HORIZON SIGHTS
By CAPTAIN P. V. H. WEEMS, U. S. Navy(Retired), and LIEUTEN-
ANT (J.G.) P. H. WILLKIE, U. S. Naval Reserve
M OST NAVIGATORS consider altitudes
below about 10° inaccurate. Uncer-
tain refraction, error in dip due to
refraction, and lack of convenient refraction
to
:1)1es make correction of observed altitudes
difficult. H.O. 214 does not include altitudes
below 5°. Heavenly bodies frequently rise
and set behind clouds. These conditions and
superstitious prejudice explain the failure
of the average navigator to use position lines
determined by low altitude observations.
. Along with the known facts about refrac-
t)",there is a lot that we do not know and
this uncertainty is the greatest factor in the
failure to use helpful low altitude observa-
tions. This uncertainty about the value of
refraction extends also to dip which, in ex-
treme cases, gives erratic values. The Car-
negie Institution Survey, in 5,000 determi-
nations of dip, showed its value to be within
2.'5 of the tabulated value, except in one
case where it was 10.'6. For practical pur-
Poses and based on these investigations, we
think we can say that errors of navigation
due to dip alone should be within 2.'5.
Perhaps due to conditions approaching
normal, the authors have had good results
With these observations. These results might
encourage others to use them to their ad-
vantage, and with that hope they are here
Presented.
Low altitudes are supposed to be poor due
to uncertain refraction, which is determined
by the density of the air. The density of the
air supposedly depends on the temperature
and pressure.
If the Hydrographic Office refraction ta-
bles (included as Table 22 in Bowditch) are
correct, then it is only necessary to make
subcorrections for variations from the stand-
ard temperature of 50°F. and from the
standard pressure of 30'. We have found that
Slightly different'yefraction tables, as shown
I
in Table I, produce closer results. It will be
observed that, except for extreme variation
1007
of temperature and pressure, the corrections
are so small that they may be ignored. In any
case, when correction for temperature and
pressure is properly applied, we see no reason
why reasonably accurate results cannot be
obtained. Of course, there might be excep-
tional conditions which even the subcorrec-
tion tables cannot fully cover. We believe,
however, that in the vast majority of cases
good results may be obtained with any alti-
tude. Since regular readings of the barom-
eter and thermometer are made on all ships,
it would seem relatively simple to make sub-
corrections to refraction tables.
To substantiate this information about
refraction correction, we made the tests
summarized in Table IV. We took the times
of a number of horizon sun observations
without a sextant. The position lines thus
obtained which may be solved by usual
methods proved surprisingly accurate when
compared with other positions. The principal
points of difference with more orthodox
methods of altitude computation are: (1)
The observed altitude of 0° must be care-
fully corrected for I.C., dip, refraction, and
semidiameter. (2) When the observed alti-
tude has a negative value, it must be so used
in the solution. For example, in the solution
by the secant time sight method given be-
low, to show how these sights are handled,
the negative value of altitude must be con-
sidered in computing S and S-H.
CAPTAIN WEEMS graduated in the Naval Acad-
emy class of 1912, and since his retirement in
1933 has become an outstanding authority on
modern developments in navigation. He is now
back on active duty.
LIEUTENANT WUXICIE is the son of Wendell
Willkie, former Republican candidate for Presi-
dent. Lieutenant Wilkie graduated from Har-
vard, and at present is on convoy duty at sea.
 1008 U. S. Naval Institute Proceedings [AUGUST
Altitude Corrections for Sunset Sights

Observed Altitude 0
I. C. 0
For Height of Eye 50 Ft.—Dip — 7' — 7'
For Altitude —7' —Refraction Tab. I —34 —34
For Temperature 55° F. —Corr. Tab. II + 0.5 ± 0.5
For Barometer 30.'10 —Corr. Tab. III — 0.2 — 0.2
For Semidiameter —Sun +16.0 —16.0
Corrected Observed Altitude(Ho) —24.7 —56.7

Solutions by Secant Time Sight

March 7, 1944 March 7, 1944
GCT 18-21-29 Ho 00*25'( —) GCT 18-24-10 Ho O057*(_)
L 35-54 sec 9149 L 35-54 sec 9149
Dec. 5-07s p 95-07 sec(d) 173 Dec. 5-07s p 95-07 sec(d) 173

2S 130-36 9322 2S 130-04 9322

GHA 92-14 S 65-18 sec 37896 GHA 92-14 S 65-02 sec 37459
Corr. 22 S —h 65-43 csc 4023 Corr. 1-03 S —h 65-59 csc 3933

GHA 92-36 41919 GHA 93-17 41392

cse T 32597 csc2 — 32070

2

LHA 86-48 t/2 43°24' t

csc
4 16299 LHA 87-28 t/2 43°44' csc — 16035
2

Long. 5-48W AZ S84° W Long. 5-49W AZ S84°.5W

* Subtract from L-1-p; add to S.

