COMPUTER-AIDED STEEL SELECTION BASED ON HARDENABILITY

As in other fields, computer technology has made it possible to improve the steel selection process,
making it quicker, more intuitive, and even more precise. One example, using a software package
developed at the University of Zagreb [35], is based on a computer file of experimentally determined
hardenability bands of steels used in the heat-treating shop. The method is valid for round bars of 20–
90-mm diameters. The formulas used for calculation of equidistant locations on the Jominy curve,
described in Ref. [23], were established through regression analysis for this range of diameters.

The essential feature of this method is the calculation of points on the optimum Jominy hardenability
curve for the calculated steel. Calculations are based on the required as-quenched hardness on the
surface of the bar and at one of the critical points of its cross section [(3 =4) R, (1=2) R, (1=4) R, or
center]. The input data for the computer-aided selection process are the following:

• Diameter of the bar ( D mm)

• Surface hardness HRC
• Hardness at a critical point HRC
• Quenching intensity factor I (I equals the Grossmann quenching intensity factor H as given in
Table 5.1)
• Minimum percentage of martensite required at the critical point

The first step is to calculate the equidistant locations from the quenched end on the Jominy curve (or
Jominy hardenability band). These equidistant locations are the points on the Jominy curve that yield the
required as-quenched hardness. The calculations are performed as follows [23]:
 [Note: The calculated E values are in millimeters.]

After calculating the equidistant locations for the surface of the bar (Es) and for one of the critical points
(Ecrit), using the hardenability band of the relevant steel, the hardness values achievable with the Jominy
curve of the lowest hardenability (Hlow) and the hardness values achievable with the Jominy curve of
the highest hardenability (Hhigh) for both Es and Ecrit locations are then determined as shown in Figure
5.55. The degree of hardening S is defined as the ratio of the measured hardness after quenching (at a
specified point of the cross section) to the maximum hardness that can be achieved with the steel in
question:

It can be easily calculated for the equidistant location Ecrit on the upper and lower curves of the
hardenability band, taking the value for Hmax from the relevant Jominy curve at distance 0 from the
quenched end (J¼0). In this way, two distinct values of the degree of hardening, Supper and Slower, are
calculated. Each corresponds to a certain percentage of martensite in the as-quenched structure as
shown in Table 5.5. It is also possible to determine whether the required percentage of martensite can
be achieved by either Jominy curve of the hardenability band. Instead of providing the percent- age of
martensite in the as-quenched structure as input data, the value of S (degree of hardening) may be
given. For statically stressed parts, S < 0.7; for less dynamically stressed parts, 0.7<S<0.86; and for highly
dynamically stressed parts, 0.86<S<1.0. In this way, a direct comparison of the required S value with
values calculated for both Jominy curves at the Ecrit location can be performed. There are three
possibilities in this comparison:
1. The value of S required is even lower than the S value calculated for the lower curve of the
hardenability band (Slower). In this case all heats of this steel will satisfy the requirement. The steel
actually has higher hardenability than required.

2. The value of S required is even higher than the S value calculated for the upper curve of the
hardenability band (Supper). In this case, none of the heats of this steel can satisfy the requirement. This
steel must not be selected because its hardenability is too low for the case in question.

3. The value of required degree of hardening (S) is somewhere between the values for the degree of
hardening achievable with the upper and lower curves of the hardenability band (Supper and Slower,
respectively).

In the third case, the position of the S required, designated as X, is calculated according to the formula:

where X is the distance from the lower curve of the hardenability band on the ordinate Ecrit to the actual
position of S required, which should be on the optimum Jominy curve. This calculation divides the
hardenability band into three zones:
The lower third, X  0.33

The middle third, 0.33 < X  0.66

The upper third, 0.66 <X

All heats of a steel grade where the Jominy curves pass through the zone in which the required S point is
situated can be selected as heats of adequate hardenability. This zone is indicated in a graphical
presentation of the method. Once the distance X is known, the optimum Jominy hardenability curve
can be drawn. The only requirement is that for every distance from the quenched end the same
calculated ratio ( X) that indicates the same position of the Jominy curve relative to the lower and
upper hardenability curves of the hardenability band is maintained.

The following example illustrates the use of this method in selecting a steel grade for hardening and
tempering. A 40-mm diameter shaft after hardening and tempering should exhibit a surface hardness of
Hs ¼28 HRC and a core hardness of Hc ¼26 HRC. The part is exposed to high dynamic stresses.
Quenching should be performed in agitated oil. The first step is to enter the input data and select the
critical point on the cross section (in this case the core) as shown in Figure 5.56. Next, the required
percentage of martensite at the critical point after quenching (in this case 95%, because of high dynamic
stresses) and the quenching intensity I (in this case 0.5, corresponding to the Grossmann value H) are
selected. The computer program repeats the above-described calculations for every steel grade for
which the hardenability band is stored in the file and presents the results on the screen as shown in
Figure 5.57. This is a list of all stored steel grades regarding suitability for the application being
calculated. Acceptable steel grades, suitable from the upper, middle, or lower third of the hardenability
band, and unacceptable steel grades with excessively high hardenability are determined.

For each suitable steel grade, a graphical presentation as shown in Figure 5.58 can be obtained. This
gives the optimum Jominy hardenability curve for the case required and indicates the desired zone of the
hardenability band.

In addition, the necessary tempering temperature can be calculated according to the formula:

where Ttemp is the absolute tempering temperature (K) (valid for 4008C< Ttemp < 6608C), Hcrit the hardness
after quenching at the critical point HRC (taken from the optimum Jominy curve at the distance for the
critical point), Htemp the required hardness after tempering at the critical point HRC, and S the degree of
hardening (ratio between hardness on the optimum Jominy curve at the distance Ecrit and at the distance
E¼0).
For every steel grade (and required zone of the hardenability band) that has been found suitable, the
mechanical properties for the surface and for the critical cross section point can be calculated. The
computer output is shown in Figure 5.59. Compared to the previous steel selection processes, these
computer-aided calculations have the following advantages:

1. Whereas the previously described graphical method is valid for only one specified quenching condition
for which the relevant diagram has been plotted, the computer-aided method allows great flexibility in
choosing concrete quenching conditions.

2. Selection of the optimum hardenability to satisfy the requirements is much more precise.

3. Calculations of the exact tempering temperature and all mechanical properties after tempering at the
critical point that give much more information and facilitate the steel selection are possible.