FINGERPRINTING (DACTYLOSCOPY)

NATURE OF FINGERPRINTS

A FINGERPRINT is a composite of the ridge outlines which appears on the skin surface of the bulbs on the inside of
the end of joints of the fingers and thumbs. The ridges appearing in a fingerprint are commonly referred to as papillary or
frictional ridges. The ridges have a definite contour and appear in definite individual details by which positive identification can be
made.

Take Note:

Ridge – literally, the top of long hill

Ducts – these are little pockets underneath the skin where oils or sweats are carried by small holes to the surface of
the skin.

Ridge Destruction: Creases – little white lines that are found on a fingerprint that look like sears (burn/blister). These
are not permanent, and will not show any turning or “puckering.” Skin conditions such as warts and blisters of temporary
impairments caused by certain occupations, e.g. bricklayers, carpenters, have no permanent effect and the individual
characteristics revert to their natural alignment once the temporary skin condition has been corrected.

HISTORICAL ACCOUNTS INVOLVING FINGERPRINTS

Are there any ancient records concerning the use of Finger and Palm Prints?

1. On the face of a cliff in NOVA SCOTIA, there has been found prehistoric Indian picture writing of a hand with crudely
marked ridge patterns.
2. Scholars refer to the impression of fingerprints on clay tablets recoding business transactions in ancient Babylon and
clay seals of ancient Chinese origin bearing thumbprints. Some of these seals can be seen in the SMITHSONIAN
INSTITUTION, WASHINGTON, D.C. Chinese documents identified with the Tang Dynasty (618-907) refer to fingerprint
being impressed upon business contracts. It is conjectural as to what extent these earlier instances of fingerprinting
were intended for actual identification of the persons impressing the prints. History shows that Emperor Te In Shi was
the first on to use fingerprint in China.
3. In the Bible, Apostle Paul concludes in one of his epistles with the words, “The Salvation of Paul with my own hand,
which is the token in every epistle, so I write.” Some have inferred from these words that Paul used his finger
impressions as a distinctive signature.
4. In Persia, 14th century, various government papers were reportedly impressed with fingerprints, and a government
official who was also a physician made the observation that no fingerprints of two persons were exactly alike.
5. In Holland and China, identification of individuals was by means of branding, tattooing, mutilation, and also manifested
by wearing clothes of different designs.
6. In Old Mexico, the Aztecs impressed their hands accidentally or intentionally on the molded and still soft clays of their
hand-made idols to serve as their trade marks. The authorities stamped their hands on the death warrants for the men
and women who offered their lives to sacrifice for their idol-gods.
7. In France, numerous rock carvings and paintings featuring hand designs and fingerprints have been found on the
granite wall slabs in the Neolithic burial passage of the L’lle de Gavr’nis. Other specimens were also found in the
Spanish Pyrunees caverns, the numerous digital relics left by Indiana at Keuimkooji Lake in cliff dwellings in Nova
Scotia, in the Balearic Islands, Australis, New England coasts and in Africa.
8. In Babylonia, the first use of fingerprints for personal identification originated when Babylonian Magistrates ordered
their officers in making arrests and property confiscation to secure the defendants’ fingerprints.
9. Kom Ombo Plain, on the east bank of river Nile, Egypt, lump of hundred much found in Sebekian deposit which shows
a portion of an adult palm during 12,000 B.C.
10. In Judea, Paul, the Apostle, used his own fingerprints to sign his letters (II Thessalonians 3:17 – “I, Paul, greet you with
my own hand. This is the mark in every letter. Thus I write.”). Other significant quotations are found in Job 37:7 – “He
sealeth up the hand of all men, that every one may know his works.” Revelations 13:16 – “It will cause all, the small
and the great, and the rich and the poor, and the free and the bond, to have mark on their right hand or on foreheads.”
 11. In Jerusalem, fingerprint relics were found in clay lumps during the 4 th and 5th centuries of the Christian Era. The
excavation of Palestine by the late Dr. Bade yielded fragments of such specimens (fingerprints).
12. In China, fingerprint is called “Hua Chi”. The value of fingerprints for purposes of identification was found on a Chinese
clay seal made not later than the 3rd century B.C.
13. During the Tang Dynasty, fingerprints were used in connection with the preparation of legal documents. Kia Yung-yen,
an author during this time stated that, “Wooden tablets were engraved with the full terms of the contract, and notches
were cut in the sides where they were identical so that the tablets could later be matched or tallied, thus proving them
genuine.”
14. The code of domestic relations as described in the Chinese Law Book of Yang Hwui states: “To divorce a wife, the
husband must write a bill of divorcement and state the reasons or grounds that are due for action, and then impress his
palmprint thereon.” For contracts, fingerprints were also used as signatures of those who were illiterates, who could
neither read nor write. This was under the subject of “Land Tenure.”
15. Early in the 12th century, in the novel, “The Story of the River Bank,” fingerprinting found itself already in the criminal
procedure of China; and in the 16th century, a custom prevailed in connection with the sale of children.
16. In Japan, deeds, dotes, and certificates to be used as proofs were sealed by the mark of the hand (Palm-print) called
“Tegata.” In the treatment of criminals, the imprint of the thumb (bo-in or bo-an) was taken. The criminal signed only
by thumb-print with regard to his sentence and it was considered as an inferior sort of signature.
17. In Constantinople, in a treaty of ratification, the sultan soaked his hand in a sheep’s blood and impressed it on the
document as his seal.
18. In England, Thomas Bewick, an English engraver, author, and naturalist engraved the patterns of his own fingers on
every wood-work he had finished to serve as his mark so as to establish its genuineness.

Are there any early publication concerning Fingerprints?

1. 1684-Nehemiah Grew published a report which was read before the royal society of London, England. He described
the ridges and pores of the hands and feet.
2. 1685-G. Bidloo published a treaty describing sweat pores and ridges.
3. 1685-Midle wrote a book, “Human Anatomy,” in which he included a drawing of the thumb print showing the ridge
configuration of the whorl pattern.
4. 1686-Professor Marcelo Malpighi, an Italian anatomist (GRANDFATHER OF DACTYLOSCOPY according to Dr.
Edmond Locard – “Father of Poroscopy”), commented in his writings on elevated ridges on the fingertips and alluded to
diverse figures on palmar surfaces.
5. 1751-Hintzo wrote on the ridge formation, but dealt with the subject from the viewpoint of anatomy rather than
identification.
6. 1764-Albinus followed along the same lines as Hintzo had written.
7. 1788-J.C.A. Mayer stated in his book (Anatomische Kupfertafein Nebst Dazu Geharigen) that although the
arrangement of the skin ridges is never duplicated in two persons, nevertheless, the similarities are closer among
some individuals.
8. 1823-Johannes Evangelist Purkinje, (FATHER OF DACTYLOCOSPY) a Czechoslovakian professor of anatomy at the
University of Breslau, published a thesis in Latin (Commentio de Examine Physiogico Organi Visus Et systematis
Cutansi – A Commentary of the Physiological Examination System: Dec. 22, 1823, Breslau, Germany) describing the
ridges, giving them names and established certain rules for classification (nine groups). He involves vague
differentiation of fingerprints or use them for identification.
9. 1856-Herman Welcker took the prints of his own palm. In 1897, (forty one years later) he printed the same palm to
prove that the prints do not change. (Principle of Permanency).
10. 1883-Kollman, an anthropologist who wrote his book on ridges and pores. He did not associate fingerprints with
identification.

What are the historical events concerning Fingerprints as Method of Identification?

1. 1858-Sir William J. Herschel (FATHER OF CHIROSCOPY), in Hoogly, district of Bengal, India, he used fingerprints in
India to prevent fraudulent collection of army pay account and for identification of other documents. He printed the
palms of natives in order to avoid impersonation among laborers. Prints of the entire palms were used instead of
signatures. The first person Herschel printed appears to have been one RAJYADHAR KONAI.
2. 1880-Dr. Henry Faulds, an English (Scottish) doctor stationed in Tokyo, Japan, wrote a letter to the English publication,
“NATURE” – “On the Skin Furrows of the Hand”, (dtd Oct. 28, 1880) on the practical use of fingerprints for the
 identification of criminals. He recommended the use of a thin film of printers ink as a transfer medium and is generally
used today.
3. 1880-Sir Francis Galton, a noted British anthropologist and a cousin of scientist Charles Darwin began observation
which led to the publication in 1882 of his book “Fingerprints.” Galton’s studies established the individuality of
classifying fingerprint patterns.
4. 1882-Gilbert Thompson, a U.S. geological surveyor in charge of a field project in New Mexico used his own fingerprints
in commissary orders to prevent forgery.
5. Isaiah West Taber – A photographer in San Francisco advocated the use of the system for the registration of the
immigrant Chinese.
6. 1883-An episode in Mark Twain’s life on the Mississippi relates to the identification of a murderer by his thumbprint.
7. Twain (Samuel L. Clemens) further developed his theme. Eleven (11) years later, he causes the publication of “Puddin
Head Wilson”, a novel based on dramatic fingerprint identification demonstrated during a court trial. His story pointed
out the infallibility of fingerprint identification.
8. 1888-Sir Edward Richard Henry, succeeded Sir William J. Herschel at his post in India. He became interested in
fingerprints and devised a classification of his own and published his work in book form and titled it “Classification and
Uses of Fingerprints.”
9. 1889-Sir Richard Henry at Dove, England read a paper detailing his system before the British association for
Advancement of Science.
10. 1891-Juan Vucetich, an Argentinean police official, installed fingerprints files as an official means of criminal
identification; based his system of the pattern typed by Sir Francis Galton; and he also claimed the first official criminal
identification by means of fingerprints left at the scene of crime.
11. In 1892, at La Piata, Argentina, a woman named Rojas who had murdered her two sons and had cut her own throat,
though not fatal, blamed the attack on a neighbor. Bloody fingerprints on a door post were identified by Vucetich as
those of the woman herself which led to her confession.
12. 1892-Sir Francis Galton, an English Biologist, wrote his first textbook. He devised a practical system of classification
and filing. 1894-Sir Francis Galton’s report on fingerprint as a method of identification, along with his system, was read
at Asquith Committee of London, England. His system was officially adopted on February 12, 1894.
13. 1900-Alphonse Bertillon’s system of body measurement had by this time spread throughout the world.
14. 1901-Sir Edward Richard Henry was appointed assistant commissioner at Scotland Yard. His system was so
applicable that Henry emerged as the “Father of Fingerprints,” at least as the first man to successfully apply
fingerprints for identification. 1901-marked the official introduction of fingerprinting for criminal identification in England
and Wales.
15. The system employed was developed from Galton’s observation and devised by Edward Richard Henry, the Inspector-
General of Police in Bengal, India. He later became commissioner of London’s Metropolitan Police.
16. 1914-Fingerprints were officially adopted in France, replacing Bertillon age.

What are the important dates concerning the development and use of fingerprint in the United States?

1. 1882-Gilbert Thompson of the Us Geodetic survey used thumb print for camp orders on an expedition to New Mexico.
This was not official but it was proven useful (the record was dated Aug. 8, 1882).
2. 1902-Sir Henry P. Forest, chief Medical examiner of New York Civil Service Commission and an American preacher in
fingerprint science in the US for the New York Civil Service commission to prevent applicants from having better-
qualified persons to take the test for them.
3. The New York Civil Service Commission, on Dec. 19, 1902 required all civil service applicants to be fingerprinted. Dr.
Henry P. Forest, put the system into practice.
4. 1903-New York State Prison in Albany claims the first practical, systematic use of fingerprints in the US to identify
criminals.

