QDE Notes 2021 Updated

FORENSIC 4
COMPILED By: GELBERT A. LLANTO, Ph.D.

Questioned Documents
CHAPTER 1
Evolution of the Written World

Writing
 Consists of messages to convey ideas to others in a permanent or semi-permanent mode. This
includes PICTURES and DRAWINGS as well as PENMANSHIP SYSTEMS.
 Writing evolved because humans had a desire to communicate their thoughts with others
 PEOPLE DEVISED A MEANS OF COMMUNICATING THROUGH VISIBLE SIGNS that could be
understood by others. Records have been chiseled into stone, notched in sticks, carved in wood,
knotted on ropes, pressed into clay tablets, and marked on animal skins
 Writing grew out of pictures; cave drawings being the first recorded record of humans.
Fig. 1.1. Petroglyphs are

ancient writing carved into
rocks at Three Rivers, NM
 Pictures were modified into symbols, symbols represented syllables, and a symbol used to
represent a sound or a syllable is known as a PHONOGRAPH
 The word alphabet stems from the first two letters of the Greek alphabet, ALPHA AND BETA.
The Greeks changed the writing direction from left to right. They also added vowels. Their
alphabet consisted of 24 letters
 The Romans borrowed the alphabet from the Greeks and gave our letters their abecedarian
names.
 We owe much of our present cursive handwriting to LUDOVICO ARRIGHI
 scribe in the Vatican chancellery who popularized an ITALIC STYLE of handwriting in 1522
 The European explorers brought the alphabet to the new world. North and South American
systems are based on the GERMANIC SYSTEM
 The countries of the Middle East use the ARMENIAN alphabet and Hebrew text
 The Hebrew and the Arabian characters are written from RIGHT TO LEFT.
 India has two main alphabets, HINDU AND URDU, with many dialects.
 The Burmese alphabet is a combination of Indian Sanskrit and Pali script of the Buddhist
scriptures
COMPILED BY: GELBERT A. LLANTO, PH.D. 1

 The major alphabets of the Far East are Korean, Chinese, and Japanese. The Korean alphabet
was designed rather than evolving like other alphabet systems and is CONSIDERED THE ONLY
PERFECT ALPHABET
PENMANSHIP SYSTEMS
 Penmanship systems represent the class characteristics of handwriting.
 Knowledge of which penmanship system a writer was taught will assist you in distinguishing
the class characteristics indicative of a penmanship system from the individual characteristics
of a writer
 ENGLISH ROUNDHAND, which was based on the Italian hand, prevailed. In 1784, Benjamin
Franklin and D. Hall published a compendium on various subjects including handwriting
 The first true copybook published in the AMERICAS was The Writing Scholar’s Assistant. It was
published in 1785 by Isaiah Thomas in Worcester
 A modified Round-hand was the prevalent writing style between 1840 and 1865. This was
subsequently influenced by PLATT ROGER SPENCER, who created the Spencerian System in
1848.
 Spencer is KNOWN AS THE FATHER OF MODERN PENMANSHIP.
 AMERICAN writing systems are based on this free arm movement (PALMER METHOD and the
ZANER-BLOSER ), which falls under the general heading of American Business Systems. Since
the early 1900s more than 62 different systems have been created
 Charles P. Zaner and Elmer W. Bloser introduced the RUNNING-HAND STYLE of business
penmanship
 which subsequently became the most popular penmanship system taught in modern times.
Definition of Terms
Alteration
Refers to any form of changes be it an addition or a deletion to the original contents of a
document.
Blank Papers
It refers to sheet of paper which contains no visible or readily visible writing. At times it might
only contain certain depressed mark or latent writing that can be made legible with proper treatment.
Characteristics
Refers to any property or mark which serves a distinguishing trait and in questioned document
examination it is commonly referred to as Identifying Details. There are two groups of characteristics,
class and individual.
Collation
As used in this text, refers to critical comparison of two or more specimen or side by side
examination.
Comparison
It refers to the act of setting two or more specimens/items side by side to weigh their
identifying qualities. It infers not only a visual but also the mental act in which the elements of one
item are related to the counterparts of the other.
Conclusion
It refers to the scientific results from relating observed facts by logical, common sense
reasoning in accordance with established rules or laws. An expert’s conclusion is commonly referred
to in legal term as his “opinion”.
Cursive Writing
Specimen of writing in which the letters are for the most part joined together.
Document Examiner
He is the person who studies scientifically the details and elements of documents so as to
determine their source or to determine their authenticity. He is also referred to as handwriting
identification experts, although at present questioned document examiners work are so varied and
complex.
Decipherment
Refers to the process of making clear or out of what is otherwise illegible or what has been
effaced.
Disguised Writing
It is a specimen of writing executed deliberately by the author in trying to alter his usual writing
habits in the hope of hiding his identity.
Examination
It is the act of making a close or a critical study of any material so as to discover facts about
them.
Efface
It refers to the act of rubbing out or erasing or removing something from the document. It is
also called as Erasure, which can be accomplished either mechanically or chemically.
Exemplars
Refers to specimen standards or disputed document which has been used for comparison.

