝑡
𝑈(𝑡) = �|𝑚⟩⟨𝑚| cos � �
𝐿
𝑚
Finally we write the propogator in the |𝑥⟩ basis; we dot both sides with bra ⟨𝑥| and ket |𝑥′⟩
𝑚𝜋𝑡
⟨𝑥|𝑈(𝑡)|𝑥′⟩ = �⟨𝑥|𝑚⟩⟨𝑚|𝑥′⟩ cos � �
𝐿
𝑚
We substitute what we get for the propogator from (2.16.6) into (2.16.7) and perform the integral.
Shoshan 30
𝑝2
𝐸= 𝑎𝑛𝑑 �𝑳⃗ = 𝒓
�⃗ × 𝒑
�⃗
2𝑚
In quantum mechanics, the state is represnted by what we call a wave a function |Ψ⟩. The wave
function, in the |𝑥⟩ basis, at one instant in time is a function of 𝑥: Ψ(𝑥). This is a vector in infinite
dimensions. Thus, while in classical mechanics we only needed two variables to express the state of the
particle, in quantum mechanics we need an infinite number of them.
We saw how in classical physics we can easily extract information from the state (𝑥, 𝑝). How do
we do the same in quantum mechanics? The second and third posulates tell us just that. The second
postualte defines the equivalence of the classical variables 𝑥 and 𝑝.
Postulate II. The Hermitian operators 𝑋 and 𝑃 represent the classical variables 𝑥 and 𝑝. Other
dynamical variables, 𝑊(𝑥, 𝑝), are represented by Ω(𝑋, 𝑃).
The 𝑋 operator is the same discussed in section 2.15 with matrix elements
⟨𝑥|𝑋|𝑥′⟩ = 𝑥𝛿(𝑥 − 𝑥 ′ )
The operator 𝑃 is
𝑃 = ℏ𝐾 = −𝑖ℏ𝐷
where 𝐾 was discussed in the same section and ℏ = ℎ⁄2𝜋 The matrix elements of 𝑃, in the |𝑥⟩
basis, will then be
⟨𝑥|𝑃|𝑥 ′ ⟩ = −𝑖ℏ𝛿 ′ (𝑥 − 𝑥 ′ )
Postulate III. The measurement of a variable Ω(𝑋, 𝑃), that has eigenvectors |𝜔⟩, will yield an
eigenvalue, ω, of Ω with a probability proportional to |⟨𝜔|𝜓⟩|2 . The state will change from |Ψ⟩ to |𝜔⟩.
Shoshan 31
As was said earlier, postulates II and III tell us how to extract information from the state |Ψ⟩.
First, we follow postulate II to find the operator Ω that corresponds to the dynamic variable we’re
measuring. Then, we solve the eigenvalue problem of Ω, and find all eigenvectors, |𝜔𝑖 ⟩, and
eigenvalues, ωi, of Ω. Since Ω is Hermitian, its eigenvectors form a basis. Then we can expand |Ψ⟩ in
terms of this eigenbasis using the completeness relation. If the eigenvalues are discrete
|Ψ⟩ = �|𝜔⟩⟨𝜔|Ψ⟩𝑑𝜔
If |Ψ⟩ is normalized, the probability of measuring a value |𝜔⟩ is equal to |⟨𝜔|𝜓⟩|2 , otherwise it is
proportional to it.
We first note the use of two theorems proved earlier. The eigenvalues of Hermititian operators
are real, and the eigenvectors of Hermitian form a basis. If we make a measurement, we expect the
result to be real, and we can always write the state |Ψ⟩ as a linear combination of eigenvectors because
they form a basis.
The quantum theory only allows probablistic predictions, and the only possible values to be
measured are the eigenvalues. We illustrate with an example. Suppose we have an operator Ω and a
state |Ψ⟩ written in terms of the eigenvectors of Ω: |1⟩, |2⟩, |3⟩, and suppose that |Ψ⟩ is a vector in 3 – d
space. |1⟩, |2⟩, |3⟩ are the unit vectors 𝒊,
�⃗ 𝒋, �⃗. Say
�⃗ 𝒌
√3 √2
|Ψ⟩ = 3
|1⟩ + 2 |2⟩ + √6|3⟩
1 1 1
The probabilities of measuring |1⟩, |2⟩, |3⟩ are , , respectively. No other value is possible.
3 2 6
According to the third postulate, if we make a measurement and measure, say, the second eigenvector,
|2⟩, the state |Ψ⟩ changes and becomes the eigenvector |2⟩.