5. 1903-Fingerprints identification was adopted in the following penitentiaries: Singing Sing, Napanoch, Auborn and
Clinton prisons
6. Captain James Parke of the institution installed the identification system where the fingerprints of prisoners were taken
and classified and the fingerprint system was officially adopted in June of the year. Today, New York State uses the
American system that is similar to the Henry System and represents the system initiated by Capt. Parke in 1903.
7. 1904-Maj. R. Mccloughry, the warden of the Federal Penitentiary of Leavenworth when the office of the Atty. General
of the U.S. granted permission to establish a fingerprint bureau therein. It was the first national government use of
fingerprints.
8. 1904-John Kenneth Ferrer (Perrier) of the Fingerprint Branch of the New Scotland Yard, attended the St. Louis
Missouri Worlds Fair. He had been assigned to guard the British Crown Jewels. American police officials became
interested in fingerprint through him and he became their instructor.
9. 1904-The City of St. Louis Missouri, became the first city to adopt fingerprint. The police department officials adopted
the system on October 29, 1904.
10. 1905-Fingerpritning was officially adopted by the U.S. Army. It was known as the first military use of fingerprint.
11. 1907-Fingerprinting was officially adopted by the U.S. Navy (January 11, 1907).
12. 1908-Fingerprinting was officially adopted by the U.S. Marine Corps.
13. 1910-Frederick A. Brayley published what appears to be the first American book in fingerprints.
14. 1911-The State of Illinois, made the first criminal conviction based solely upon fingerprint evidence. It was known as
the first judicial ruling on such evidence, (People vs Jennings, 252 Illinois 543-96 NE 1007, 43 LRA (NS) 1206 for
1991).
15. 1915-The International Association for Criminal Identification was founded. The word “criminal” was later dropped from
the Association’s name. It is the first organized body of professional identification experts.
16. 1916-The Institution of Applied Science established at Chicago, Illinois was the first school to teach fingerprint
identification (June 16, 1916).
17. 1916-Frederick Kuhne published a book entitled “The Fingerprint Instructor,” which probably the first authoritative book
in fingerprint to be circulated in the U.S. Munn and Co., served as the publisher.
18. 1919-Marked the publication of “Fingerprint and Identification Magazine” (Chicago). The first monthly journal devoted
exclusively to fingerprint science, (July 1919).
19. 1920-The Exceptional Arch, a new pattern, was adapted to Henry’s system by American experts. The pattern was
added after the study made by the assembly members at annual convention of the International Association for
Identification in 1920.
20. 1922-Haken Jersengen, the sub-director of police in Copenhagen, Denmark introduced first a long distance
identification to U.S. at a police conference here. The method was adopted and published in a magazine entitled
“Publications” of the International Police Conference, (N0ew York City Police Department, 1932).
21. Mary K. Holland – the first American Instructress in Dactyloscopy.
22. 1924-The Identification Division of the FBI was established after J. Edgar Hoover was appointed Director.
23. 1924-The book entitled “Single Fingerprint System” by T.K. Larson, was first published in U.S., (Berkley, Police
Monograph Series) D. Application and Co., New York City.
24. 1924-The First National Bureau of Identification was created by the act of Congress. The bureau was established
within the U.S. DOJ (Washington DC).
25. 1925-Harry J. Myers II installed the first official fact fingerprint system for infants in Jewish Maternity Hospital in
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.
26. 1925-The Commonwealth of Pennsylvania used compulsory foot and fingerprinting of new born infants and mothers
which was enacted into law by Act of General Assembly as approved on April 20, 1925.
27. 1932-The International Exchange of Fingerprint date was initiated with a number of other nations on February 15,
1932.
28. 1933-The Bureau of Identification, U.S. Department of Justice, adopted the single fingerprint identification system. The
first national use of single print for identification purposes for certain crimes only, (Feb. 1933).
29. 1933-Latent fingerprints section, for making technical examination of latent prints or have inked prints on an individual
basis was instituted on November 10, 1933. The Civil Identification on Section was established.

30. 1937-The Institute of Applied Science installed Photographic and Firearms Identification (Forensic Ballistics)
laboratories. The institute was the first private school in U.S. which installed laboratories for instructional purposes
only.
31. 1938-A book by Harry J. Myers II, “History of Identification of fingerprints in U.S.” was published in Fingerprint and
Identification Magazine (Chicago, Illinois, Vol. 20, no. 4, Oct. 1938).
32. 1946-the 100th millionth fingerprint card was received in the identification division of the FBI. The total grew to 152
million in May 11, 1959.
33. 1967-“Minutiae” was initiated by the FBI, a computerized scanning equipment to read and record fingerprint identifying
characteristics.
34. 1972-the prototype automatic fingerprint reader was delivered.
35. 1973-implementation of the first phase of the automated Identification System (AIS-1), which was to establish the
database consisting of the name, description, and criminal record of all first offenders with birthdates of 1956.
 36. 1978-Journal of Forensic Science – reported that certain properties of perspiration and body oils contained in latent
print residue will luminesce without pre-treatment and to a degree that photographs could be taken when activated by
continuous Argon-ION Laser. Hence, the FBI’s Latent Print Detection System was put into use.
37. 1979-AIS-2 replaced AIS-1. This phase involved the automated searching by name and other descriptor information of
incoming fingerprint cards against the database.
38. 1979 (Oct. 17, 1979)-A latent fingerprint was developed and lifted from the hand of a victim in Miami, Florida murder
resulting in identifying the suspect. This was the first known case where a fingerprint from a human skin was used in
the identification, prosecution and conviction of a perpetrator of a crime.
39. 1982-Missing Children Act was signed into law which requires the Attorney General to acquire, collect, classify, and
preserve any information which would assist in the location of any missing person (including an unemancipated person
as defined by the laws of the place of residence of such person) or assist in the identification of any deceased
individual who have not been identified.
40. 1983-Completion of the conversion of the FBI criminal fingerpint searching from manual to automated searching. Also,
AIS records became available by mail upon request of the National Crime Information Center’s (NCIC’s) interstate
identification index (III) – an interstate record exchange.
41. 1984-AIS records became available “ON-LINE” through the NCIC program. Records from the NCIC and AIS, and
participating state and local telecommunication networks became available w/in seconds to authorized criminal justice
agencies.
42. 1985 (Jan. 2) – a contract was awarded for building the final phase of the Identification Division Automated System
(IDAS).
43. 1989-IDAS implementation. Its features are: integrated document transport equipment; on-line automated technical
fingerprint search; and simplified processing flow. All, for expeditious response time of fingerprint cards.

What about Historical Development of Fingerprints in the Philippines?

1. 1900-Mr. Jones was the first to teach fingerprints in the Philippines in the Phil. Constabulary.
2. 1918-The Bureau of Prisons records show that carpetas (commitment and conviction records) already bear fingerprints.
3. Under the management of Lt. Asa N. Darby during the American occupation in the Philippines, a modern and complete
fingerprint file has been established for the Philippine commonwealth.
4. 1937-The first Filipino fingerprint technician employed by the Phil. Constabulary was Mr. Generoso Reyes. Capt.
Thomas Dugan of New York City Police Department and Mr. Flaviano C. Gurrero of the Federal Bureau of Investigation
(FBI) gave the first examinations in fingerprints.
5. 1933-The first conviction based on fingerprints was handed by the Supreme Court of the Phil. in the case People vs.
Medina and this case is considered the leading judicial decision in the Philippine jurisprudence concerning fingerprinting
(December 23).
6. The science of fingerprinting was first offered as a subject in the Philippines through the effort of the Plaridel Educational
Institution.

STUDYING FINGERPRINTS

What are the basic principles of Fingerprint Science? (3 dogmatic Principles)

1. Principle of Individuality (Variation) – There are no two fingerprints that are exactly alike unless taken from the same
finger.

2. Principle of Permanency (Constancy/Perennial/Immutable) – The configuration and details of individual ridges remain
constant and unchanging till after the final decomposition of the body.

3. Principle of Infallibility – That fingerprint is a reliable means of personal identification and all courts accept and adopt
fingerprint as a means of personal identification.

What are the two main layers of the Skin?

1. Outer scarf or Epidermis

 2. Inner Scarf or Dermis

Take Note:

1. Stratum Malpighi or the layer of the Malpighi – the ridges are formed into patterns by virtue of the fact that
the epidermis is penetrated and molded by the dermal papillae
2. Damage to the epidermis alone does not result to permanent ridge destruction, whereas damage to the
dermis will result to permanent ridge destruction
3. We can identify many fingerprints which we cannot classify.

State the principal uses of fingerprints - Some of the uses of fingerprinting include:

1. Identification of criminals whose fingerprints are found at the scene of the crime
2. Identification of fugitive through a comparison of fingerprints
3. Assistance to prosecutors in presenting their cases in the light of defendants’ previous records
4. Imposition of more equitable sentence by the courts
5. Furnishing identification data to probation and parole officers and to parole boards for their
enlightenment in decision making
6. Exchanging of criminal-identifying information with identification bureaus of foreign countries in cases of
mutual interest
7. Means of personal identification
8. Recognition by the government of honored dead
9. Identification of unknown deceased
10. Prevention of hospital mistakes in the identification of infants
11. Identification of persons suffering from amnesia where fingerprints are on file
12. Identification of missing person
13. Personal identification of victims of disaster works
14. Identification of unconscious persons; and
15. Licensing procedures for automobile, firearms, aircraft and other equipment.

Give some important Events, Dates or Personalities showing the basis of the Legality of Fingerprinting

1. In 1911, an Illinois court, in the case of the People vs. Jennings (252 Ill. 534, 96NE 1077 (1911) ) pass upon the
admissibility of fingerprint evidence.

2. In that case, fingerprint evidence was admitted as a means of identification may give their opinions as to whether the
fingerprints found at the scene of the crime correspond with those of the accused. The court’s conclusion were based
on a comparison of the photographs of such prints with the impressions made by the accused, there being no question
as to the accuracy or authenticity of the photographs. It was stated that the weight to be given to the testimony of
experts in the fingerprint identification is a question for the jury.

3. Following the Illinois case was one in New Jersey, State vs. Cerciello, in which fingerprint evidence was permitted to
be introduced.

4. In the Cerciello Case, the defendant argued that it was an error to allow the testimony by experts explaining the
comparison of fingerprints obtained from the defendant voluntarily with those fingerprints found upon a hatchet near
the body of the deceased when the body was discovered. The New Jersey Court of Errors and Appeals held, “in
principle, its admission as legal evidence is based upon the theory that the evolution in practical affairs of life, whereby
the progressive and scientific tenderness of the age are manifested in every other department of human endeavor,
cannot be ignored in legal procedure.

5. In the case of State vs. Conners (87 N.T.L. 419, 94 Atl. 812 (1915) ) it was held competent to show by a photograph
the fingerprints upon the balcony post of a house entered, without producing that post in court, and to show by expert
testimony hat the fingerprints found on the post were similar to the fingerprints of the defendant.
 6. In the case of Lamble vs. State (Lamble V. State, 96 N. T. L. 231; 114 ATL. (N.J.) 346 (1921) ) which involved the
discovery of fingerprints on the door of an automobile, the court was of the opinion that it was not necessary to produce
the door as an evidence. The court stated that a photograph of the fingerprints noted on the door should be sufficient
along with the identification of the fingerprints by an expert to show these of the defendant. The court referred the case
of States V. Conners (Supra).

7. In the case of Commonwealth vs. Albright, (101 Pa. Sup. C.L. 317 (1931) ) a fingerprint expert testified that the
fingerprint on a piece of glass, establish to be from a pane in a door that had been broken to effect entrance to the
house was the same as the impression of the defendant’s left index finger and he explained in detail the points of
identity which led him to that judgment. The court stated, “it is well settled that the papillary lines and marks on the
fingers of every man, woman and child possess an individual character different from those of any person and that the
chances that the fingerprints of two different persons may be identical are infinitesimally remote.

8. In a California case, People vs. Coral (224 cal. 2d300 (1964( ), the court stated, “it is completely settled law that
fingerprints are the strongest evidence of the identity of a person.” This Doctrine was reasserted in another California
case, People V. Riser (47 cal. 2d566 (1956) ) in which the court stated, “fingerprint evidence is the strongest evidence
of identity and is ordinarily sufficient alone to identify the defendant.”

9. The US Supreme Court in the case of Schmerber vs. California (Schmerber v. California, 384 us, 757, 763 764
(1966) ), held that the introduction into evidence of fingerprint impressions taken without consent of the defendant was
not an infringement of the constitutional privilege against self incrimination. The high court held that it is constitutional
to obtain real or physical evidence even if the suspect is compelled to give blood in a hospital environment, submit to
fingerprinting, photographing or measurement, write or speak for identification, appears in court, stand or walk, assume
a stance or make a particular gesture, put on a cloth that fits him, or exhibit his body as evidence when it is material.
The Schmerber case points out the fact that the privilege against self-incrimination is related primarily to
“TESTIMONIAL COMPULSION”.

10. In the Philippines, several decided cases could be cited where fingerprint evidence was admitted, considered and
appreciated by the appellate courts with even lesser number of ridge similarities. In the BILANGAWA vs. AMADOR
case, (Court of Appeals No. 37320-b), a fingerprint expert and constabulary sergeant testified and successfully
defended fingerprint evidence based on eight identical ride points.

11. People vs. Medina (59 Phil. 330) - The first leading judicial decision in the Philippine jurisprudence on the science of
fingerprinting.

