Characterization of a pre-sheared glaciolacustrine

deposit beneath a future tailings dam in South

Central British Columbia
Simon J.E. Dickinson
Chris McKane
Matt Dugie
Wayne Savigny
Clint Logue

BGC Engineering Inc.

Suite 500
980 Howe Street
Vancouver, BC
Canada V6Z 0C8

ABSTRACT
A site investigation and advanced laboratory testing program was carried out for the purpose of spatially delineating and
assessing the engineering properties of a pre-sheared glaciolacustrine silt and clay deposit beneath a tailings dam near
Kamloops, British Columbia. Glaciolacustrine sediments were deposited in small glacial lakes that formed in upland valleys
marginal to the downwasting ice. The deposit has been subjected to compaction loading, thrusting and shearing due to
glacial movements. The laboratory testing focussed on the determination of the shear strength, compressibility and
preconsolidation pressure (p'c) of the deposit. The laboratory program included the performance of consolidated undrained
triaxial compression, direct simple shear and 1D consolidation tests, in addition to routine index testing, x-ray diffraction
and scanning electron microscopy. The peak and fully-softened friction angles of the glaciolacustrine matrix were
determined to be 29o and 27o, respectively. The friction angles of the pre-sheared surfaces were determined to range from
approximately 8 to 16o, with a mean of 11o. These friction angles were interpreted to reflect the residual shear strength of
the high plastic clay laminae on which the pre-shearing had occurred. The p'c of the deposit was estimated to be
approximately 400 kPa. The overconsolidation ratio (OCR) of the deposit was interpreted to range from approximately 2
to 4.

RÉSUMÉ
Une étude de terrain et un programme d’essais avancés en laboratoire ont été conduits dans le but de délimiter et d’évaluer
les propriétés géotechniques d’un dépôt glaciolacustre de silt et d’argile préalablement cisaillé, situé sous une digue à
résidus miniers près de Kamloops en Colombie-Britannique. Les sédiments glaciolacustres ont été déposés dans des
petits lacs glaciaires formés à l’intérieur de hautes vallées en bordure de la fonte glaciaire. Le dépôt a été soumis à des
forces de compression, de poussée et de cisaillement en raison des mouvements glaciaires. Les essais en laboratoire ont
été conduits principalement dans le but de déterminer la résistance au cisaillement, la compressibilité et la pression de
préconsolidation (p'c) du dépôt. Le programme d’essais en laboratoire a inclus des essais consolidés et non drainés en
compression triaxiale, des essais de cisaillement simple et des essais de consolidation unidimensionnelle, en plus d’essais
d’indices de classification de routine, de diffraction des rayons x et de microscopie électronique à balayage. Un angle de
frottement au pic de 29o et un angle de frottement du sol complètement ramolli de 27 o ont été déterminés pour la matrice
glaciolacustre. Des angles de frottement entre environ 8 et 16 o ont été déterminés pour les surfaces préalablement
cisaillées, avec une moyenne de 11o. Il est interprété que ces angles de frottement représentent la résistance au
cisaillement résiduelle des lentilles d’argiles hautement plastiques ayant été préalablement cisaillées. La p'c du dépôt a
été estimée à environ 400 kPa, correspondant à un rapport de surconsolidation (OCR) entre 2 et 4.