In terms of the projection operator, the measurement acts like one; here it acted like, ℙ2 , i.e.
the projection operator along the basis vector |2⟩
ℙ2 |Ψ⟩ = |2⟩⟨2|Ψ⟩
√2
= |2⟩
2
|Ψ⟩ = |2⟩
Subsequent measurements of the same operator, Ω, will yield the same state |2⟩; repeated applications
of the projection operator don’t have an added effect.
Shoshan 32
Thus, we have three physical states. Each state has a vector that corresponds to it. A
measurement filters out one of those vectors, and that is the result of the measurement.
3.3 Collapse of the Wave Function and the Dirac Delta Function
According to postulate III, after a measurement of Ω, the state |Ψ⟩ will collapse to the measured
value |𝜔⟩. Before the measurement, |Ψ⟩ was a linear combination of the eigenvectors of Ω, |𝜔⟩
or
|Ψ⟩ = �|𝜔⟩ ⟨𝜔|Ψ⟩𝑑𝜔
After the measurement, it collapses and becomes the measured vector |𝜔⟩
|Ψ⟩ = |𝜔⟩
Suppose we measured the position of the particle. The corresponding operator is 𝑋. Prior to the
measurement we had
|Ψ⟩ = �|𝑥⟩ ⟨𝑥|Ψ⟩𝑑𝑥
Now, we have
|Ψ⟩ = |𝑥′⟩
To find how Ψ(𝑥) looks like, we dot both sides with a basis bra
The collapsed wave function becomes the delta function. This makes sense. When we make a
measurement and find the particle, we expect it to be at the spot we found it, so all the probability is
spiked at that spot.
2 ⁄2Δ2
Ψ(𝑥) = 𝐴𝑒 −(𝑥−𝑎)
Let us first normalize it.
∞ ∞
2 ⁄2Δ2 2 ⁄2Δ2
� |Ψ(𝑥)|2 𝑑𝑥 = � 𝐴𝑒 −(𝑥−𝑎) 𝐴𝑒 −(𝑥−𝑎) 𝑑𝑥
−∞ −∞
∞
2 ⁄Δ2
𝐼 = � 𝐴2 𝑒 −(𝑥−𝑎) 𝑑𝑥 = 1
−∞
𝐼 2 = 𝐴4 Δ2 𝜋 � 𝑒 −𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = 𝐴4 Δ2 𝜋
0
and
𝐼 = 𝐴2 Δ √𝜋 = 1
1
Thus, 𝐴 = (𝜋Δ2 )−4 and the normalized state is
1 2 ⁄2Δ2
|Ψ⟩ = 1 𝑒 −(𝑥−𝑎)
(𝜋Δ2 )4
Lets say we want to know where the particle is, i.e. what is its position. The operator corresponding to
position is 𝑋. We follow the algorithm we developed. First, we expand |Ψ⟩ in the eigenbasis of 𝑋.
∞ ∞
The particle will probably be found around 𝑎, that is where the probability density is largest.
Next, we look at the momentum of the particle. The operator corresponding to momentum is 𝑃.
In this case the process is longer. We found the eigenvectors last section.
𝑖𝑝𝑥
1
|𝑝⟩ = Ψ𝑝 (𝑥) = 𝑒 ℏ
√2𝜋ℏ
To integrate, we expand the powers, add the fractions, and make the following substitutions:
1 1
𝑘= (𝜋Δ2 )−1⁄4 𝛼=
√2𝜋ℏ 2Δ2
𝑎ℏ − 𝑖𝑝Δ2 𝑎2
𝛽= 𝛾= −
ℏΔ2 2Δ2
∞
2 +𝛽𝑥
⟨𝑝|Ψ⟩ = 𝑘𝑒 𝛾 � 𝑒 −𝛼𝑥 𝑑𝑥
−∞
∞
𝛽 2
𝛾 𝛽 2 ⁄4𝛼 −𝛼�𝑥− �
⟨𝑝|Ψ⟩ = 𝑘 𝑒 𝑒 �𝑒 2𝛼 𝑑𝑥
−∞
Using the same method we used when we normalized the state we get,
2 ⁄4𝛼 � 𝜋
⟨𝑝|Ψ⟩ = 𝑘 𝑒 𝛾 𝑒 �𝛽 �
𝛼
Substituting back the original values,
1⁄4
Δ2 2 Δ2 ⁄2ℏ2 �
⟨𝑝|Ψ⟩ = � 2 � 𝑒 (−𝑖𝑝𝑎⁄ℏ) 𝑒 �−𝑝
𝜋ℏ
In both of these examples, position and momentum, the eigenvectors reprsented definite
states. When we measure position, |Ψ⟩ changes from being a sum over the states |𝑥⟩ to taking the value
of one of the|𝑥⟩. Before the measurement, the particle had no definite position. It was in a state where
it could yield any |𝑥⟩, i.e. any position, with a certain probability. After the measurement, it is forced
Shoshan 35
into a definite state of position, |𝑥⟩. It is the same with momentum; |𝑝⟩ represents a state of definite
momentum.