Admissibility of Fingerprint Testimony

Expert’s testimony as to the identity of thumb marks or fingerprints is admissible. The method of identifying fingerprints
is a science requiring close study. Where thumb impressions are blurred and many of the characteristic marks far from clear,
thus rendering it difficult to trace the features enumerated by experts as showing the identity of the impressions, the court is
justified in refusing to accept the opinion that a distinct similarity in some respects between the admittedly genuine thumb mark
and the questioned thumb mark is evident.

This method of identification of persons has become a fixed part of our “SYSTEM OF JURISPRUDENCE”. Proof of
the accused found in the place where the crime was committed under such circumstances that they could only have been
impressed at the time when the crime was committed may be sufficient proof of identity to sustain conviction.

Number of Ridge Characteristics as Basis for Absolute Identity

There are no national or international rules or laws that fix the number of ridge characteristics that must be present in
both the questioned and standard prints that should be used as a basis for establishing absolute identity. Experts of different
countries differ in the requirements of the minimum number. In England, the minimum is 16 and in USA, the minimum
requirement is 12. However, fingerprint experts in these countries believe that identity can be established in lower number of
guidelines laid down by the famous French Criminalist Dr. Edmond Locard:

1. Clearness of the pattern.

2. Rarity of the type
3. Presence of core or delta in the decipherable part
4. Presence of pores
5. The perfect and clear identity of the width of ridges and furrows, of the direction of the lines, and the angular value
of the furrows.

Weight of Fingerprint

The weight to be given to evidence of correspondence of fingerprint when offered to prove identity of the accused as
the person committing a crime is for the determination of the court in the light of all the surrounding facts and circumstances.

To warrant a conviction the fingerprints corresponding to those of the accused must have been found in the place
where the crime was committed under such circumstances that they could only have been impressed at the time when the crime
was committed.

Can Fingerprint be destroyed?

John Dellinger, a notorious gangster and a police character, attempted to erase his fingerprints by burning them with
acid but as time went by the ridges were again restored to their “natural” feature. The acid he applied temporarily destroyed the
epidermis of the bulbs of his fingers but re occur later.

Locard and Witkowsji of Lyons, who performed rather painful experiments on themselves by burning their fingertips
with boiling water, hot oil and hot metal had shown that after the healing of the epidermis (outer skin), the original patterns of
fingerprints reappeared.

Can Fingerprints be forged?

The authorities conducted various experiments and although they could almost make an accurate reproduction’s till
there is no case on record known or have been written that forgery of fingerprints has been a complete success.

Give the reasons why Fingerprints is one of the most Infallible Means of Personal Identification

1. Fingerprints are already formed about 3 to 4 months of intra-uterine life and will remain unchanged throughout life
until the final decomposition of the body.
2. The pattern formation formed by the papillary ridges contains peculiar characteristics upon which a person can
always be identified by fingerprint examiners.
3. Almost every police and law enforcement agencies throughout the world accept, adopt and utilize the fingerprint
system as a means of absolute identification of a person.
4. The court and other authorities had taken cognizance of its importance and reliability as a means of identification.
5. That fingerprint will speak for itself as it shows the owner thereof in accordance with the principle of re ipso liquitor
(a thing will speak for itself).

FINGERPRINT CHARACTERISTICS AND FORMATIONS

Allied Sciences of Fingerprints

Dactyloscopy – identification of persons through examination and comparison of fingerprint. Taken from Greek words:
Dactylos – a finger and skopien – to examine
 1. Poroscopy – Science of palm print identification.
2. Chiroscopy – Science of palm print identification.
3. Podoscopy – Science of foot print identification.

Pattern Interpretation

1. Arches – 5%
2. Loops – 60%
3. Whorls – 35%

Take Note: According to studies, the appearance of arches is less followed by whorls and the loops.

What are the Types of Ridge Formation?

1. Recurving ridge – is a ridge that curves back in the direction in which it started.
2. Converging Ridges – Two or more lines forming an angle, a ridge whose closed end is angular and serves as a
point of convergence.
3. Diverging ridges – Two ridges running side by side and suddenly separating, one ridge going one way and the
other ridge, another way.
4. Bifurcating ridges – A single ridge which splits into two ridges forming a “Y” shape formation or structure.
5. Island, Eyelet, lake or Eye – it is a single ridge which bifurcates where the bifurcating ridges converge at a certain
point to form again into a single ridge.
6. Dot or Series of Dots – They are fragmentary ridges formed like a dot or dots.
7. Short or Series of Short Ridges – they are fragmentary ridges formed by short or series of short ridges.
8. Ridge Ending - It is a termination or ending of ridge or ridges.
9. Fragmentary Ridges – They consist of disconnected sequences of short ridges embodied intensely. These ridges
are considered in the classification of fingerprints if they appear as dark and as thick as the surrounded ridges within
the pattern area.
10. Ridge Hook – It is a ridge that divides to form two ridges which are shorter in length than the main ridge.
11. Ridge Bridge – This is a connecting ridge between two ridges.
12. Incipient or Nascent Ridge – This is a kind of ridge which is madly formed, thin, short or broken which appears in
the depressions between two well formed ridges.
13. Sufficient Recurve – The space between shoulders of a loop, free of any appendage, and a butting at right angle.
14. Appendage – A short ridge at the top or summit of a recurve usually at right angle.
15. Core – It is a point on a ridge formation usually located at the center or heart of a pattern.
16. Delta or Triradial Point – It a point on the first ridge formation at or directly in front or near the center of the
divergence of the type lines.
17. Envelop – Is a single recurving ridge enclosing one or more rods or bars.
18. Friction ridges – Are strips of skin on the inside of the end joints of our fingers and thumbs by which fingerprints
are made. They are also called papillary ridges or epidermal ridges.
19. Furrows – Are depressions or canals between the ridges which maybe compared with the low area in a tire tread.
20. Rod or Bar – is a single ending ridge at the center of a recurving ridge of a loop pattern.
21. Up thrust - Is an ending ridge of any length rising at a sufficient degree from a horizontal place.
22. Dissociated ridges – are unusual ridge structures having no well defined patterns; the ridges are extremely short,
appear like a series of “patches” caused by a disturbance of developmental process at early fetal life of the individuals.
23. Shoulder of a loop – It is that point at which the recurving ridge definitely turns or curves.
24. Puckering – As growth ceases at several ends, the ends curl slightly.
25. Creases – Are thin, usually straight narrow white lines running transversely or formed side to side, across the
print, causing the puckering of the ridges.
26. Staple – Single recurving ridge at the center of the pattern area.
27. Spike – an ending ridge at the center of a pattern which forms the up thrust.

Type Lines and Pattern Area

1. Type line – basic boundaries of most fingerprints.

 2. Pattern area – The part of the fingerprint which lies within the area surrounded by the type lines.

What are the Rules on Core and Delta Location?

The rules in CORE location are:

1. The core is placed upon or within the innermost sufficient recurve.

2. When the innermost sufficient recurve contains ending ridges or rod rising as high as the shoulder of the loop further
from the delta. The exemption to this rule is when both shoulders are equidistant to the center of the sufficient recurve.
3. When the innermost sufficient recurve contains an uneven number of rods rising as high as the shoulders, the core is
placed upon the end of the center rod whether it touches the looping ridge or not.
4. When the innermost sufficient recurve contains an even number of rods rising as high as the shoulders, the core is
placed upon the end of the further one of the two center rods, the two rods being treated as though they were
connected by a recurving ridge.

Take Note - Always base on the entrance of the pattern in the fingerprint.

The rule in DELTA location is:

1. A dot can be a delta when there is no other alternative.

Rules in Delta location when there is a choice between two or more Delta

1. The delta may be located at a bifurcation which does open towards the core.
2. When there is a choice between a bifurcation and another type of delta, equally close to the point of divergence,
the bifurcation is selected.
3. When there is a series of bifurcation opening towards the core at the point of divergence of two type lines, the
bifurcation nearest to the core is chosen as the delta.
4. The delta may not be located in the middle of the ridge running between the type lines toward the cores but at the
nearer end only. The location of the delta depends entirely upon the point of origin of the ridge between the type lines
toward the core.
5. If the ridge enters the pattern area from the point below the divergent type lines. The delta must be located at the
end nearer (inner terminus) to the core.

Ridge counting and Ridge tracing

1. Ridge Counting – It refers to the process of counting the intervening ridges that touch or cross an imaginary lien drawn
between the core and the delta.

Take Note - It applies only to loops.

2. Ridge Tracing – Is the process of tracing the ridges that emanate from the lower side of the left delta towards the right
delta to see where it flows in relation to the right delta.

Divisions of Fingerprint Patterns

A. LOOPS
1. ulnar
2. radial

B. ARCHES
1. Tented
2. Plain

C. WHORLS
 1. Plain whorl
2. Central pocket loop whorl
3. Double loop whorl
4. Accidental whorl

RULES ON FINGERPRINT PATTERNS

1. Radial Loop - “R” - derived its name from the radius bone of the forearm; it is one type of fingerprint patterns in which
the ridges run its direction to the radius bone or to the thumb.

2. Ulnar Loop is one type of fingerprint pattern in which the ridges flow toward the ulnar bone or little finger. Ulnar loop
therefore derived its name from the ulna bone of the forearm, or little finger. Its symbol is letter “ U” in classification
purposes.

Take Note - A pattern to be a loop must have the following four (4) essential requisites:
a. It must have a core
b. It must have a delta
c. An imaginary line must pass between the core and the
delta
d. It must have a ridge count of a minimum of at least one (1)

3. Plain Whorl - Symbolized by letter “W” in the classification. It is a fingerprint pattern which there are two (2) deltas and
in which at least one (1) ridge makes a turn through one complete circuit, an imaginary line drawn between the two (2)
deltas must touch or cross at least one (1) of the circuiting whorl ridges within the pattern area.

4. Central Pocket Loop Whorl - Symbolized by letter “C “ in the classification. It is a fingerprint pattern which for the most
part of a loop, but which has a small whorl inside the loop ridges, sometimes called a composite pattern, which means
that it is made up of two (2) patterns in one, a whorl inside a loop.
It has two (2) deltas, one of which appears as the edge of the pattern area, as in plain loop. And one shows inside the
pattern area just below the counterpart ridges.

5. Double Loop Whorl - Symbolized by letter “D” in the classification. A double loop whorl is a pattern consisting of two
(2) separate and distinct loop formations. One of the loops surrounds or overlaps the other, also called COMPOSITE
PATTERN, like the central pocket loop whorl. It arises from the fact that these patterns are a composite or
combination of two 92) patterns in one, with two cores and two deltas.

6. Accidental Whorl - Symbolized by letter “X” in the classification. It is a pattern which is a combination of two or more
different types of pattern except in the PLAIN ARCH. It is a pattern which is a combination of two or more different
types of pattern except in the PLAIN ARCH. It can be a combination of a loop and a whorl, a loop and a central pocket
loop whorl, or any combination of two or more different loops and whorl type patterns.

7. Plain Arch - Symbolized by letter “A” in the classification. It is a fingerprint pattern in which the ridges enter on one side
of the pattern and flow towards the other side with a rise at the center with not more than one of the four (4) essential
requisites for loop pattern and with no recurving ridge, no angular formation and no upward thrust.

Take Note - It enters to the left and flows towards the right.

8. Tented Arches - Symbolized by letter “T” in the classification. It is a variety of arch family, but their ridge formations are
not simple as those of the plain arch, also considered TRANSITIONAL PATTERN between a plain arch and a loop.
Generally speaking, TENTED ARCHES are formed in any of these three (3) way formations, to wit:

a. One or several ridges in the center of the form an up thrust.

b. The ridge or ridges in the center formed a well defined angle.
c. The pattern may have two or three or four essential requisites of a loop pattern.

Take Note - An up thrust must have an ending ridge.

REAL FINGERPRINT IMPRESSIONS

Real Impressions - Impressions of the finger bulbs with the use of the printing ink on the surface of the paper. Any
other coloring materials may be used but less visible and indelible.

Methods of Producing Real Impressions

1. Plain Method.
2. Rolled Method

Methods of Recording real Fingerprints

Step 1- Ink the roller. Apply a small amount (about ¼ inch long stream) of fingerprint ink on the right side of the slab,
toward the back. Roll out a two to three inch wide layer of ink on the back portion of the slab-lifting the roller off the slab after
each stroke and return to the starting point (do not use a back-and-forth motion with the roller). Repeat several times until a thin
film of ink forms on the roller.