1 INTRODUCTION the tailings pond. Native soils of glacial origin, typically

The New Afton Copper Gold Project is located
approximately 350 km northeast of Vancouver and
approximately 10 km west of Kamloops, in the Thompson-
Nicola Region of the South-Central Interior of British
Columbia. The project began in 2012, and has an
expected life of 12 years. The New Afton tailings storage
facility (TSF) is the primary site for tailings disposal for the
project. The TSF is a single impoundment bounded by five
dams and natural topography. The dams are raised using
the centreline method to accommodate the gradual rise of
lodgement till, are found under most of the facility.
Glaciolacustrine soils of limited extent are also locally
present.
In the spring of 2015, a glaciolacustrine deposit
comprising sand, silt and clay was observed by an engineer
monitoring preparation of the foundation for expansion of
one of the dams at the abutment. The glaciolacustrine
deposit was observed to be extensively pre-sheared and
posed a concern for dam stability given its potential for low
shear strength. It had not been encountered during
previous site investigations in the area, and was located
between prior drill holes. A site investigation program was
carried out for the purpose of delineating the deposit and
assessing its strength, compressibility and stress history.
The program included the excavation of twelve test pits and
the drilling of six drill holes over a distance of approximately
100 m along the centreline profile of the dam.
comprehensive literature review of the surficial geology and
an advanced laboratory testing program were also
completed. As a result of the study, the planned dam
construction sequence was modified to include the
construction of a bench at the downstream toe of the dam
in order to satisfy stability criteria for intermediate stages of
construction. The bench will eventually be incorporated
into the downstream shell of the ultimate dam.
2 REGIONAL GEOLOGY
2.1 Regional Geological Setting
The surficial stratigraphy in larger river valleys within South
Central British Columbia reflect several glaciations (Fulton
and Smith 1978, Clague 2000). Where deposits of multiple
glaciations are present, they are separated by generally
thin non-glacial sediments or unconformities. The
generalized stratigraphy of South Central British Columbia
is summarized in Figure 1.
Valley fills are typically dominated by the late Wisconsin
age Fraser glaciation sequence (Clague 2000, Clague and
Evans 2003). Parts of the penultimate sequence are found
in most large valleys, but older glacial deposits are rare.
During the Fraser glaciation, valley glaciers from the Coast,
Cariboo and Monashee Mountains to the west of Kamloops
fed piedmont glaciers in the interior plateau (Fulton 1967,
Ryder 1981). Advancing ice formed dams on the
Thompson and Fraser rivers downstream of Kamloops,
behind which glacial lake sediments were deposited. These
sediments were subsequently overridden by the advancing
ice. Deglaciation likely occurred primarily by downwasting
in the Thompson Plateau. Ice retreated generally from east
to west, and sediments were deposited in glacial lakes on
the margins of the ice.
During the Fraser Glaciation, Kamloops Lake Drift was
deposited in three units (Figure 1) including a lower and
upper unit comprising stratified sediments, and a middle
unit of till (Fulton 1975, Fulton and Smith 1978). The
complete Fraser sequence comprises the following units
from bottom to top (Clague 2000):
• Glaciofluvial gravel and sand, commonly several
tens of metres thick
• Advance phase glaciolacustrine sediments
including sand and silt deposited some distance
from glacier margins and diamicton deposited
adjacent to ice or a valley wall
• Glacial till
• Retreat glaciolacustrine sediments including
diamicton, ice-contact and deltaic gravel and
sand, and rhythmically bedded silt and clay
• Retreat phase glaciofluvial gravel and sand.
The Fraser sequence may conformably overlie non-glacial
sediments but more commonly it unconformably overlies
older glacial drift or bedrock. At higher elevations, where
the New Afton Mine is located, the regional surficial
geology primarily consists of sediments comprising till and
retreat-phase glaciofluvial and glaciolacustrine sediments
(Middle and Upper Unit Kamloops Lake Drift) deposited
during the last glaciation (the Fraser Glaciation) resting on
A bedrock. However, older glacial and interglacial deposits
may be found in buried valleys.
Figure 1. [Left] - Stratigraphic units in South Central British
Columbia (After Fulton and Smith 1978). [Right] -
Generalized stratigraphy of the Thompson River valley fill
near Ashcroft, British Columbia (After Clague 2000).
The till (Middle Unit Kamloops Lake Drift) comprises sandy
or silty soil reflecting the texture and composition of local
bedrock (Fulton and Smith 1978). It typically varies in
thickness from 1 m to 5 m but can be as thick as 15 m or
more. Drumlinoid forms are the most common depositional
landforms. Upper Unit Kamloops Lake Drift includes
glaciolacustrine and glaciofluvial sediments deposited
during deglaciation. At higher elevations, including the
TSF, glaciolacustrine sediments were deposited locally in
small glacial lakes that formed in upland valleys marginal
to the downwasting ice.
Extensive geotechnical investigations were completed
approximately 60 km northwest of the New Afton mine near
Ashcroft, British Columbia, where a 10 km reach of the
Thompson River has been affected by a number of large
landslides (Porter et al. 2003, Eshraghian 2007, Bishop et
al. 2008). The landslides were attributed to a high plasticity
lacustrine or glaciolacustrine deposit near the base of the
stratigraphic sequence in this area. Disturbance in the form
of pre-sheared discontinuities (slickensides) induced by
overriding ice or early slope movements were hypothesized
to predispose the unit to failure (Clague and Evans 2003).
The unit comprises rhythmically laminated clay and silt
(Porter et al. 2003). Liquid Limits have been reported to
range from 45 to almost 90% and the clay fraction often
exceeds 70%. The residual friction angle of the clay ranges
from 9 to 15 degrees (Porter et al. 2003, Eshraghian 2007,
Bishop et al. 2008). The soil structure, index properties,
and shear strength of this unit resemble that of the
glaciolacustrine deposit encountered at the New Afton
TSF.
Note 1
2.2 Subsurface Conditions at the TSF

Subsurface conditions at the TSF predominately comprise

glacial sediments ranging from less than 1 m to greater Note 2
than 50 m thick. The sediments are considered to be
locally thick Kamloops Lake Drift.
The predominant natural soil deposit in the area is a
lodgement till (Photograph 1) that was transported and
deposited at the base of advancing glaciers. The till is
generally very dense and consists of well-graded gravelly
sand with approximately 40% fines (silt and clay-sized
particles).
Slickensides

Photograph 2. An exposed section of the glaciolacustrine

deposit showing pre-sheared slickensides. Note 1 - Silty
clay/clayey silt (winter portion), abruptly overlain by
fine/medium sand, grading upward to fine silty sand, then
silt and fine sand (summer portion). Note 2 - Silty
clay/clayey silt (winter portion), grading upward into clayey
silt (summer portion).