Position by cross bearings at 18h28.. IC,13LSari)
aabratetla210231° T
T
GCT
FiX{Lat. 35-52.6 N
Long. 5-52.8 W
Run back 4'° on Co. 254° at. 35-52.8 N
{I:ong. 5-52 W

Comparisons of lines based on horizon
sights with positions fixed by other means
(shown in Table IV) gave an average error of
1.95 miles and a maximum error of 4 miles
omitting the questionable timing of observa-
tions 3 and 11. In observation 3, as will be
seen in Table IV, there is an indicated error
of 1 minute in time. In observation 11, the
time was estimated and is, obviously, in er-
ror. Correcting the time error would bring
these lines on with the average.
The availability of the horizon sight meth-
od depends on having a cloud-free horizon.
The use of horizon sights is probably reduced
75 per cent by climatic conditions which will,
of course, vary with locality and seasons. The
tropics should generally be the best place for
these observations.
Many practical navigators will agree that
this is an interesting problem for the stu-
dent, but will be skeptical of its value for posi-
tion finding. There are several practical uses
for the method, however. They include oc-
casions when:
(1) In high latitude and the declination of
the sun or moon is less than 60. In this case,
there is a period extending over several weeks
when the sun and moon, at low altitudes,
would ,be the only available bodies for celes-
tial navigation.
1944] Horizon Sights 1009
(2) A sextant is not available, but a watch, mined by other altitudes. TABLE I
almanac, and tables are, as might be the case All horizon sights taken
on a life raft. for these tests are in- BUBBLE CORREC-
(3)Other observations are not possible due cluded in Table IV, in- TION FOR SUN,
to sudden changes STARS SZ PLANETS
in visibility. cluding observations 3
Hs REF
(4) Additional position lines are not possi- and 11 which are known
(—)
ble due to sudden changes in visibility. to be in error due to inac- 0° 0' 34'
(5) Observations for amplitude are used curate timing of the phe- 20 30
for compass control. nomenon. 40 27
100 24
The most impressive
(6) Confidence is needed in other low alti- 30 21
sights were the ones taken 200 18
tude sights.
in the Straits of Gibral- 30 16
From noon, 17 March, 1944 until 0630 the tar, where a positive fix 300 14
next morning, the horizon sunset gave us our was available by cross 400 12
Only line of position. The sky was overcast 500 10
bearings on Cape Spar- 600 8
during the whole afternoon. The sun broke tel and Point Malabata. 700 7
through just at sunset. We were thus able Weather conditions were 900 6
to observe the instant the upper limb perfect. A three-star fix 11 00 5
touched the horizon. The lower limb was 13 00 4
was obtained 26 min- 18 00 3
Partially obscured giving inaccurate results utes later which further 25 00 2
as will be shown in observation 11 in Table checked the position. Fig- 40 00 1
IV. So far as we could later determine, the ure 1 illustrates these 90 00 0
sunset position line was as good as one deter- position lines obtained by

3rN

36* N

0 POINT MALABATA
LAT. NV 49'N
ONG. r45*

lli3
//III 70
.

0S5
40.5

45 3

30
.

30, 20'
LONGiTUDE.kCALE

FiGuaz 1
1010 U. S. Naval Institute Proceedings [AuGusT
sunset sights and checked by cross bearings tions for variation from these standards. Ta-
and celestial observations. ble I gives refraction for standard conditions.
Since the errors were determined from Table II gives the correction for variation
position by observations or by D.R., except from 50°F. and Table III the correction for
variation from 30" of atmospheric pressure.
TABLE II
Table I may be used without further correc-
CORRECTION FOR TEMPERATURES
tions in a large percentage of cases. These
(FAHRENHEIT)
tables may and are being combined with
dip, semidiameter and parallax of the sun
H 10° 30° 50°F 70° 90°
and of the moon.
0 —3 —2 0 +2 +4 These results will doubtless surprise many
experienced navigators. The infrequent use
1 —3 —1 0 +1 +2

2 0 TABLE III
—2 —1 +1 +2
CORRECTION FOR PRESSURE—INCHES
4 —1 —1 0 0 +1
H. 28.5' 29.0" 29.5' 30.0' 30.5'
6 —1 0 0 0 +1
0 +2 +1 +1 0 —1
in two cases; and since ordinary observations 3 +1 0 0 0 0
and D.R. are subject to probable errors of
about 2 miles, it will be seen that the actual 6 0 0 0 0 0
results obtained by horizon sights are within
the usual limits of accuracy. This accuracy
is, of course, due to fairly accurate refraction of the method is doubtless due, in part, to the
tables for standard temperature and pressure lack of convenient correction tables, and in
(50°F. and 30" of mercury) and to correc- part to erratic refraction experienced in ex-

TABLE IV
SUNRISE AND SUNSET SIGHTS
Estimated
Ht. of
Body Date GCT Lat. Long. Method Error Eye Temp. Bar.