Step 2 - Next, using the same roller motion (without rolling back and forth), spread the layer toward the front edge of
the slab, until a smooth, uniform coating of ink forms. The front edge is where the fingerprints are rolled. When the ink on the
front edge becomes too thin, replenish the ink roller on the back edge of the slab and repeat step two.

Porelon Pad Method - No advance preparation is needed to use the Porelon pad. However, the pad surface should be
cleaned occasionally to remove oil and dirt deposits by wiping the surface lightly with a soft, dry, lint-free cloth.

Print Matic Method - Like the slab and roller method, the Print matic method requires that the ink is embedded within
the Print Matic roller, and coating the slab requires only a few passes of the roller in the same direction to apply a thin, even layer
of ink.

Equipment Used in Preparation for Taking Fingerprint using Slab and Roller Method

1. INKING PLATE – A 12 inches plate is long enough for most set of 0 fingers. The width of the plate should not be less
than 8 inches, ten (10) is a better width. A 10 inch plate is also wide enough to ink a complete palm in one operation
whenever it becomes necessary.
2. CARD HOLDER – The simplest is a U-shaped spring clamp. Made of spring steel, stainless steel or brass of gauge
sufficient to hold its shape in heavy usage.
3. ROLLER – 6 inches long, and 2 inches in diameter. The handle should have supporting posts or legs to suspend the
rubber roller from developing flat sides and to keep unused portions of the plate and table top from being smeared with
ink.
4. INK - black printers ink is the most commonly used for taking fingerprint impression. It is a consistency suitable for
rolling into a thin film and it is quick drying when transferred to a card as an inked impression. Yet it does not dry too
fast. Usable for several hours after a film has been rolled.

What are the reasons why FOUNTAIN PEN INK, COLORED INK AND STAMP PAD INK are objectionable to be used
as fingerprint ink?

a. They are too thin

b. Dry too quickly
c. Stamp pad smears easily
d. Impressions using stamp pad reproduce ‘weave” of the pad stamp covering the inked impression.
e. Unsatisfactory for comparison purposes.

5. FINGERPRINT STAND – 32 inches high, the inking surface of a fingerprint stand should be approximately 12 inches
above the top of an ordinary desk making the printing surface approximately 44 inches from the floor for the average
person.
 6. STANDARD EIGHT BY EIGHT INCHES FINGERPRINT CARD – It is found to be adequate for receiving five rolled
impressions across the card the size convenient for handling and filing.

IMPORTANT POINTS TO BE CONSIDERED IN TAKING LEGIBLE FINGERPRINTS

1. Cleanliness of equipment
2. The right kind and correct amount of ink.
3. Proper distribution of ink on the glass slab or inking plate.
4. The distance of the subject from the inking on the fingerprint card.
5. The advice of the operator to the subject to relax and never to aid in the operation.
6. The pressure exerted must be slight and even the rolling be continuous movement including lifting.
7. The nail of the fingers should be at rights angle to the slab or to the card before starting the rolling and always roll the
fingers until the other side of the nail is reached (180 degrees).
8. The inking and printing must always reach below the first of the fingers.
9. The thumbs should be rolled towards the subject’s body and all other fingers away from the subject’s body.

STEPS IN TAKING FINGERPRINTS

1. The first and most important step is clear the plate thoroughly.
2. A daub of printer’s ink is deposited near the edge of the plate away from the operator.
3. The subject’s hand and fingers must be relaxed.

STANCE FOR TAKING PRINTS

Most operators stand on the left side of the person whose prints are being taken for the simple reason that more
people are right handed and then normally work more efficiently and do better advantage toward the right. Therefore, most
fingerprint stands are made so that the printing is done on the left front corner.

Take Note:

Rolled Impression – the subject must be relaxed

Plain Impression – the subject may not be relaxed

FINGER DISABILITIES THAT NEED EXTRA-ATTENTION IN TAKING PRINTS

1. Temporary Disabilities

a. fresh cuts or wounds or bandaged fingers

b. Occupational marks (dry skin) – carpenters, bricklayers, etc.
c. Excessive perspiration

2. Permanent Disabilities

a. lack of fingers – in-born or amputated

b. crippled fingers – bent or broken
c. deformities – webbed, extra fingers (poly dactyl)
d. old age
e. split fingers/thumbs

EXTRAORDINARY TAKING OF REAL FINGERPRINT IMPRESSIONS

 1. Excessively sweating fingers - Impressing shall be made after temporarily suppressing sweating by wiping fingers
with a lightly squeezed piece of gauze to which formalin alcohol liquid (100 ml. of ethyl alcohol liquid containing 1-3 ml.
of formalin pharmacopoeia) is applied.

2. Fingers with stiff joints - Impressing shall be made after shaking a subject’s hand grasped by the wrist up and
down several times to smoothen the joint movement. In this case, if the impressing plate and the glass plate are
placed somewhat higher while having the subject stand somewhat away from the table, handling would be easier.

3. Fingers with stiff surface skin, coarse fingers and fingers suffering from dermatophytosis - Wrap fingers in a
steamed towel for several minutes then impress. In this case, somewhat denser ink and somewhat weaker impressing
will be better.

FINGERPRINT IMPRESSING TECHNIQUE FOR A DEAD BODY

1. Fingers soon after death - Wipe out fingers with a piece of gauze containing alcohol if they are stained. In case where
satisfactory roll impressions are not obtainable by the ordinary impressing technique, the impression paper shall be cut
to a proper size, and impressing shall be made onto it using such aids as a fingerprint taking pallet from a dead body.

2. Stiff fingers of a clenched fist - Impressing shall be made using an aid such as a spatula for taking fingerprints from a
dead body.

3. Blanched and wrinkled fingers

Take Note:

Finger without percolate - Wipe them with a piece of alcohol – containing gauze, soften them thoroughly with your
finger tips, stretch wrinkles, and then impress.

Fingers with percolate - Take their mold with silicon after drying with lycopodium powder. In order to obtain fingerprint
impressions from silicon molds, strippable paint or cortex shall be used this technique is as follows:

Fingers with peeled-off surfaced skin - Wind that surface skin around the operator’s finger. Apply ink to it and impress.
When the true skin is exposed, take photo after applying ink to the true skin or drying it with an aqueous marker in water or
alcohol.

Finger of Charred Body - In case where it is feared that they will disintegrate by even the slightest, their photo shall be
taken as they are.

Mummified fingers. Take their mould with silicon, make films with strippable paint or cortex, and impress.

CHANCE FINGERPRINT IMPRESSIONS

Chance Impressions - These are fingerprints which are imprinted by mere chance or without any intention to produce
the print. Chance print may be

1. Plastic impression – impressions made by chance on cellophane tapes or any plastic materials.
2. Visible prints – impressions made by chance and visible without chemical treatment.
3. Latent prints – impressions which are visible grossly but made visible by the addition of some substances. These
are fingerprints found at the scene of a crime.

Search for Scene of Fingerprint Impressions

In order to collect scene fingerprints, it is necessary to clarify where they were impressed. Most scene fingerprints are
usually found at the points of entry, and departure, places ransacked, etc. Therefore, searching for scene fingerprints should be
made with emphasis on such places but be thoroughly made on their surroundings. Further, there may be cases where a
suspect uses gloves, wipes out his fingerprint after committing a crime, or makes other actions in connection with fingerprints.
Thus, even when glove impressions or other traces of actions have been found as result of a fingerprint search, it is necessary
not to give up but to make a thorough search all over the scene of the crime.

How to collect Chance Fingerprints?

The methods of collecting fingerprints are roughly classified into eight, i.e., solid method (powder method), liquid
method, gas method, lifting method, flame method, molding method, photographing method and development with lasers.

SOLID METHOD (POWDER METHOD)

This solid method is also called the powder method since powder is used, and is the most basic method.

The kinds and properties of powders commonly used are as follows:

Name color adhesiveness composition

Aluminum silver extremely crushed

Powder (gray) white strong aluminum foil
Highnium silver moderately charge-proof
Grayish strong processed gray
Ultranium grayish weak resin and areic
Acid processed
Aluminum powder

Black black weak mixture of

Powder carbon black and graphite
Brown powder sepia weak manganese
(black powder B-5) dioxide powder
White powder sepia weak powder mixture
of zinc oxide and talc
Lead pure weak Basic lead carbonate
Carbonate white
Lycopodium light extremely spores of club
Powder yellow weak moss (lycopodium)
Yellow powder yellow weak yellow color, or
Lycopodium yellow color
Red lead vermilion weak trilead
Tetroxide Powder
Indigo purple weak Indigotin (for drying)
Fluorescent yellow weak organic zinc
Powder sulfide or Zinc sulfide
Magnetic blackish weak carbon-added
Powder gray electrolytic Iron powder

Each powder has its own properties of color, adhesiveness, grain size, delineability, etc. A suitable powder is selected
and used according to the conditions of impression and object. Sometimes, two or more kidns of powder are used in mixture.
This is called mixture powder. By using mixture powder, color and adhesiveness can be adjusted. For example, by mixing lead
carbonate with indigo, the disappearance of fingerprints lifted to gelatin paper can be prevented, while by mixing aluminum
powder (gray) with lycopodium, the excessive adhesion of aluminum powder (gray) can be prevented.

POWDERING METHODS

Powdering methods include the brushing method, rolling method, spraying method and light hitting method
 1. The brushing method is a method where, after affixing powder to an object to be examined with a brush
(developing brush) to whose tip a small quantity of powder has been affixed a fingerprint is developed by lightly
sweeping it with another, powder less brush (finishing brush) to remove excessive powder.
2. The rolling method is method where, after placing a proper quantity of powder on an object to be examined,
lightly moving it by bending and tilting, spreading out powder all over the object to have powder adhere to the
fingerprint, the fingerprint is developed by flipping the back side of the object to remove excess powder.
3. Also, there is another method called the sprinkling or tapping method where, after having powder adhere to a
fingerprint by lightly tapping the object to be examined, the fingerprint is developed by lightly tapping a part of the
object with one’s fist, etc. to remove excess powder.
4. The spraying method is a method where, after evenly spraying powder over the object to be examined from a
distance of approximately 30 cm, the fingerprint is developed by removing excess powder by an air spray or with a
brush, etc. This method is suitable for cases where development is made from a porous or solid object using lowly
adhesive powder.
5. In cases where development has been made by using fluorescent powder, the effect is doubled if observed
by utilizing an ultra-violet ray emitter.
6. The light-striking method is a method where, after having powder adhere to a fingerprint by, say, lightly
striking the object to be examined with a brush tip to which powder has been applied, the fingerprint is developed with
another brush to which no powder is applied or by air blowing with a blower-brush or a spray to remove excess
powder. This method is suitable for development from an object with a porous or adhesive surface.

LIFTING METHOD

Collecting method by lifting fingerprint developed with powder include methods employing cellophane tape, vinyl tape
or other adhesive tape, and methods employing silicon rubber.

1. The lifting technique with gelatin paper or lifter is as follows:

2. Cut gelatin paper or lifter to proper size.
3. Pull off the backing.
4. Direct the adhesive face toward the fingerprint.
5. Press on corner to the paper firmly to the object.
6. Press the rest of the paper to the object in stages, from the point already affixed towards the fingerprint.
7. Press it lightly and evenly with your palm, etc. Less air should be trapped.
8. Peel it off after lifting.
9. Stick it to the backing in the same manner of lifting.

The lifting method using silicon rubber follows the following:

1. Stretch the above thinly and evenly onto a proper-sized piece of paper or cloth.
2. Add 5-10% by volume of hardener to silicon base.
3. Mix them thoroughly.
4. Stretch the above thinly and evenly onto a proper-sized piece of paper or cloth.
5. Apply above to a fingerprint to be lifted.
6. Press lightly and evenly with a palm, etc. to prevent bubbles from being trapped.
7. Pull off after silicon has hardened.

Take Note: Method of Restoration - When the fingerprint collection by solid method is over, the object should be
restored to its original state by removing powder which has been affixed to it. This is called “restoration.” Wipe the object lightly
with a piece of cloth or a brush which contains 0.5-1% synthetic cleanser liquid or 2-5% soap liquid.

LIQUID METHOD

1. Affix some chemicals to latent or visible fingerprint to cause a chemical change in the excreta elements.
2. Develop or clarify it.
 3. Record the print by photographing it.

This method is effective for developing a latent print from an object such as paper, wood or metal and to collect a
visible fingerprint such as a blood fingerprint. This is a chemical collecting method whose principle is that the element of the
chemical liquid reacts to the element in excreta or blood by changing color.