For energy, we first have to get the states of definite energy by solving this equation
ℏ2 𝑑2 Ψ𝐸
− + 𝑉(𝑥)Ψ𝐸 (𝑥) = 𝐸Ψ𝐸 (𝑥)
2𝑚 𝑑𝑥 2
This is called the time – independent Schrodinger equation. Ψ𝐸 represent states of definite energy. For
position and momentum the definite states are always the same. For energy they depend on the
potential the particle is experiencing.
𝑑
𝑖ℏ |Ψ(𝑡)⟩ = 𝐻|Ψ(𝑡)⟩
𝑑𝑡
𝑑2 𝑥
Schrodinger’s equation is the quantum mechanical counterpart of Newton’s equation 𝐹⃗ = 𝑚
𝑑𝑡 2
, they both tell you how a particle evolves with time. 𝐻 is the Hamiltonian; it gives the total energy of
the particle
𝐻 =𝑇+𝑉
Where 𝑇 is the kinetic energy and 𝑉 is the potential energy. For every particle the potential, may be
different, so the Hamiltonian may be different.
The Schrodinger equation tells us how the state will change. |Ψ⟩ starts looking perhaps like A
and later like B. If we will solve the Schrodinger equation we will know how it will look.
We develop a solution using two different but equivalent approaches. We first rewrite 𝐻
𝑃2 ℏ2 𝜕 2
𝐻 =𝑇+𝑉 = +𝑉 = − +𝑉
2𝑚 2𝑚 𝜕𝑥 2
𝜕Ψ ℏ2 𝑑2 Ψ(𝑥)
𝑖ℏ = − + 𝑉Ψ(𝑥)
𝜕𝑡 2𝑚 𝑑𝑥 2
Shoshan 36
Ψ(𝑥, 𝑡) = Ψ(𝑥)𝑓(𝑡)
𝜕Ψ 𝑑𝑓 𝜕2Ψ 𝑑2 Ψ
= Ψ and = 𝑓
𝜕𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 2
𝑑𝑓 ℏ2 𝑑2 Ψ
𝑖ℏΨ(𝑥, 𝑡) = − 𝑓(𝑡) + 𝑉Ψ(𝑥, 𝑡)𝑓(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 2𝑚 𝑑𝑥 2
1 𝑑𝑓 ℏ2 𝑑2 Ψ 1
𝑖ℏ = − +𝑉
𝑓 𝑑𝑡 2𝑚 𝑑𝑥 2 Ψ
The left side only depends on 𝑡, and the right side only on 𝑥. This equation is true only if both
sides equal a constant. Otherwise, if we vary either 𝑥 or 𝑡 keeping the other side constant, the equation
will not be true. Thus,
1 𝑑𝑓 𝑑𝑓 𝐸
𝑖ℏ =𝐸 or = −𝑖 𝑓 (3.5.1)
𝑓 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 ℏ
and
ℏ2 𝑑2 Ψ 1 ℏ2 𝑑 2 Ψ
− +𝑉 =𝐸 or − + 𝑉(𝑥)Ψ(𝑥) = 𝐸Ψ(𝑥) (3.5.2)
2𝑚 𝑑𝑥 2 Ψ 2𝑚 𝑑𝑥 2
𝑓𝑡 = 𝑒 −𝑖𝐸𝑡⁄ℏ
We recognize (3.5.2) as the time independent Schrodinger equation. This tells us that Ψ(𝑥) is in a state
of definite energy. We conclude that the Schrodinger equation
does admit solutions of the form Ψ(𝑥, 𝑡) = Ψ(𝑥)𝑓(𝑡), provided that 𝑓 is the exponential written above
and that Ψ(𝑥) is in a state of definite energy. If these are true then Ψ(𝑥, 𝑡) evolves according to
If not, Ψ(𝑥) will be a sum over definite states of energy and evolve in some complex manner.
Where 𝐴𝐸 are constants. We now follow a different approach starting with Schrodinger’s equation
Shoshan 37
𝑑
𝑖ℏ |Ψ⟩ = 𝐻|Ψ⟩
𝑑𝑡
We solve the problem using the propogator. We look for 𝑈(𝑡) that satisfies
𝑑
�𝑖ℏ − 𝐻� |Ψ⟩ = 0 (3.5.4)
𝑑𝑡
As in the string problem (section 2.16) we need to write the propogator in terms of the eigebasis of 𝐻.