1) Q Feb. 14, 1944 19 24 00 33°55'N 22°00'W DR 2A 38 58°F 29".82

2) o Feb. 14, 1944 19 26 40 33 55 N 22 00W DR 2A 38 58°F 29'.82
3)* 0 Feb. 19, 1944 7 05 15 35 58 N 05 21 W DR [14T] 43 50°F 29'.85
4) Q Feb. 19, 1944 7 07 00 35 58 N 05 21 W DR 2T 35 50°F 29'.85
5) Q Feb. 19, 1944 17 56 12 35 43 N 03 23 W SAC 2A 35 53°F 29'.80
6) Q Feb. 20, 1944 17 42 05 36 13 N 0 08 E Cross 3A 35 46°F 29".86
Brngs.
7) 0 Feb. 20, 1944 17 44 52 36 13 N 0 08 E gi 2A 35 46°F 29".86
8) Q Mch. 7, 1944 18 21 29 35 53.5 N 5 51 W 2.5A 49 55°F 30'.10
9) 0 Mch. 7, 1944 18 24 10 35 53.5N 5 51 W 2A 49 55°F 30'.10
10) 0 Mch. 8, 1944 06 54 39 35 24 N 7 57.W DR 4A • 49 55°F
11)f Mch. 17, 1944 21 36 28 35 54 N 52 05 W DR [13T] 44 58°F 30'.20
12) Mch. 17, 1944 21 38 00 35 54 N 52 05 W DR 0 44 58°F 30".20

* Timing incorrect—Probably lm since it should take about 2m-45° instead of 1m-451 for sun to move 32'. GCT for
5:2 apparently should be 7h-08m-006. This would make the two lines coincide exactly. Not counted in average.
t GCT 21-36-28 is only an estimate since cloud obscured Q observation. Correct time of Q should be 2m-40'
before 0. No other observations were possible on this occasion. The sun broke through clouds just at sunset. Not
counted in average.
 1944] Horizon Sights 1011

Official U. S. Merchant Marine Cadet Corps Photo

SHOOTING THE SUN
Cadet Midshipmen of the Merchant Marine practicing navigation on a training cruise.

ceptional cases such as are reported in the Red
Sea. In one exceptional case, one of the writ-
ers noted and actually measured 8' error in
refraction. This episode is described in an
article in the U. S. Naval Institute PROCEED-
INGS, February, 1934 (see footnote).
It appears that horizon sights'may be used
to advantage under certain conditions, and
that altitude sights below 6° may be used
With confidence in many cases. This indicates
further that the value of computed altitudes
in H.O. 214 should be included to zero alti-
tude, that further investigations should be
made on refraction, and that more conveni-
ent refraction tables should be made avail-
able.
FoarNoTE.—This unusual condition resulted from a
Peculiar mirage along the sea horizon. The sea was calm
with light airs from the north, temperature, 64°F.,
sky clear, with a fringe of smoke and haze 1° high along
the horizon. A forest fire raged about 50 miles north of
Coronado and the smoke from it spread along the
horizon from north to west and southwest.
As is the case with the usual mirage,it changed every
few minutes. The condition at 0920 as viewed from
the whistling buoy 13 miles from the islands ... re-
sembled an aircraft carrier shortly before this time.
The horizon was raised 8' as measured by sextant. This
was made especially noticeable by the fact that the
islands stood out of the water as indicated. Without
the islands to give a reference mark,it would have been
difficult to detect the fact that there was a distinct false
horizon 8' above the true one. Only by careful observa-
tion was the true horizon noticeable, yet with binoculars
it was sharp and distinct.
This abnormal condition supports the statement in
Bowditch (pp. 153-54, 1938 edition): "These irregu-
larities usually occur when there exists a material
difference between the temperature of the sea water
and that of the air, and they attain a maximum value in
calm or nearly calm weather, when the lack of circula-
tion permits the air to arrange itself in a series of hori-
zontal strata of different densities...."
 I

Official U. S. Coast Guard Photo

A NAZI BOMB HITS AN AMMUNITION SHIP DURING THE INVASION OF SICILY

1012