The deposit has apparently been subjected to compaction

loading, thrusting and shearing due to glacial movements.
Photograph 1. Typical lodgement till as observed in drill The structures that resulted from these forces include
core. fissures, glaciotectonic disturbance in the form of pre-
sheared surfaces (slickensides), and polished surfaces
A localized glaciolacustrine deposit was encountered at related to load casts. Pre-shearing is evidenced by
one of the dam abutments during site investigation. This polished surfaces with striation marks, while the load casts
material was likely deposited in a relatively small and are characterized by polished surfaces that are typically
spatially/temporally constrained glacial lake that formed at wavy and have no striation marks. Polished surfaces were
the margin of the last glaciers to occupy the Thompson observed parallel to, and across bedform structures. Most
River valley. The inflowing meltwater sediment were observed parallel to bedforms and were interpreted
concentration was highest in the summer and lowest in the as load casts, which likely developed in response to
winter. This seasonal variation created an alternating differential compaction. Localized evidence of glacial
sequence of clay and variable silt and sand layers. The thrusting across the bedform structures in the form of
depositional sequence was occasionally interrupted by planar slickenside surfaces was also observed.
debris flows that deposited heterogeneous fine to coarse- Photograph 3 shows an example of a slickenside and a
grained soils. load cast surface within the deposit.
The glaciolacustrine deposit was delineated within a
plan area measuring approximately 100 m by 150 m,
extending approximately 40 m upstream and 110 m
downstream of the dam centreline. The deposit was
encountered at a depth of 1 m to 15 m below ground
surface and was up to 6.5 m thick. It was overlain by till (up
to 9.5 m thick) and underlain by till (between 3.5 m and
7.5 m thick).
Photograph 2 shows an exposed section of the
glaciolacustrine deposit in a large excavated trench. The
clay laminae were typically 2 mm to 20 mm thick and
exhibited less variability in gradation and thickness as
compared to the silt and sand laminae, which typically
ranged in thickness from 5 mm to 40 mm. Bedding planes
were observed to dip approximately 10 degrees from
horizontal towards the west. Photograph 3. Example of slickenside (top) and load cast
(bottom).
Bedrock geology at New Afton consists of Upper Triassic
volcanic rocks from the Nicola Group, intrusive rocks from
the Iron Mask and Cherry Creek pluton, and Eocene
volcanic and sedimentary rocks from the Kamloops Group.
The dominant geological structures in both the Triassic and
Eocene rocks are faults striking WNW and dipping 65°
southward. Cross faults and oblique faults are abundant
and commonly associated with clay gouge (Stewart and
Reid 1988).
3 NATURE AND CONSISTENCY
3.1 Gradation and Plasticity
3.2 Minerology
Select sub-specimens from the pre-sheared clay surface
were collected and submitted for Scanning Electron
Microscopy (SEM) and X-Ray diffraction testing. A typical
SEM image is presented in Photograph 4. It represents a
cross-section of a pre-sheared slickenside at 500X
magnification (note scale in bottom left of image). The flat,
sub-horizontal nature of the clay particles of the slickenside
is apparent in this image. The transition from clay to a silt
lamination is apparent at the bottom of the image where
larger, sub-rounded silt particles are evident.

Sixteen samples of the glaciolacustrine material recovered

by Shelby Tubes were evaluated for determination of
gradation and plasticity to support the advanced laboratory
program. A summary of the results is presented in Table 1.

Table 1. Summary of index properties of glaciolacustrine

samples.
wc PL LL PI Gr. Sa. Si. Cl.
% % % % % % % %
Min. 13 13 24 9 1 11 22 14
Max. 29 20 57 37 34 39 61 36
Mean 19 16 37 21 12 28 38 23
σ 5 2 8 7 9 8 12 7
wc – Natural water content Gr. – Gravel content (>4.75 mm)
PL – Plastic Limit Sa. – Sand content (0.075 to 4.75 mm)
LL – Liquid Limit Si. – Silt content (0.002 to 0.075 mm)
PI – Plasticity Index Cl. – Clay content (<0.002 mm)