1. Reagent (chemical liquid) - Reagents commonly used are ninhydrin, silver nitrate, etc.
2. Method to affix reagent - Method to affix reagent include the painting method, soaking method and spraying method.
a. The painting method is a method where an object is painted evenly with a brush 9flat brush for liquid) with
ample reagent to affix the reagent to the fingerprints. This method is suitable for a large or solid object to be
examined.
b. The soaking method is a method to affix reagent to fingerprints by soaking an object to be examined into
regent in a tray or other vessel. This method is suitable for cases where a small object is to be examined for
development.

The spraying method is as follows:

1. Fill a sprayer for liquid with reagent.

2. Spray evenly over the object to be examined about 30 cm. From the nozzle for affixing the reagent to the object.

a. This method is applicable to three-dimensional as well as flat-surfaced objects either large or

small.
b. The sprayer used for the thin method should be capable of spraying as fine as mist as possible.
c. A ninhydrin sprayer is an aerosol-type sprayer exclusively for fingerprints which sprays the
reagent (0.5% acetone solution of ninhydrin) by means of pressurized gas. Meanwhile, since silver nitrate
reagent corrodes the metallic portions of a sprayer, it should not be used in development by spraying method.

Take Note: Method of Restoration - When the fingerprint collecting work by the liquid method is complete, the article
should be restored to its original state by removing fingerprints impressed thereon and stains produced by development, this is
called restoration. Restoration methods vary according to types of reagent used for development. For restoration of a case
using silver nitrate reagent, the object shall be washed in water after being soaked in 2% alcohol liquid of corrosive sublimate.
There is another method of soaking in saturated solution of sodium thiosulphate after soaking in saturated solution of iodine or of
potassium ferry cyanide.

For restoration of a case using ninhydrin reagent, the object shall either be applied with “Osyfull” oxygenated water)
and be warmed, or be applied with 3% solution of ammonium, or be soaked in hot water at 80 degrees or over.

GAS METHOD

This is a method where a latent fingerprint is developed by means of coloring by affixing gasified reagent or by causing
chemical change in elements of excreta, and then collected by photographing or by lifting onto lifting material. This method is
suitable for developing fingerprints from papers, unpainted wood and textiles.

Iodine is exclusively used as a reagent. The developed pattern disappears with in a few minutes. Therefore, reduction
is unnecessary.

a. The methods of affixing the reagent include a method where gas is blown on to an object to be examined
using an iodine gas generator or a method where gas is filled up into a box in which an object has been placed.
Also, there is another method where gas is blown into a vinyl bag in which an object has been placed.
b. Since the fingerprint developed disappears within a few minutes, it is collected by being photographed.
c. One of the recently developed method is to develop a fingerprint in white by affixing gas generated from cyan
acrylic instant adhesive. It proves effective for developing fingerprints from a blackish object, especially the
adhesive face of adhesive tape.

This method follows the following:

 1. Apply cyanoacrylate to a plastic or similar plate.
2. The place on which a fingerprint is supposedly impressed shall be placed and fixed face to face about 3 mm
above the plate.
3. Leave it under a cover.
4. The fingerprint is developed about 3 minutes later at the earliest.
5. The developed fingerprint shall be collected by being photographed.

LIFTING METHOD

This method includes a method where a visible fingerprint is directly lifted to lifting material, a method where a
fingerprint which has been directly lifted is processed with powder, chemical liquid, etc., and a method where a fingerprint is lifted
using lifting material processed in advance with chemical liquid, etc., and then preserved as it is or photographed. These are
effective for collecting dust fingerprints, oil/grease fingerprints, and blood fingerprints.

Lifting material - All lifting materials used for lifting under the solid method, gelatin paper, lifter, cellophane tape,
transparent vinyl tape, and other adhesive tapes can be used; but in most cases, gelatin paper is used.

Lifting method - The method of lifting directly to the lifting material is mostly used for collecting a dust fingerprint or
oil/grease fingerprints.
The method using processed lifting material is to lift the material to whose surface chemical liquid etc. has been
applied in advance. This method is used for collecting an oil/grease fingerprint and a just fingerprint.

Major collecting methods by tape of visible fingerprint are as follows:

a. Dust fingerprint - In cases where dust quantity is small, a fingerprint shall be lifted directly to gelatin paper
(black). Whenever the fingerprint has become unclear after lifting, the transparent plate shall be peeled off and
photograph shall be taken by lighting from the rear side, or the fingerprint shall be developed by having
lycopodium stick to the peeled backing by rolling method 7-9 days after lifting. Also if the transparent plate is
peeled off after lifting, its impressed face is turned upwards, and the plate is soaked in ethyl alcohol for 1-3
minutes, its gelatin film hardens and further change is prevented.

b. Blood fingerprint - In cases where a blood fingerprint has just been impressed on an unabsorptive object, it
shall be directly lifted on gelatin paper. In cases whir lifting is difficult as it has become slightly dryer, it is better to
apply gelatin paper to and lightly press the blood fingerprint following the technique of lifting, to peel off the paper
after moistening the blood, to stick aluminum powder or gray to the blood fingerprint by brushing, and to lift it onto
other gelatin paper.

c. Oil/grease fingerprint - When the surface is dry, it shall be collected by lifting it onto Binio roll lifter as it is. If
not dry, it shall be lifted after drying in the shade. Meanwhile, in cases of fluid oil/grease, a fingerprint cannot be
collected by this method.

FLAME METHOD

This is a method of developing or clarifying by affixing soot to a latent or unclear fingerprint. The developed fingerprint
shall be collected by lifting in onto lifting material or by photographing. This method is suitable for collection from metal or other
object with a porous surface.

Soot-generating materials (burning material) include magnesium (photo flash powder), camphor, pine resin, benzene,
kerosene, edible oil, paraffin and candles.

MOLDING METHOD

This is a method of collecting visible fingerprints with a molding material, and is suitable for collecting from an object
with so complicated and uneven a surface that lifting with lifting material is unfeasible. This is also suitable for collecting a latent
fingerprint developed from a heated object.
 The molding materials include silicon rubber, plaster, “Aljix”, strippable paint, paraffin was, and plastic liquid. Collection
shall be made by taking a photograph or just preserving the mold.

PROTOGRAPHING METHOD

Space age technology is being used to enhance latent prints that heretofore were of insufficient quality to be used.
While image processing has been used for some time, the high cost of computers precluded the use of such technology in most
crime laboratories. Major advances in the “microchip” industry and the resulting proliferation of relatively inexpensive
microcomputers have placed this technology within the budgets of many laboratories.

DEVELOPMENT WITH LASERS

Light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation. The use of lasers for detection of latent fingerprint is relatively
new and dates from 1976. By 1985, approximately 50 forensic science laboratories, or approximately 15 percent of the crime
laboratories in North America, used lasers.

With nonporous items (e.g., plastic bags, glass, and so forth), the evidence is first fumed with cyanoacrylate. If prints
are not visible by means of normal techniques employed, the material is washed with a methanol solution of rhodamine. Excess
rhodamine is washed off with methanol, using a laboratory plastic wash bottle. If prints are present, the small amount of excess
rhodamine will adhere to them and show up under laser illumination can be used. A zinc chloride solution is used to change the
Ruheman’s purple coloration, caused by the reaction of ninhydrin with the amino acids present in the prints, to a yellow-orange
color. The color change is luminescent in laser light, and visible prints may be photographed.

On porous items of evidence (e.g., paper, cardboard, and the like), evidence is treated in the usual way with ninhydrin.
If prints are visible but have insufficient ridge detail, laser illumination can be used. A zinc chloride solution is used to change the
Ruhemann’s purple coloration, caused by the reaction of ninhydrin with the amino acids present in the prints, to a yellow-orange
color. The color change is luminescent in laser light, and visible prints may be photographed.

At this time there are three types of lasers used in latent print work: the argon ion laser, copper vapor laser, and
neodymium: YAG laser.

LATENT FINGERPRINTS ON HUMAN SKIN

Techniques for developing latent fingerprints on human skin have been devised, but have been successful only in rare
instances. They may be attempted in certain cases. The procedures are simple to use, inexpensive, and can be accomplished
by evidence technicians. The procedures work on both living and deceased subjects.

The Kromekote card is used to lift the print from the skin surface by placing the card over the skin in the suspected
area and applying pressure for about 3 seconds. The card is carefully removed and then dusted with black fingerprint powder to
develop the print transferred onto the card. The fingerprint obtained is the mirror image of a normal print, which can be reversed
through photography. After the Kromekote technique is used, fingerprint powder can be applied directly to the skin to
develop prints. The literature reports that the Magna-Brush gives results superior to a fiberglass filament brush. If a print is
developed by this method, it must be photographed and then may be lifted using cellophane lifting tape.

Fingerprints on skin surfaces appear to last about 1-1/2 hours on living victims. Deceased victims should be examined
for latent prints on the skin as soon as possible. The technique is still somewhat experimental, but the simplicity and ease of use
of the methods will result in greater use through experience on the part of investigators.

FINGERPRINT EVIDENCE

EVIDENCE PRESERVATION OF CHANCE FINGERPRINTS

1. Whenever scene fingerprints have been found, confirmation by a witness shall be made prior to collection.
2. Whenever scene fingerprints have been found, they shall be developed and photographed prior to collection in order to
clarify the position of an object and positions of fingerprint impressions. Picture taking shall be made by providing the
 fingerprinted object with a label containing the name of incident, date and hour taken, place, witnesses, signatures,
collector’s affiliation and name, etc.
3. Whenever fingerprints are collected by lifting (printing0 then the grain of wood, pattern, or other characteristics original to
the object near the fingerprints shall be lifted at the same time with lifting tape, etc. to clarify the place where the
fingerprints are impressed. In addition, the name of incident, date and hour collected, object of collection, place of
collection, signature of witness, and collector’s affiliation and name shall also be entered on the back of the lifting paper.

a. A scene fingerprint collection report shall be prepared to clarify the relationship between the incident and the
place of collection.
b. On the scene fingerprints collection report, all scene fingerprints collected should be numbered in serial
order, and be entered so as to clarify which fingerprint was collected at which place by attaching a scene
sketch.
c. Meanwhile, for those fingerprints collected without taking photographs, it necessary to clarify the impressed
positions and directions by solidly illustrating objects of collection portions thereof, etc.

PRESERVATION BY PHOTOGRAPHY - Prints found at the scene of a crime preferably should be preserved by
photography. This procedure has many advantages, including its leaving the object intact so that further photographs can be
taken if the first are unsuccessful. It also makes it easier to produce the evidence before a court of law if the print has been
recorded since parts of the object that carry the print will be seen in the picture.

PRESERVATION OF PLASTIC FINGERPINTS - When a fingerprint has been left in material that has hardened or is
able to withstand transport, and when it is on an object that is small and easily transportable, it may be sent directly to the crime
laboratory. If removing the plastic print poses some special problem, it should be photographed using oblique light to bring out
as much detail as possible. The fingerprint impression may then be preserved by an appropriate casting material.

PRESERVATION WITH FINGERPINT LIFTERS - Frequently, curved surfaces, such as doorknobs, with latent
fingerprints present are difficult to photograph or do not lend themselves to the use of cellophane lifting tape. For such surfaces,
elastic or rubber lifter material works well. Rubber lifters are commercially available items made of thin, rubbery material coated
with an adhesive. The adhesive is protected by a transparent celluloid material removed prior to use and replace onto with
different fingerprint powders.

PRESERVATION WITH FINGERPINT LIFTING TAPE - The most common method of collecting latent fingerprint
evidence today is by special transparent cellophane tape. The material is supplied in rolls and is usually 1 or 2 inches wide.
After the surface is dusted with fingerprint powder, the tape is placed over the print. Care must be taken to prevent any air
pockets. The tape is smoothed down over the print with the aid of a signer and then drawn off. Particles of fingerprint powder
adhere to the sticky surface of the tape and thereby transfer the fingerprint pattern. The tape is finally placed onto a card of
suitable color, contrasting with the powder used.
How long does a Fingerprint remain on an object?

Plastic prints remain for any length of time provided that the object on which they are left or the substance in which
they are formed is itself stable. In investigations, it sometimes happens that police officers find fingerprints that give the
impression of having been made in dust, but on closer examination are found to be dust-filled plastic prints in oil paint made
years earlier.

Prints that have resulted from contaminated with blood, pigments, ink, and oil are more resistant and can be kept for a
long time under favorable conditions. Latent prints on glass china, and other smooth objects can remain for years if they are in a
well-protected location. On objects in the open air, a print can be developed several months after it is made. Fingerprints on
paper are very stable and will last for years provided the paper does not become wet and deteriorate.