𝐻|𝐸⟩ = 𝐸|𝐸⟩
This is the time independent Schrodinger equation. We expand |Ψ⟩ in the eigenbasis |E⟩
𝜕
Where we made the substitution 𝐴𝐸 (𝑡) = ⟨𝐸|𝛹(𝑡)⟩. We operate on both sides with �𝑖ℏ − 𝐻�
𝜕𝑡
𝜕 𝜕
�𝑖ℏ − 𝐻� |𝛹(𝑡)⟩ = � 𝑖ℏ 𝐴𝐸 (𝑡)|𝐸⟩ − 𝐻𝐴𝐸 (𝑡)|𝐸⟩ = ��𝑖ℏ𝐴̇𝐸 (𝑡) − 𝐸𝐴𝐸 � |𝐸⟩
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
𝑖ℏ𝐴̇𝐸 = 𝐸 𝐴𝐸
4. Particle in a Box
We now consider a situation that features one of the amazing results of Quantum Physics. We
have a particle between 0 and 𝑎 in a potential 𝑉(𝑥) so that
𝑉(𝑥)
0, 0≤𝑥<𝑎
𝑉(𝑥) = �
∞, 𝑒𝑙𝑠𝑒𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒
The particle can’t escape because it needs an infinite amount of energy. We look
for states of definite energy, so we use the time independent Schrodinger equation.
0 a
ℏ2 𝑑2 Ψ
− = 𝐸Ψ(𝑥)
2𝑚 𝑑𝑥 2
𝑑2 Ψ √2𝑚𝐸
= −𝑘 2 Ψ 𝑘≡ (4.1)
𝑑𝑥 2 ℏ
Where the potential is infinte Ψ(𝑥) = 0. Then, the wave function will be continuous only if
Ψ(0) = Ψ(𝑎) = 0
Ψ(𝑎) = 𝐴 sin 𝑘𝑎 = 0
ℏ2 𝑘 2
𝐸=
2𝑚
𝑛2 𝜋 2 ℏ2
𝐸𝑛 = 𝑛 = 1, 2, 3, ⋯
2𝑚𝑎2
Thus, the definite states of energy can’t have just any energy. Energy is quantized to certain values.
Shoshan 39
Conclusion
In the days of classical physics everything was predictable. Given all the forces and
momenta of all the particles in a system, the entire future of the system can theoretically be
determined. In quantum physics however, nothing can be determined definitely.
Consider a simple idealized example. We have a particle in a closed box ( a real box, not
the one from Section 4) that can have only one of two positions A or B. In classical physics we
could say the particle is either definitely in A or definitely in B. If we then open the box and see
it in A, we know it was in A even prior to the measurement.
It is not so in quantum physics; when the box is closed the particle is not in A or in B. It is
in the state that upon measurement it can be found either in A or B. There is a common
misconception that when the box is closed the particle is partly in A partly in B. It is not. It is in
this bizarre quantum state where it doesn’t make sense to ask “where is the particle?”
When we open the box and find it in A, it does not mean it was always in A. Rather, it
means that upon measurement, the particle was forced into position state A. Meaning, before
the measurement it had a probability of being found in A or in B, say 50/50. When the
measurement occurs the particle suddenly finds itself in say A. Before the measurement, the
particle itself doesn’t know where it will end up. So we can’t make a definite prediction as in
pre-quantum times. We can only say it has a 50% chance of being in A.
This may sound very weird, but that is only because we experience a Newtonain world,
not a quantum world. Mass plays a role here, the more mass a particle has the less the wave
function of the particle has an effect. The objects we deal with everyday are so enormously
massive, compared to electrons, that we see no quantum effects.
If there were quantum people, i.e. people with the mass of electrons, they may be just
as amazed with our Newtonian world. They will be astonished at how we can make such
accurate predictions using Newton’s laws.
Richard Feynman once said, “No one understands quantum mechanics.” Perhaps, that is
what makes the subject so fascinating.
Shoshan 40
Bibliography
S.J. Bence, M.P. Hobson, K. F. Riley. Mathematical Methods for Physics and Engineering. Cambridge
University Press, 2006
Feynman, Richard, R. Leighton and M. Sands. The Feynman Lectures on Physics Volume 3. Addison –
Wesley, 1964
Griffiths, David J. Introduction to Quantum Mechanics. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1995.
Shankar, Ramamurti. Principles of Quantum Mechanics. New York: Plenum Press, 1980.