The recovered samples were often varved, with alternating

laminations of fine sand, silt and clay. The gradation and
consistency of these laminations are expected to vary
considerably. The very thin nature of the laminations
generally provided insufficient volume in the Shelby Tube
Photograph 4. SEM image of pre-sheared clay slickenside
samples for practical separation of the finer clay laminae
from the coarser silt and sand partings. Consequently, the
Based on the XRD testing, the slickenside specimen
results shown in Table 1 likely represent the average
comprised approximately 40-65% clinochlore and up to
plasticity and gradation of high plastic clay laminae blended
15% vermiculite. Clinochlore is weathered from biotite and
with low plastic or non-plastic silt and fine sand partings.
forms part of the chlorite group of phyllosilicate clay
Based on these results, the varved material may
minerals. Vermiculite is similar to clinochlore, the
generally be described as a sandy lean clay of intermediate
difference being that the water layer in vermiculite is
plasticity. The activity ranges from 0.6 to 1.1. In one test
substituted for an organized octahedral sheet in
pit, a block sample was recovered, which contained a
clinochlore. The presence of vermiculite may explain the
5 mm-thick clay lamination. This provided a sufficient
relatively high plasticity of the clay (refer to Table 2). The
amount of material for the evaluation of both gradation and
presence of slickensides and the low residual strength
consistency after it was carefully separated from the
along these surfaces (refer to Section 4.1) is attributed to
surrounding silt and sand laminae by scraping with a razor
the micaceous “sheet” nature of these phyllosilicate clay
blade. The index properties of this isolated clay lamination
minerals.
are presented in Table 2. As shown in the table, the clay
lamination comprised high plastic fat clay. The activity was
4 DRAINED SHEAR STRENGTH
0.8.
4.1 Failure Along Pre-sheared Surfaces
Table 2. Summary of index properties of an isolated clay
lamination.
Seven consolidated undrained triaxial compression tests
wc PL LL PI Gr. Sa Si. Cl.
% % % % % % % % (CU) with pore pressure measurements were completed on
30 19 70 51 0 12 25 63 Shelby Tube samples of the glaciolacustrine material. Of
wc – Natural water content Gr. – Gravel content (>4.75 mm) these, four were consolidated isotropically (CIU) and three
PL – Plastic Limit Sa. – Sand content (0.075 to 4.75 were consolidated under conditions of zero lateral strain
LL – Liquid Limit mm) (CKoU). The stress paths throughout these tests are
PI – Plasticity Index Si. – Silt content (0.002 to 0.075 mm)
Cl. – Clay content (<0.002 mm) presented in Figure 2.
Figure 2. Stress paths from consolidated undrained triaxial
compression tests.
Photograph 5. Photograph showing pre-sheared
In each of the CKoU tests, shear failure occurred during Ko- slickenside in triaxial test specimen from Test CK oU1
consolidation along pre-existing slickensides oriented at
angles ranging from 35º to 49º from the horizontal. The fact Two sets of striae are evident in this photo. The first, more
that failure occurred during Ko-consolidation is counter- distinctive set is oriented at 90º from horizontal in the photo
intuitive since by definition, this process should be taking and was created during the triaxial test. A second, less
place under conditions of zero lateral strain. This is an distinctive set is noticeable on the right side of the photo, at
artifice of the testing. Ko-conditions are approximated by an orientation of approximately 45º from horizontal. These
the use of a servo-controlled system that balances the represent the original striae that formed in-situ as a result
expelled pore fluid in a given increment with the volume of glacial shearing.
corresponding to the axial displacement, multiplied by the In each test, the orientation of the slickenside (β) was
cross sectional area of the sample. When these do not used in combination with the principle major and minor
equate, the cell pressure and vertical load are automatically effective stresses (σ′1, σ′3) to estimate the shear stress (τ),
adjusted for the next increment. This continues until the
normal stress (σn), and corresponding friction angle along
target consolidation stress has been reached. When shear
the slickenside (δ′). These results are presented in Table
failure initiates along a pre-existing failure surface, the
3 (peak) and in Table 4 (residual).
system is unable to react quickly enough and begins to
misinterpret the axial displacement caused by shearing as
Table 3. Summary of peak stresses in triaxial tests where
a volume change. The adjustments made in the
failure occurred along a slickenside.
subsequent increment are therefore made in error, and the
Test D β σ′1 σ′3 ɸ′ σ′n τ δ′p
failure continues to propagate. Even though failure
m (º) kPa kPa (º) kPa kPa (º)
occurred during the consolidation stage, since the pore
CKoU1 9.8 35 23 10 24.2 19 6 18.1
pressures and effective stresses were recorded throughout
CKoU2 10.4 49 68 31 21.7 47 18 21.3
the test, determination of the friction angle of the pre-
CKoU3 11.5 48 51 18 28.6 33 16 26.6
sheared slickensides was successfully accomplished, as CIU1 8.7 35 1355 805 14.5 1176 257 12.3
described later in this section. D – Sample depth
In Test CIU1, failure occurred along a slickenside during Β – Orientation of slickenside from horizontal
the undrained shearing stage of the test. Since this sample σ′1 – Principal major effective stress at maximum σ′1/σ′3
σ′3 – Principal minor effective stress at maximum σ′1/σ′3
was consolidated isotropically, failure could not occur ɸ′ - Friction angle corresponding to σ′1 and σ′3
during consolidation. This sample would likely have failed σ′n – Effective normal stress on the slickenside at maximum σ′1/σ′3
during the consolidation stage had it been consolidated τ – Shear stress on the slickenside at maximum σ′1/σ′3
under the conditions imposed in Tests CKoU1-3. δ'p – Friction angle of slickenside at maximum σ′1/σ′3
In each of the tests where failure occurred along a
slickenside, the failure angle (β) was measured with a Table 4. Summary of residual stresses in triaxial tests
protractor after removal from the test cell. A photograph where failure occurred along a slickenside.
showing the pre-sheared failure surface from Test CKoU1 Test D β σ′1 σ′3 ɸ′ σ′n τ δ′r
is presented in Photograph 5. m (º) kPa kPa (º) kPa kPa (º)
CKoU1 9.8 35 1355 970 9.5 1228 181 8.4
CKoU2 10.4 49 1560 1000 12.6 1376 263 10.8
CKoU3 11.5 48 1063 600 16.3 797 230 16.1
CIU1 8.7 35 1190 783 12.1 1053 191 10.3
D – Sample depth
Β – Orientation of slickenside (from horizontal)
σ′1 – Principal major effective stress at end of test
σ′3 – Principal minor effective stress at end of test
ɸ′ - Friction angle corresponding to σ′1 and σ′3 at end of test
σ′n – Effective normal stress on the slickenside at end of test
τ – Shear stress on the slickenside at end of test
δ'r – Friction angle of slickenside at end of test
The relationship between these parameters is presented residual friction angles from the triaxial tests agree well
graphically in the Mohr’s Circle diagram shown in Figure 3. those predicted by the Stark and Hussain (2014)
For these tests, the point of maximum stress ratio (σ′1/σ′3) correlation.
was used to define the peak friction angle (δ′p) of the
slickenside, and the point of minimum stress ratio (σ′1/σ′3)
was used to estimate the residual friction angle (δ′r) of the
slickenside. The residual friction angle from these tests
ranged from approximately 8o to 16o, with a mean of
approximately 11o.