What is the effect of temperature on the possibility of developing fingerprints?

When objects on which there may be fingerprints are found outdoors in ice or snow, they must be thawed slowly and
placed so that the thawed water does not run over and destroy the prints. A suitable method of treating is to scrape away as
much snow and ice as possible, with the greatest care, before the object is brought to a warm place. Only when the object is dry
should the print be developed.
 When plastic fingerprints are present in oil or grease, the thawing must be allowed to proceed slowly and under close
scrutiny since the print may easily be destroyed by heat. Such prints should be photographed when they appear.

Damp objects should be dried in a room at ordinary room temperature. As a general rule, never examine cold objects,
especially metal, until they have been kept for at least some hours at room temperature. In indoor investigations in a cold house,
the rooms should first be heated. The heating should be done slowly so that water from thawing does not run off frosted objects
of places.

What is the concept of fingerprint identification?

The identification of a fingerprint is to compare two fingerprints with each other, to indicate their characteristics, and to
determine whether they match or do not.

Since latent fingerprints are often partial and unclear, their identification often encounters difficulties. Therefore, those
who are engaged in identification should make a correct identification. This also applies to the identification of palm prints,
middle phalange prints, basic phalange prints and footprints.

What is the method of identification?

Method of identification include those for comparing characteristics (type and position) of friction ridges, of sweat pores
(sweat gland outlets appearing on friction ridges like eyes of needles) and of friction ridge edges (straight, projecting, arch,
pocket, table, etc.). In general, however, a method by characteristics of friction ridge which are understandable easily and
objectively is used.

In identification, the following matters should b examined with the identification material:

1. Conditions of collection (method of collection, situation of both the object impressed and the fingerprint left on the
scene, time elapsed, etc.).
2. Kind of pattern, position impressed.
3. Kind of finger.
4. Situation of impression (whether slipped, twisted, duplicated or not; either surface or true skin; and reversal fingerprint).

In comparison and pointing out of characteristics, the characteristics of a latent fingerprint and of the formally
impressed fingerprint shall be compared, and matching points of characteristics shall both be noted by indication lines with
numbers for referencing. The indication lines and numbers shall be entered in red.

A letter of identification shall be prepared bye entering therein such necessary matters as the kind (latent fingerprints,
finger seal, formally impressed fingerprints, or so) and number of pieces of identification material, identification item, identification
process, identification result, identification date and identifier.

Meanwhile, in general, a photograph showing the identification material enlarged three times is attached indicating on
the photograph matching characteristics by indication lines and numbers for easy comprehension.

Is there any electronic identification of fingerprints?

The computer has greatly affected how fingerprints can be taken. An Automated Fingerprint Identification System
(AFIS) can digitize fingerprint information to produce inkless fingerprints. Latent fingerprints are scanned and converted into an
electronic image that is stored in a data base for rapid retrieval.

The live-scan method of fingerprinting stores and transmits fingerprints digitally. The new method allows police to
place a suspect’s finger on a glass plate, which is then read by a special device to produce a digital image of the prints. The
image can then be transmitted over telephone lines to computerized criminal records centers.

Laser fingerprinting eliminates the mess of inked fingerprints and also many of the problems associated with them.
 Take Note: Fingerprint evidence is maintained by:

1. For laboratory examination - Recording made upon receipt of

a. Name of agency requesting for scientific assistance or submitting latent print.
b. Date or receipt.
c. Inventory of latent fingerprint evidence.
2. For field laboratory work - It is maintained by following the procedures below:
a. Crime scene search for latent.
b. Develop the print by developing materials.
c. Photograph developed prints by powder on original.
d. Lifting latent prints.

Further maintenance is done by lifting the number of fingerprint evidence, their descriptions, quantity and quality.

COURT PRESENTATION OF FINGERPRINT EVIDENCE

In testifying to fingerprint identification, the expert often prepares charts to visually aid the court and jury in
understanding the nature of his testimony. Many times it is undoubtedly difficult for the laymen to perceive, from a vocal
explanation alone, the full import of an expert’s testimony, due to its technical nature; consequently, some graphic representation
of the facts presented is amply justified and rewarded.

The preparation of the charts is ultimately the sole responsibility of the expert using them. As matter of interest to law
enforcement personnel engaged in fingerprint work, a brief explanation of such charts follows, along with suggestions and
remarks based on long experience in these mattes.

Aside from the photographic equipment, what are other the needed materials?

A roll of scotch photographic tape -1 inch wide to outline the areas of the fingerprints on the negative to be used: some
stiff cardboard approximately 1/32 inch thick on which to mount the prepared charts, a tube of rubber cement and a bottle of
translucent ink, other than black or white.

A light-box on which to view the negatives while blocking, and a lettering set to draw the lines and numbers uniformly
on the charts, while not absolutely essential, are helpful conveniences. A light-box is basically a frosted pane of glass with a light
beneath it to produce soft, even, none glaring illumination. If no light-box is available, a clear window may be utilized in
“blocking” the negatives.

If the expert finds it necessary to have an outside source prepare his photographs, he should retain personal custody
of the evidence during the operation. The original latent print and inked print with which it is identical can be photographed 25
times the actual size. This procedure eliminates guesswork in enlarging both the same degree. Whatever areas of the two
prints are deemed requisite to illustrate the method of identification are then outlined (blocked) on subsequent enlargements.

Generally, if the legible area of the latent print is small, it is well to show the complete print. If the area is large,
however, as in a palm print, an area which will not make the chart too bulky or unwieldy may be selected.

In blocking, the negative is affixed to the window pane or light-box by means of strips of photographic tape across the
corners, with the side to be blocked up. This prevents constant shifting of the negative while it is prepared. The latent print
should be blocked first. Corners of the blocked areas should be square.

If the latent print was developed or photographed as a light print on a dark background, a reverse-color negative
should be prepared and blocked in order that both print may appear as black ridges on light. This is done by placing the original
negative adjacent to a new sheet of film and exposing it. The resultant negative contains the same image as the original except
that the color of the image has been reversed.

If the negative is a photograph of an opaque lift the print appears in reverse position; that is, as a mirror image, and the
negative will accordingly have to be blocked from the dull or emulsion side in order for it to appear in a position comparable to
that of the inked prints. Failure to present the prints in question in the same color and position may confuse the observer and
nullify the purpose for which the chart is made.

The degree of enlargement is not important in itself so long as the ridge of the latent print is readily distinguishable by
the eye. Ten diameters have been found adequate, although any enlargement from 5 to 30 will serve. It should be remembered
however that small enlargements are difficult to see a few feet away and that large ones lose some of the contrast between
ridges and background. A white border of at least 1 ½ inches or a width equal to one-third the enlarged area should be left for
charting purposes.

All of the ridge characteristics are ample to illustrate for, identification, but it is neither claimed nor implied that this
number is required. All fingerprint identifications are made by observing that two impressions have the ridge characteristics of
similar shapes which occupy the same relative positions in the patterns.

Method involving super imposition of the prints are not recommended because such a procedure is possible only in a
very few instanced, due to the distortion of ridges in most prints through pressure and twisting. Such a procedure is not
necessarily a test of identity. Likewise, presenting charts with the shapes of the characteristic drawn in the margin is not
recommended. Individual ridge characteristics may vary slightly in actual shape or physical position due to twisting, pressure,
incomplete inking condition of latent print when developed, powder adhering to background etc.

Identifications are based on a number of characteristics viewed in a unit relationship and not on the microscopic
appearances of single characteristic. The chart will present a clearer, nearer and more pleasing appearance if it is numbered
clockwise and the numbers are evenly spaced. It is necessary however, to place the numbers evenly around the photograph.
Ordinarily, the numbers are placed on three sides and the type of print (latent or ink) noted at the bottom. In any case, the
manner of numbering should be subservient to an explanation of the characteristics in an orderly sequence; and, if the situation
warrants all of the points may be illustrated on a single side of the photograph.

A single line should be drawn from each characteristic to a numbered point on the march. Care should be taken to
draw the beyond it or obscuring it. Erasures should be avoided. If the ink runs or blots, it is sometimes possible to remove it with
a cloth in denatured alcohol, without damaging the photograph.

If the enlargement is great, that is 25 or 30 diameters, it might be well to draw a small circle around each characteristic
and then draw the line from a circle to the number, since the ridge will be much thicker than the illustrating line. All lines and
numbers should be checked for absolute accuracy. The expert should also study the enlargements for apparent discrepancies in
the prints, which he might be called upon to explain.

The chartered enlargements are readily mounted on stiff cardboard with rubber cement, which may be purchased in
small tubes. After cementing the photograph to the cardboard, it should be placed under a heavy glut object which will cover the
entire surface to prevent wearing and wrinkling.

CLASSIFICATION OF FINGERPRINTS

CLASSIFICATION IN GENERAL, in this context, refers to the sorting things into division or group so that they can at
later time be quickly located.

What are the steps in fingerprint classification?

1. Recording – Simply means the taking of fingerprint impressions, either rolled or plain impression.
2. Interpretation – Simply means the naming or interpreting of a fingerprint pattern. Loop (either radial or ulnar), Arch
(plain or tented) or whorl (plain, central pocket loop) whorl, double loop whorl or accidental whorl).
3. Blocking – This applies only to loop pattern either as ulnar or radial loop. It means designating by symbol the type of
patterns which each finger and thumb bears and recording for each respective finger and thumb.
4. Classification – This refers to the classification proper this time you need a complete set of ten (10) fingerprint patterns
to obtain the necessary classification.

What are the patterns that require special attention?

 1. Doubtful – interpretation is very difficult.
2. Questionable – a doubtful pattern
3. Borderline – whereby in either case, it can be the combination of different kinds of fingerprint pattern. And the
classification of such is confused as to its proper interpretation.
4. Approximating – sometimes the same as to that of doubtful.

Important points to remember in classifying fingerprints

1. Division – for purposes of classification and filing, all the type patterns are divided into two groups; the numeral and the
non-numeral.
2. Numerical – the numerical group is composed of set of prints containing whorl pattern.
3. Non-numerical – the non-numerical group is composed of sets of prints in which no whorls are present.
4. Fingerprint analysis – the analysis of fingerprint is the identifying and distinguishing of fingerprint pattern according to
their design and formation.
5. Classification formula – is the result of combining all the patterns of the fingerprints and recording them in a specific
order or manner at the top right of the fingerprint card. It represents the patterns of all ten fingers of both hands
combined.
6. Filing – is an orderly manner of starting the card and grouping each card and filing in a specific sequence according to
the final classification formula.
7. Pockets – the fingerprint cards are grouped according to the classification formula and the classification of the
extension used in the bureau.
8. Searching – means an attempt to locate in the file a print identical to the current print and thus established
identification.
9. Denominator’s meaning in primary classification – the denominator written below the line constitute the total numerical
value of the finger in which the whorls appear, is the natural sequence of numbers from one to thirty two (1 to 32).

What are the basic rules for tracing whorls?

1. Tracing always begins at the left delta and goes toward the right delta.
2. An uninterrupted ridge can be traced from the left delta to the right delta.
3. When the tracing ridge suddenly ends, the tracing is continued on the ridge below it. A ridge must definitely end before
the tracing may be continued on the ridge below.
4. When a ridge bifurcates, the tracing is continued on the lower branch or the bifurcation.
5. When the delta is dot, the tracing begins on the type line, which is the ridge immediately below the delta.

What are the rules for beginning and ending ridge count?
1. Ridge tracing begins at the extreme left delta and stops at the point directly in front of the right delta.
2. In a double loop whorl, the tracing begins at the extreme left delta. When the tracing passes inside the right delta, one
stops at the nearest point to the right delta on an up thrust.
3. In an accidental whorl having three deltas, the tracing begins at the extreme left delta and goes towards the extreme
delta. Any other delta encountered is ignored.
4. If no up thrust is represented, one continues the tracing until a point opposite the right delta, or the left delta itself, is
reached.

What are the symbols in Blocking?

FINGERPRINT PATTERN INDEX FINGER OTHER FINGERS

Arches (Plain) A a
Arches (tented) T t
Radial loops R or / r or /
Ulnar loops U or \ u or \
Plain Whorls W w
Central Pocket Loop Whorl C c
Double Loop Whorl D d
Accidental Whorl X x

Take Note:
 1. If a finger appears to be amputated (cut off) just place the symbol or simple abbreviation as AMP and the date of
amputation on the box of the finger actually amputated.
2. In case of partial amputation, place the abbreviation symbol “TIP AMP”.