Figure 5. Stark and Hussain (2014) plot of residual shear

strength vs. Liquid Limit (LL) and clay fraction (CF) with
residual friction angles interpreted from triaxial tests.

4.2 Failure Through Sample Matrix

Figure 3. Graphical representation of the stresses at failure In Tests CIU2-CIU5, failure occurred through the sample
and the corresponding friction angles in a triaxial test where matrix. A summary of the drained strength parameters
failure occurred along a slickenside. from these tests is presented in Table 5.

Table 5. Summary of drained strength parameters from

triaxial tests that failed through the matrix.
Test D p′ ϕ′max ψ′ ϕ′crit
(m) (kPa) (º) (º) (º)
CIU2 10.6 489 31.3 4.9 27.4
CIU3 11.9 1492 27.4 2.4 25.5
CIU4 13.2 479 30.7 2.5 28.7
CIU5 14.7 242 28.0 4.8 24.2
D – sample depth
p′ – mean effective stress (effective cell pressure)
ϕ′max – maximum friction angle in test
ψ′ – Dilation angle according to Eq. 1
ϕ′crit – critical state friction angle

Figure 4. Stress ratio versus axial strain in tests where

In Test CIU4, a horizontally bedded slickenside was
failure occurred along a pre-existing slickenside
observed after the test, but failure along this plane was
prevented as a result of the boundary conditions imposed
Plots of stress ratio versus axial strain from these tests are
by the test (shear stresses cannot develop on the
presented in Figure 4. It is apparent from this figure that
horizontal plane in a triaxial test). In the other three tests,
the stress ratio in test CKoU1 had reached equilibrium by
no pre-sheared surfaces were observed in the samples.
the end of the test, which suggests that the value of δ′r
The effective stress paths during the triaxial tests are
presented in Table 4 for this test (8.4o) is representative of
presented in Figure 2. For tests CIU2-CIU5, where failure
the residual strength along the pre-sheared slickenside.
occurred through the matrix, the stress paths indicated
The stress ratios in the remaining three tests appeared to
dilatant behaviour that suggests that the material was
have been approaching equilibrium, but may not have
overconsolidated at the prevailing confining stresses.
reached it before the end of the tests.
The average maximum friction angle (ϕ′max) over the
An empirical correlation was proposed by Stark and
stress range tested was approximately 29º and the stress
Hussain (2014) which estimates the residual shear strength
paths generally converged on a fully-softened or “critical
of clay as a function of the LL, clay fraction (CF) and
state” friction angle ϕ′crit of approximately 27º by the end of
effective normal stress (σ′n). This relationship is presented
the tests (at 20% axial strain).
in Figure 5. Also shown in this figure are the residual
As shown in Table 5, the dilation angles (ψ′) ranged
friction angles from the triaxial tests where failure occurred
from approximately 2.5o to 5.0o, where ψ′ was
along a pre-sheared surface, assuming a LL of 70% and a
CF of 63% (refer to Table 2). As seen in Figure 5, the
approximated from the following relationship (from Bolton, change, thereby allowing the full dissipation of excess pore
1986): pressures. In that case, the residual friction angle would
govern the strength.
ψ′ = (ϕ′max – ϕ′crit)/0.8 Eq. 1 A plot of su vs. σ′vc from the CIU tests is presented in
Figure 6. The undrained shear strength values shown in
5 UNDRAINED SHEAR STRENGTH this figure have been adjusted by a multiplication factor of
2/3 to account for the fact that they were consolidated
5.1 Undrained Triaxial Compression isotropically, as discussed earlier. For values of σ′vc above
the preconsolidation pressure (p′c) of the clay (estimated to
The undrained shear strength results from the CIU tests are be 400 kPa, refer to Section 7), the su may be represented
presented in Table 6. The results are expressed in terms by an undrained shear strength ratio (su/σ′vc) of 0.23. This
of the mean effective consolidation stress (i.e. effective cell is within the typical range for most normally consolidated
pressure, p′), the undrained shear strength (su), and the clays. As shown in Figure 6, for σ′vc below p′c, the
undrained shear strength ratio (su/p′). undrained shear strength may be represented by the
SHANSEP (Ladd and Foott 1974) relationship as follows:
0.8
Table 6. Summary of undrained shear strength from CIU ′ ( 𝑝𝑐′
𝑠𝑢 = 0.23𝜎𝑣𝑐 ′ ) Eq. 5
tests. 𝜎𝑣𝑐
Test D p′ su Af su/p′ su/
(m) kPa kPa σ′vc Where p′c/σ′vc represents the overconsolidation ratio
CIU1 8.7 1492 297 - 0.20 0.13 (OCR).
CIU2 10.6 489 214 0.65 0.44 0.29
CIU3 11.9 1492 519 0.84 0.35 0.23 As discussed in Section 4.1, the CKoU tests failed during
CIU4 13.2 479 231 0.55 0.48 0.32 the consolidation stage and the undrained shear strengths
CIU5 14.7 242 125 0.39 0.52 0.35 from these tests were therefore indeterminate.
D – Sample depth
p′ – mean effective stress (effective cell pressure)
su – Undrained shear strength - maximum (σ1- σ3)/2
Af – Pore pressure coefficient at failure (Δu/Δσ1)
su/p′ – Undrained shear strength ratio
su/σ′vc – Corrected undrained shear strength ratio assuming Ko=0.5
su/σ′vc = 2/3(su/p′)