THE PRIMARY AND SECONDARY CLASSIFICATION

What is the Pure Henry System of Classification?

1. Primary
2. Secondary and small letter groups
3. Sub-secondary
4. Final
5. Major
6. Key

PRIMARY CLASSIFICATION

Procedure to be followed in obtaining primary classification

Numbering in natural sequence. The first step in classifying fingerprints is the numbering of the finger and thumbs.
The natural sequence, starting with the right thumb as one and ending at the left little finger as ten is followed:

Right hand 1 2 3 4 5
Left hand 6 7 8 9 10

ODD FINGERS: The odd fingers are 1 (right thumb) 3 (right middle finger) 5 (right little finger) 7 (left index finger) 9
(left ring finger).

EVEN FINGERS: The even fingers are 2 (right index finger) 4 (right ring finger) 6 (left thumb) 8 (left middle finger) 10
(left little finger).

Numerical Value of Whorls - Designated Value of Each Finger with Whorls

The Henry system designated the value of whorl according to the finger or thumb on which they appear, and in the
following sequences.
Right hand 16 16 8 8 4
Left hand 4 2 2 1 1

Total Whorl for Primary - In a set of prints, the numerical value is represented by two (2) distinct totals. First: all whorls
appearing on the odd fingers; and second, all whorls appearing on the even fingers. The two totals obtained constitute the
primary classification. ODD and EVEN finger must never total together. The ODD numbered fingers shall constitute as the
denominator and the EVEN numbered fingers as the numerator.

Arbitrary count of one (1) ADDED - To each total, an arbitrary count of one is added. The purpose of the arbitrary count of one is
to avoid a classification of zero over zero in a set of print in which no whorls appear; this might be mistaken for the letter “O”
which has another specific meaning in the classification.

Number of Possible Combinations in the Primary - There are one thousand and twenty four (1,024) possible combinations of
primaries, beginning with “one over one” and ending with “thirty-two over thirty-two”

Take Note: After getting the Primary Classification, you must file the fingerprint in the following manner:
1/1 - Lowest Classification
32/32 - Highest Classification
 Illustration:

1. 1/1, ½, 1/3, ¼, 1/5, 1/6……………………….. 1/32

2. 2/1, 2/2, 2/3, 2/4, 2/5, 2/6 ……………………. 2/32
3. 3/1, 3/2, 3/3, ¾, 3/5, 3/6 ……………………… 3/32 TILL
4. 32/1, 32/2, 32/2, 32/4, 32/5, 32/6 ……..…….. 32/32

Rules on Amputation and Fingerprint Missing at Birth

1. If one finger is amputated (AMP) or missing at birth (FMB) the classification is based on the opposite finger with the
numerical value.

Take Note: The numerical value of the (AMP) FMB) must not be changed.

2. If both fingers are amputated or missing at birth they are treated as whorl with the respective numerical value and with
meeting (M) tracing.

SECONDARY CLASSIFICTION

Rank – The secondary classification follows the primary classification.

Position of Secondary – The secondary classification appears just to the right of the fraction which represents the
primary.

Meaning of Secondary – The numerator (WRITTEN ABOVE) indicates the type of pattern appearing on the index
finger of the right hand.

Denominator Meaning – The denominator (WSRITTEN BELOW) Indicate the type pattern appearing on the index
finger of the left hand.

Basic Types of Pattern that can Appear

1. Arch (A)
2. Tented Arch (T)
3. Radial loop (R)
4. Ulnar loop (U)
5. Whorl (W)
6. Central Pocket Loop Whorl (C)
7. Double Loop Whorl (D)
8. Accidental Whorl (X)

Sequence - Just as in the sequence of the primary classification, in filing, the denominator does not change until the
numerator has exhausted all the changes of pattern in their orderly sequence.

Small Letter Groups - The small letter group of the primary classification includes prints having plain arches, tented
arches and radial loops on fingers other than the indexes.

What constitute a small letter? For purposes of blocking a set of fingerprints, the patterns of the index fingers are
designated by a capital letter and the patterns on other fingers and thumbs are designated by small letter.

Blocking - For purposes of blocking a set of fingerprints, the patterns of the index fingers are designated by a capital
letter and the patterns on other fingers and thumbs are designated by small letter. These are placed in their respective blocks.
 Writing the Formula - For the purpose of writing the classification formula, the same rule held true the capital letters
designated on index fingers and the small letters designated other fingers. The classification formula is written at the top of the
fingerprint card.

Sequence in writing letter into Formula - The small letters are written into the classification formula in their natural
sequences as they appear on the hands.

A small letter in the thumb will produce the writing of the classification of the index fingers. Small letters in the middle,
ring, and little fingers will follow the writing of the classification of the index fingers.

This aRa would mean a thumb arch, and index radial, and a middle finger arch on the TUr right hand, and thumb
tented arch, and index ulnar, and a middle finger radial on the left hand.

Importance of small letters - The absence of small letter groups are of vital importance to the classification system as
the small letter occurs relatively infrequently.

Frequency - The small letter groups, after the index fingers have been grouped (small) in the following sequence:
1st: The denominator by count (the lesser number of small letters proceeding the greater).
2nd: By position (small letter to the left of the index finger proceeding these at the right).
3rd: By type (a,t, r).

SUB-SECONDARY AND FINAL CLASSIFICATION

Sub-Secondary – The sub-secondary classification is the grouping of prints according to the ridge count of loops and
ridge tracing on whorls.

Reason fort Subdivision – The sub-secondary classification is the group of print within the secondary classification,
thus facilitating searches since it limits the search to smaller groups of the fingerprint cards.

Position of Formula – The sub-secondary classification is placed on the classification line immediately to the right of
the secondary classification

Recording Ridge Count – The ridge count of the loops are recorded as “I” (inner) and “O” (outer).

Recording Whorl Tracing – The whorl tracing are recorded as follows:

INNER (I)
MEETING (M)
OUTER (O)

Fingers Considered - In the sub-secondary classification, six fingers are considered they are:

1. Right index finger

2. Right middle finger
3. Right ring finger
4. Left index finger
5. Left middle finger
6. Left ring finger

Established Number of Ridge Counts

INDEX FINGERS:

One (1) to Nine (9) ridges ……………………… I (Inner)

 Ten (10) or more ridges ………………………… 0 (Outer)

MIDDLE FINGERS:
One (1) to Ten (10) ridges ……………………… I (Inner)
Eleven (11) or more ridges ……………………... O (Outer)

RING FINGERS:
One (1) to thirteen (13) ridges ………………….. I (Inner)
Fourteen (14) or more ridges……………………. O (Outer)

Loops and Whorls in Sub-Secondary - In a set of prints having loops and whorl only the sub-secondary classification
may include two (2), but not more than three (3) fingers of each hand.

“M SYMBOL” - The symbol (M) meeting appearing in a sub-secondary classification, indicates a whorl in the figures
being considered, since only a whorl can have a meeting tracing.

“I” and “O” SYMBOL - The symbols “I” and “O” in a sub-secondary classification may relate to a set of prints having
loops and whorls or all loops or whorls. Whether the prints are loops, whorls or loops and whorls may be ascertained from the
primary classification since “one” over “one” indicates no whorls, thirty-two indicates all whorls and other primaries indicates both
loops and whorls.

Filing: The filing of prints within the sub-secondary classification is done according to the following sequences:

First – I (inner) in loops

Second – O (outer) in loops
First: I (Inner) in whorls
Second: M (meeting) in whorls
Third: O (outer) in whorls

As in all other components set of the classification formula, the denominator does not change until the numerator has
exhausted the entire sequence.

Summary of the Rules:

1. For AMP and FMB-Apply the rule on primary classification.

2. Whorl-Apply Ridge Tracing.

For loops (Ridge Counting)

Index Finger
1-9 ridge count………………………………………………… I (Inner)
10 or more…………………………………………………….. 0 (outer)

Middle Finger
1-10 ridge count……………………………………………… I (Inner)
11 or more……………………………………………………. 0 (outer)

Ring Finger
1-13 ridge count………………………………………………. 1(Inner)
14 or more ridge count………………………………………… 0 (outer)

For Arches

Use small letter (t) for tented arch.

 Use small letter (a) for plain arch

If the index finger, middle finger, and ring finger are all plain arches just put three dashes in the sub secondary
classification and A2a in the Secondary Classification. (Same is true when both index and middle fingers are the
same).

If the index finger, middle finger and ring finger are all tented arches just put three dashes in the sub secondary
classification and T2t in the Secondary Classification. (same is true when index and middle finger are the same).

For Whorl Tracing

Meeting (M) = 0, 1, 2, ridges either from the left delta or the right delta.
Outer (O) = 3 or more ridges below the right delta.
Inner (I) = 3 or more ridges above the right delta.

Take Note:

1. If the ridges in the whorl pattern is ulnar it is OUTER.

2. If the ridges in the whorl pattern is radial it is INNER.

a. Take only the loop excluding the whorl inside it.

b. Left Delta will always be the one to drop. And in counting its ridges include ending ridges and bifurcation.

FINAL CLASSIFICATION

The final classification is the ridge count on the loop (ulnar and radial) appearing in the right little finger.

Position - The final classification is indicated at the extreme right of the numerator.

No Loop in the Right Little Finger - If a loop does not appear in the right little finger, a loop in the left little finger may be
used. The little finger position in the formula remains unchanged, except that the ridge count is noted as a denominator rather
than as a numerator.

Arch or Tented Arch - If an arch or tented arch appears in the little finger, it is indicated in the classification formula by
a small dash (-). If such a formation appears in both little fingers, final classification is not obtainable. The Arch or Tented Arch
appearing in either or both little fingers is not ignored in the classification formula since it is incorporated and designated as a
small letter in the secondary classification.

Both Little Fingers are used - Both little fingers are considered by some bureaus and the ridge counts of both are
recorded. However, the count of the right little finger governs the sequence for filing within the final classification.

Whorl - If no loops appear in the little fingers but a whorl appears instead. A final classification may be obtained by a
ridge count of the whorl. Making a ridge count of whorls (in either or both little fingers) is required in connection with a large
collection or group of prints, such as prints having a primary classification of thirty two over thirty two.

Search - When a search is made within a group of cards, and when the final is designated, only prints having the same
final count or count are examined. Some bureaus allow a count of three on either side of the final classification.

Little Fingers used only for Final Classification - The ridge of the little finger is used exclusively for the final
classification.

Little Fingers not used for Key Classification - At no time can the ridge count of either of the little fingers be used for the
key classification.

Importance of Final Classification - The final and the key classifications may be considered the CONTROL FINGERS
for filing and searching. They limit the number of the prints to be examined each group.
 Final not Possible - If the type pattern of either little finger is an arch, as a tented arch, no final classification is
obtained. This is indicated by a small dash (-).

MAJOR CLASSIFICATION

The major classification represents only the thumb of each hand. It is the ridge count of the loop and/or the tracing of
the whorl appearing in the thumb of each hand (if such whorls appear).

Position - The major classification is placed immediately to the left of the primary in the classification formula.

Right and Left Thumbs: Numerator and Denominator - The thumb of the right hand appears in the classification
formula as the numerator, and the thumb of the left hand as the denominator.

Symbol for Major Classification - The major classification is written with specific symbols, which indicates the
respective patterns of the thumb as being either whorls or loops.

Ridge Tracing or Ridge Counting - These symbols are governed by the ridge tracing for whorls or the ridge counts for
the loops.

Symbols for Loops: S (small) in loops (ridge count); M (medium) in loops (ridge count); L (large) in loops (ridge count).

Loops Pattern in Both Thumbs - In a set of prints having loop patterns in both hands, the ridge count of the left thumb
governs the symbol for the right thumb.

Left thumb ridge count Right thumb ridge count

1 to 11 SMALL (S) 1 to 11 SMALL (S)

12 TO 16 MEDIUM (M)
17 or more LARGE (L)

12 TO 16 MEDIUM (M) 1 to 11 SMALL (S)

12 TO 16 MEDIUM (M)
17 or more LARGE (L)

17 or more LARGE (L) 1 to 17 SMALL (S)

18 TO 22 MEDIUM (M)
23 or more LARGE (L)

Either Thumb Missing - When the thumb is missing, the missing one acquires the same pattern, ridge count, or ridge
tracing as the thumb of the opposite hand. On this assumption, the classification proceeds as usual. Since the left thumb, real
or assumed, is the denominator, it governs the classification, filing and searching.