To allow direct comparison with other test methods

including direct simple shear (DSS), it is often more
convenient to normalize the undrained shear strength with
respect to the vertical effective consolidation stress (σ′vc).
In a DSS test, the sample is consolidated under conditions
of zero lateral strain (Ko-condition). Ko cannot be directly
measured since horizontal stresses are unknown, but a
value of Ko=0.5 is often assumed. In CIU tests, the
samples are consolidated under isotropic conditions (K=1).
The σ′vc applied in CIU tests must therefore be corrected to
account for stress anisotropy effects arising from the higher
lateral stress during consolidation. An approximate
correlation between (su/p′) and su/σ′vc in CIU may be derived
as follows (assuming Ko = 0.5):
𝜎2′ = 𝜎3′ = 𝐾0 𝜎1′ = 0.5𝜎1′
(𝜎1′ +𝜎2′ +𝜎3′ ) (𝜎1′ +0.5𝜎1′ +0.5𝜎1′ )
𝑝′ = = =
3 3
Figure 6. Undrained shear strength vs. effective vertical
consolidation stress from CIU triaxial and DSS tests.
5.2 Direct Simple Shear
One DSS test was completed on the glaciolacustrine
material. Additional DSS tests were not completed due to
the frequent presence of gravel particles within the
samples. The undrained shear strength from DSS1 is
presented Figure 6. The undrained shear strength ratio
from this test was determined to be 0.26 which agreed well
Eq. 2 with the interpreted su/σ′vc of 0.23 from Test CIU3, which
was conducted at a similar stress level.
2𝜎1′ ′
2𝜎𝑣𝑐
= Eq. 3 6 COMPRESSIBILITY
3 3

𝑠𝑢 2su Four 1D consolidation tests were completed on the

′ = Eq. 4
𝜎𝑣𝑐 𝑝′ glaciolacustrine samples. The e log-p' curves and p'c
values interpreted from these tests are presented in
Test CIU1, which failed along a pre-existing slickenside, Figure 7. A summary of the results is presented in Table 7.
displayed contractant behaviour during shearing. This is
evident from the stress path for this test presented in
Figure 2, with positive excess pore pressures developing
during shearing. This resulted in an su of 297 kPa and an
interpreted su/σ′vc of 0.13, as shown in Table 6. However,
it is unlikely that undrained conditions are applicable when
evaluating the potential for shear failure along a slickenside
in the field. It is more likely that rapid drainage would occur
along the slickenside with little propensity for volume
Table 7. Summary of 1D consolidation test data. consolidation is expected to be on the order of hours, a
Test D eo p′o C′c C′r Cv slower response could occur if the sand seams are not
m kPa x10-2 x10-2 m2/a laterally continuous.
C1 8.7 0.56 115 8 1.9 86
C2 10.4 0.71 190 8 2.7 15 7 STRESS HISTORY
C3 11.4 0.46 200 8 2.1 74
C4 11.5 0.88 200 15 5.2 5 The p'c of the samples was estimated by means of four
D – Sample depth independent methods.
eo – Initial void ratio
p′o – In-situ vertical effective stress
C′c – Modified Compression Index - C′c = Cc / (1+ eo) 7.1 Method 1 – 1D Consolidation
C′r – Modified Recompression Index - C′r = Cr / (1+ eo)
Cv – Coefficient of Consolidation
The graphical procedure proposed by Silva (1970) was
used to interpret p′c from the e log-p' plots shown in
Figure 7. The results are shown in Table 8 and are
presented graphically in Figure 7. The graphical
determination of p′c from e log-p' curves requires that the
log-linear portion of the curve be fully defined. This was not
the case in tests C1-C3 and the actual p′c for these samples
may in fact be higher than the values estimated by this
approach, which ranged from 295 to 370 kPa. Test C4
appeared to have reached virgin compression, and the p′ c
from this test (400 kPa) is likely a more reliable estimate.

Table 8. p′c and OCR interpreted from 1D consolidation

tests by Silva (1970) method
Test Depth eo p′o p′c OCR
m kPa kPa
C1 8.7 0.56 115 340 3.0
C2 10.4 0.71 190 295 1.6
Figure 7. e versus log-' (e log-p') plots from 1D C3 11.4 0.46 200 370 1.9
consolidation tests C4 11.5 0.88 200 400 2.0
D – Sample depth
The specimens in Tests C1 to C3 generally comprised eo – Initial void ratio
alternating layers (laminae) of clay, silt and fine sand. The p′o – In-situ vertical effective stress
p′c – Preconsolidation pressure according to Silva (1970) Method
results of these tests were generally consistent, with OCR – Overconsolidation ratio (OCR = p′c/p′o)
modified compression indices (C′c = Cc/1+eo) of 0.08 in
each test, up to a maximum stress level of 2,400 kPa. The 7.2 Method 2 – Liquidity Index
modified recompression indices (C′r = Cr/1+eo) in these
tests ranged from 0.019 to 0.027. The Liquidity Index (LI) of a clay is a measure of the natural
It should be noted that the log-linear portions of the e water content (wc) in relation to the PL and LL and is
log-p' curves in these tests were not fully defined (refer to defined as LI = (wc - PL)/(LL - PL). LI is a useful indicator
Figure 7) since this would have required loading the of the level of overconsolidation of clay. For normally
samples beyond the capacity of the consolidation consolidated clays, LI generally ranges from 0.5 to 1.2, for
equipment. As such, it is possible that these samples had overconsolidated clays, LI ranges from -0.2 to 0.5 and for
not reached virgin compression and the actual modified heavily overconsolidated clays LI is often less than -0.2
compression indices may be larger at higher stresses. (Means and Parcher 1963).
The specimen from test C4 was observed to be more The LI of glaciolacustrine samples ranged from to 0.13
clayey than those in tests C1 to C3. This is reflected in the to 0.60, with a mean of 0.36 and a standard deviation (σ)
higher initial void ratio and greater compressibility of the of 0.15. These results suggest that the samples were
sample. The C′c and C′r of this sample were 0.15 and generally overconsolidated. The Kulhawy and Mayne
0.052, respectively. (1990) correlation was used to estimate p′c from LI as
As shown in Table 7, the coefficient of consolidation follows:
(Cv) of the clay ranged from 5 m2/a to 86 m2/a. The rate of
consolidation in the field will be largely dependent on the 𝑝𝑐′ = 𝑝𝑎 10(1.11−1.62𝐿𝐼) Eq. 6
spacing and continuity of transmissive sand seams. For
example, the time for 90% consolidation (t90) of an 8 m thick Where pa = atmospheric pressure (assumed to be
deposit of clay with Cv = 5 m2/a would be approximately 101.4 kPa)
2.8 years. However, the glaciolacustrine deposit at this site
comprised alternating silt, sand and clay laminae. The By this method, the p′c ranged from 190 to 600 kPa
spacing between sand lenses was on the order of (assuming 1σ from the mean) with a mean of 340 kPa. As
centimetres, not metres. As a comparison, if the average discussed in Section 3.1, the Atterberg Limits (and
spacing between transmissible sand seams was 5 cm, the therefore LI) of the majority of the glaciolacustrine samples
t90 would reduce to approximately 1 hour. Although rapid
represent the average plasticity of high plastic clay and low
plastic silt and fine sand laminae, which accounts for the
wide range in p′c interpreted by this method. A better
indicator of p'c may be to evaluate the LI of the individual
high plastic clay lamination (refer to Table 2). The LI of this
material was 0.25, corresponding to a p′c of 514 kPa.
7.3 Method 3 – SHANSEP
In this method, the SHANSEP relationship (Eq. 5) was
used to estimate p'c. The p′c was varied to provide the best
fit to the undrained shear strength data (refer to Figure 6).
The lower bound was represented by Eq. 5 using a p′c of
400 kPa. This relationship is plotted in Figure 6. The upper
bound was represented by a p′c of approximately 700 kPa
(not shown in Figure 6).
7.4 Method 4 – Af
In this method, Skempton’s (1954) shear induced pore
pressure coefficient at failure (Af = Δu/Δσ1f), was interpreted
from the CIU tests and used to estimate the OCR according
to the relationship shown in Figure 8 (Bishop and
Henkel 1957). The values of Af from the CIU tests where
failure occurred through the matrix are presented in
Table 9, along with the interpreted values of OCR and p′c.
The p′c from this method generally ranged from 410 to
670 kPa, with the exception of CIU3 where a much higher
value of 1670 kPa was interpreted.