Grouping the Prints - Because specific symbols have been given for loops and others for whorls appearing on the
thumb, the prints are grouped according to their respective patterns.

Sequence - The filing for prints follows definite within each group.

Denominator governs the sequence - As in all other groups, the denominator governs the sequence and remains
unchanged until the numerator has exhausted the entire sequence.

Sequence for Loops - Since the loops in the thumbs are indicated as small (S), medium (M), and large (L), the
sequence is as follows:
 NUMERATOR SML SML SML
DENOMINATOR SSS SSS SSS

Sequence for Whorls - For the whorls in the thumbs indicated as Inner (I), meeting (M), and outer (O), the sequence is
as follows:

NUMERATOR IMO IMO IMO

DENOMINATOR III III III

Loop and Whorl in Major - When the whorl appears in one thumb and a loop in the other, a specific sequence is used.

Reference: One Thumb Missing - Although a classification was obtained for one missing thumb, (as described above),
it is necessary to continue the search in all possible references. The original pattern of the missing thumb might be different from
the thumb of the opposite hand.

Both Thumbs Missing - If both thumbs are missing, they arbitrarily acquire the classification of meeting whorls, and no
other reference searches are necessary. No major classification is obtainable if one thumb pattern is plain arch or tented arch.
Such print will pertain to the small letter group (referring to the secondary classification).

Radial Loop on Either or Both Thumbs - The major classification is obtained if a radial loop is present on either or both
thumbs because a ridge count is possible. However, the print will be filed with the small letter group.

KEY CLASSIFICATION

The key classification represents the ridge count of the right first loop appearing in a set of prints, beginning with the
thumb of the right hand but excluding the little finger.

Little Fingers Disregarded - The little fingers are totally disregarded in obtaining a key classification, for they are
exclusively used in the final classification.

Position - The key, no matter where it is found is always written at the extreme left of the numerator.
Importance of the Key and Final Classification - The key and final maybe considered the control figures for filing and
searching. To limit the number of prints, it is necessary to examine within a group.

Take Note: All answers obtained must be put/placed on the numerator of the key classification. Write the Key at the
Left of the entire formula, proceeding all other components of the Classification Formula.

Little Fingers not used - If not used, the little fingers (regardless of their type patterns or ridge count) as shown by the
key for which they represent, are reserved for the final.

Key no loops - Make ridge count of whorl appearing in the thumb of the right at the extreme left delta. This may be
used as a key.

Key not possible - If the entire set of prints is composed of plain arches and tented arches, the key cannot be obtained.

CLASSIFICATION OF SCARRED PATTERNS

Emphasis should be placed upon the necessity for fully referencing all scarred patterns. In connection with their proper
classification, the following rules should be observed:

When an impression is so scarred that neither the general type of pattern nor the ridge tracing or count can be
determined with reasonable accuracy, the impression should be given both the general type value and the sub classification
value of the corresponding finger of the other hand.

When an impression is partially scarred, i.e. large scars about the core so that the general type cannot be determined
with reasonable accuracy, but the ridges allow reasonably accurate sub classification by ridge tracings or counting, the
impression should be given the primary value of the pattern of the corresponding finger and the sub classification value as
indicated by ridges of partially scarred impressions.

When an impression is partially scarred and the general type of pattern can be determined with reasonable accuracy,
but the ridges cannot be traced or counted so as to fall within the proper sub secondary classification, the impression should be
given the ridge count or tracing value of the corresponding finger of the other hand, if the corresponding finger is of the same
general type. The scarred impression should be given the probable value and reference to all other possibilities.

When an impression is so scarred that neither the general type of pattern nor the ridge tracing or count can be
determined with reasonable accuracy, and it so happens that the corresponding finger of the other hand is similarly scarred,
corresponding finger of the other hand is similarly scarred, both patterns are given the arbitrary value of whorls with meeting
tracings.

CLASSIFICATION OF AMPUTATIONS AND FINGERS MISSING AT BIRTH

When one or more amputations appear upon a fingerprint card, it may be filed separately from those having no
amputations in order to facilitate searching. It is to be noted that before it may be filed in the amputating group, the card must
contain a definite and unequivocal statement or marking by the contributor to the effect that a certain finger or fingers have been
amputated but which in reality were merely injured and bandaged when previous prints were submitted.
1. If one finger is amputated, it is given a classification identical with that of the opposite finger, including pattern and
ridge count, or tracing, and referenced to every other possible classification.
2. If two or more fingers are amputated, they are given classifications identical with the fingers opposite, with no
additional references.
3. If two amputated fingers are opposite each other, both are given the classification of whorls with meeting tracings.

When a fingerprint card bearing a notation of fingers missing at birth is classified, the missing fingers should be treated
as amputations in that they are given the identical classifications in that they are given the identical classifications of the opposite
fingers and are filed in the amputation group. As these fingers are missing from a prenatal cause, they would bane always
receive the identical classification of the opposite finger on any previous occasion.

If all 10 fingers are amputated or missing at birth, the classification will be:
M 32 W MMM.
M 32 W MMM

If both hands are amputated or missing at birth, the footprints should be taken as they, too, bear friction ridges with
definite patterns. A footprints file is maintained by the FBI for identification purposes in instances where the subject has all
fingers amputated or missing at birth.

Partially amputated fingers often present very complex problems and careful consideration should be given to them.
The question often arises as to the appropriate groups in which they should be filed, i.e., amputations or non amputations. As no
definite rule may be applied, it is a matter of experience and judgment as to their preferred classification.

In those instances in which a partially amputated finger has half or more than half of the pattern area missing, it is
given the classification of the opposite finger. It will be filed in the amputation group under those conducted in all possible
classifications of the opposite fingers only and are governed by the rules concerning amputations.

Generally, a “tip amputation,” or one which has less than half of the first joint amputated, will always be printed in the
future. Therefore, a partially amputated finger, with less than half of the pattern area missing is classified as it appears and is
referenced to the opposite finger. It will be field in the non amputation group and reference searches should be conducted under
the classification of the opposite finger, and in the amputation group. It must be referenced this way even though it never could
have originally had the classification of the opposite finger.

CLASSIFICATION OF BANDAGED OR UNPRINTED FINGERS

 If fingers are injured to the extent that it is impossible to secure inked impressions by special inking devices, the
unprinted fingers are given classification identical with the classifications of the finger opposite. If only one finger is lacking,
reference searches should be conducted in every possible classification. If more than one finger is lacking, they should be given
the classification of the opposite fingers, but no be given the classification of the opposite fingers, but no reference searches
should be conducted. If there are two lacking, opposite each other, they should be classified as whorls with meeting racings.

If, however, in the case of an injured finger, observation is made of the ridges of the finger itself and indicated on the
print, this classification should be, insofar as it is possible, utilized. For example, a missing impression labeled “ulnar loop of
about 8 counts” by the individual taking the prints, should be searched in the sub-secondary as both I and 0 but should not be
referenced as a pattern other than a loop. If the finger is used as the final, or key, it should be searched enough counts on each
side of 8 to allow for possible error in the counting by the contributor using his naked eye.

OTHER IMPORTANT NOTES IN DACTYLOSCOPY

On Fingerprint Identification

Nova Scotia

a. Pre-historic picture writing of a hand with ridge patterns was discovered in Nova Scotia.
b. In ancient Babylon, fingerprints were used on clay tablets for business transactions.
c. In ancient China, thumb prints were found on clay seals.
d. In Peru, aerial photographs have exposed a huge ancient drawing which can only be accurately viewed from the air. I
have exhibited one of these photos to the International Association for Identification and suggested it as a "possible"
fingerprint pattern. Aerial Photo in Peru & My Tracing (turned over)

e. In 14th century Persia, various official government papers had fingerprints (impressions), and one government official,
a doctor, observed that no two fingerprints were exactly alike.

Why Fingerprint Identification?

Fingerprints offer an infallible means of personal identification. That is the essential explanation for their having
supplanted other methods of establishing the identities of criminals reluctant to admit previous arrests. Other personal
characteristics change - fingerprints do not.
 In earlier civilizations, branding and even maiming were used to mark the criminal for what he was. The thief was
deprived of the hand which committed the thievery. The Romans employed the tattoo needle to identify and prevent desertion of
mercenary soldiers.

More recently, law enforcement officers with extraordinary visual memories, so-called "camera eyes," identified old
offenders by sight. Photography lessened the burden on memory but was not the answer to the criminal identification problem.
Personal appearances change.

Around 1870 a French anthropologist devised a system to measure and record the dimensions of certain bony parts of
the body. These measurements were reduced to a formula which, theoretically, would apply only to one person and would not
change during his/her adult life.

This Bertillon System, named after its inventor, Alphonse Bertillon, was generally accepted for thirty years. But it never
recovered from the events of 1903, when a man named Will West was sentenced to the U.S. Penitentiary at Leavenworth,
Kansas. You see, there was already a prisoner at the penitentiary at the time, whose Bertillon measurements were nearly exact,
and his name was William West.

Upon an investigation, there were indeed two men. They looked exactly alike, but were allegedly not related. Their
names were Will and William West respectively. Their Bertillon measurements were close enough to identify them as the same
person. However, a fingerprint comparison quickly and correctly identified them as two different people.

Will and William WEST

On Fingerprint Pattern Classification

The classification of fingerprints into distinct groups based on general similarities allows the fingerprint examiner to
search for an unidentified fingerprint within a specific section of the fingerprint file rather than having to search the whole file.

There are numerous fingerprint classification systems in use throughout the world today. These systems are all based
on three fundamental ridge formations described by Purkinje, Galton, Vucetich and Henry. They are the arch, the loop - radial
and ulnar, and the whorl.

CLASSIFICATION PATTERNS
ARCH LOOP WHORL
IDENTIFICATION CHARACTERISTICS

RIDGE ENDING BIFURCATION DOT (or ISLAND)

Individuals generally have a mixture of pattern types on their fingertips, with some correlation between the left and right hands.
There is also evidence that the general fingerprint pattern may be genetically determined. While the loop pattern is the most
common pattern, classification of individuals by assigning a pattern type to each of the ten fingers in an ordered fashion, serves
as a first line of differentiation, however, no such classification is likely to be unique.

TYPES OF FINGERPRINT PATTERNS

PLAIN ARCH TENTED ARCH PLAIN LOOP

PLAIN LOOP WHORL CENTRAL POCKET LOOP

LATERAL POCKET LOOP TWINNED LOOP ACCIDENTAL

On Fingerprint Identification

Identification by fingerprints relies on pattern matching followed by the detection of certain ridge characteristics, also so
known as Galton details, points of identity, or minutiae, and the comparison of the relative positions of these minutiae points with
a reference print, usually an inked impression of a suspect's print. There are three basic ridge characteristics, the ridge ending,
the bifurcation and the dot (or island).
 Island Dot Bifurcation Ending Ridge

Identification points consist of bifurcations, ending ridges, dots, ridges and islands. A single rolled fingerprint may have
as many as 100 or more identification points that can be used for identification purposes. There is no exact size requirement as
the number of points found on a fingerprint impression depend on the location of the print. As an example the area immediately
surrounding a delta will probably contain more points per square millimeter than the area near the tip of the finger which tends to
not have that many points. 

In image 1 we see part of a fully rolled fingerprint. Notice that the edges are cut-off so you can safely assume that this
is not a fully rolled impression. If you take a look at image 2 you can see that I have sectioned out the centre portion of this
impression and labeled 10 points of identification. That was not all the points found but simply the ones that could be mapped
easily without cluttering up the image.

1 2

Image 2 when measured 1:1 is just over 1/4" square. If you look closely you should be able to identify 10 additional
points that were not mapped with the lines. In all I counted 22 points of identification on this 1/4" square section of the
impression. One thing to note here, you might be under the impression that making a fingerprint comparison is relatively easy but
you should keep in mind a couple things.

First, image 1 and image 2 are both taken from the same image. In real life you would have impressions made at
separate times and subject to different pressure distortions. Secondly, these images are relatively clean and clear where many of
the actually crime scene prints are anything but clear. Last you have to consider that this is an easy comparison because you are
blessed with having a core pattern and a delta when in some cases you may have a latent that could be a fingertip, palm or even
foot impression.

Basic and composite ridge characteristics  (minutiae)

Minutiae Example Minutiae Example

ridge ending bridge

bifurcation double bifurcation

dot trifurcation

island (short ridge) opposed bifurcations

lake (enclosure) ridge crossing

opposed bifurcation/ridge
hook (spur)
ending