Figure 8. Typical relationship between Af and OCR for clay
according to Bishop and Henkel (1957). Af from CIU tests
are shown as horizontal solid lines, and interpreted OCR
(in relation to the consolidation stress level in the test) are
shown as vertical dashed lines.
7.5 Summary of Stress History
The p′c of the glaciolacustrine soil was interpreted by four
independent methods as described in Sections 7.1 to 7.4.
The p′c estimated by these methods generally ranged from
300 to 700 kPa, corresponding to an OCR of approximately
2 to 4. A p′c of 400 kPa was selected for use in design.
Table 9. OCR and p′c interpreted from Af in CIU tests
according to Figure 8.
Test D p′ Af OCR p′c
m kPa kPa
CIU2 10.6 489 0.65 1.3 635
CIU3 11.9 1492 0.84 1.1 1670
CIU4 13.2 479 0.55 1.4 670
CIU5 14.7 242 0.39 1.7 410
D – Sample depth
p′ – Mean effective stress (effective cell pressure)
Af – Pore pressure coefficient at failure (Δu/Δσ1)
OCR – Overconsolidation ratio interpreted from Af by Figure 8
p′c – Preconsolidation pressure (p′c = OCR x p′o)
8 CONCLUSIONS
• Glacial material at the site of the TSF
predominantly comprises Kamloops Lake Drift
deposited during the Fraser Glaciation.
• A localized glaciolacustrine sand, silt and clay
deposit was encountered at one of the dam
abutments during site investigation. Additional
site investigation, sampling and laboratory testing
were carried out to delineate the deposit and to
assess its engineering properties.
• The deposit was encountered at a depth of 1 m to
15 m below ground surface and was up to 6.5 m
thick. It was overlain by lodgement till (up to 9.5 m
thick) and underlain by lodgement till (between
3.5 m and 7.5 m thick). The clay laminae were
2 mm to 20 mm thick, and beds dipped 10o from
the horizontal.
• The glaciolacustrine deposit had apparently been
subjected to compaction loading, thrusting and
shearing due to glacial movements. The
structures that resulted from these forces include
fissures, glaciotectonic disturbance in the form of
pre-sheared surfaces (slickensides), and polished
surfaces related to load casts. Polished surfaces
were observed parallel to, and across bedform
structures. These were recognized as a concern
for dam stability.
• A carefully separated individual clay lamination
was shown to consist of high plastic “fat” clay,
comprising clinochlore and vermiculite minerals.
• Thin-walled “Shelby” tube samples of the
glaciolacustrine deposit were recovered and an
advanced laboratory testing program was
completed for the purposes of characterizing the
material and defining the appropriate design
parameters. The program included the
performance of eight triaxial compression tests, a
direct simple shear test and four 1D consolidation
tests.
• Failure occurred along pre-existing slickensides in
four of the eight triaxial compression tests. In the
remaining four tests, failure occurred through the
sample matrix. These tests allowed
determination of the effective friction angles along
the slickensides and through the sample matrix.
• The peak effective friction angle of the
glaciolacustrine “matrix” was determined to be 29o
and the critical state friction angle of the matrix
 was estimated to be 27o. The effective friction
angle of the pre-sheared slickensides ranged
from approximately 8o to 16o, with a mean of 11o.
This range agreed well with the interpreted
residual friction angle interpreted from empirical
correlations to clay plasticity (e.g. Stark and
Hussain, 2013).
• The undrained shear strength of the matrix was
best represented by the SHANSEP expression:
0.8
′ ( 𝑝𝑐′
𝑠𝑢 = 0.23𝜎𝑣𝑐 ′ ) . Geological Survey of Canada: Memoir 380.
𝜎𝑣𝑐
• The C′c and C′r of the samples tested by 1D
consolidation were 0.15 and 0.052, respectively.
The coefficient of consolidation (Cv) of the clay
ranged from 5 m2/a to 86 m2/a.
• Stress history was assessed using 1D
consolidation, Liquidity Index, normalized su (i.e.
SHANSEP), and Af from triaxial tests. The p′c
estimated by these methods generally ranged
from 300 to 700 kPa, corresponding to an OCR of
approximately 2 to 4. A p′c of 400 kPa was
selected for use in design.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The writers would like to acknowledge the contribution of a
number of individuals for work reported in this paper. The
writers would also like to acknowledge the New Gold staff
at the New Afton Mine who facilitated this work, namely
Scott Davidson, Matt Davis and Martin Froehling, among
others.
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