Exhibit
Is the term use when referring to the specimen standards or questioned which is presented to
court as evidence.
Expert Witness
It is a legal term used to describe a witness who by reason of his special technical training or
experience is permitted to express an opinion regarding the issue, or a certain aspect of the issue, that
is involved in a lawsuit. His purpose in court is to make a proper interpretation of some information so
as to assist the court in properly administering justice. Document Examiner testifies in court as an
expert witness one he/she was allowed to do so.
Forgery
It refers to the act of simulating or copying or tracing somebody’s signature without the
permission of the later, for profit. It is also defined as the act as falsifying and counterfeiting of treasury
or bank notes, paper bills or any instruments payable to the bearer or order.
Graphology
It is the art of attempting to interpret the character or personality of an individual from his
handwriting. It is also called as grapho-analysis.
Guided Writing
Specimen of writing executed while the writers hand is at steadied.
 Signs of Genuine Guided writing
• = Abrupt change in direction
 Signs of Forgery of guided writing
• = Good Pen control
Hand lettering
Any disconnected style of writing also known as Hand printing.
Holographic Document
Any document which is completely written and signed by one person. It is derived from the
Latin word “holo” which means “hand” and “graph” which means “writing”.
Model Signature
It is a genuine signature which has been used in preparing simulated or traced forgery. It is also
known as model.
Natural Writing
Any specimen of writing executed normally without any attempt to control or alter its
identifying habits.

Restoration
Refers to the process by which an erased writing is developed or brought out again on the
surface of the document itself.
Reference Collection
Material complied and organized by the document examiner to assist him in answering special
questions comprises his reference collections which he regularly maintained.
Safety Paper
It refers to a document which is treated in such way as to minimize changes of forgery by
erasure. A good example of this type is a check that contains minute designs forming a pattern.
Sample
It refers to a selected, representative portion of the whole. It is the some or few representative
of the general population.
Significant Writing Habits

It refers to characteristics of writing which is sufficiently unique and well-fixed to serve as a
strong basis for the identity or non-identity of the writing.
Slant
It refers to the degree of writing inclination relative to the baseline or the Slope of writing.
Standards
These are the condensed and compact set of authentic specimens which, if adequate and
proper, should contain a true-cross section of the material from a known source. They are design to
be used for comparison and identification of document.
Writing
It is the result of a very complicated series of acts being as a whole or a combination of certain
forms of visible mental and muscular habits acquired by long continued painstaking effort.
Writing Condition
It includes both the circumstances under which the writing was prepared and the factors which
influence the writer’s ability to write and the time of the execution.
Writing Habits
Refers to any repeated elements or details which may serve to individualize writing.
Wrong Handed Writing

Any writing executed with the opposite hand from that normally used can be term “wrong-
handed writing”. This is one means of disguise.
Stroke
Series of lines or curve written in a single letter. One of lines in the alphabet or series of lines
or curves within a single letter. “the path traced by pen on the paper”
System of Writing
It is the combination of the basic shape and designs of letter and the writing movement which
was taught in school.
Copy book form

It is an illustration of the basic designs of letters that is fundamental to the writing system.
Writing movement
It refers to factors relative to the motion of the pen such as, pressure, rhythm, pen lifting, etc.
Microscopic Examination
Any study or examination which is made with microscope in discovering minute details.
Movement
It is an important element of handwriting. It embraces all the factors which are related to the
motion of the writing instrument such as skill, speed etc.
Signature
A name of person signed by himself on a document as a sign of acknowledgement.
Model signature
A genuine signature which was used in preparing simulated or traced forgery.
Evidential Signature
Specimen signature which was executed in particular date, particular time and place, under a
particular writer’s condition and for a particular purpose.
DAMAGED DOCUMENTS
1. Damaged and Obliteration by Water – class of ink involved and the degree of obliteration
would be the possibility of success in the examination
2. Light-faded Inks - length of exposure of the ink in light as ball point pen may fade through
long exposure, carbon and record typewriting inks remain virtually unchanged
3. Stained Documents - examination through application of chemical reagents, penetration or
elimination in a photograph
4. Torn Documents - assemble; as a rule, quite obvious once they are fitted together

5. Charred Documents - by two unexposed photographic plates, photographing through
ultraviolet radiation, infrared films and oblique or reflected light, chemical use by chloral
hydrate solution or mixture of glycerine and alcohol
ACCIDENTAL MARKINGS AND IMPRESSIONS ON A DOCUMENT

 Latent Fingerprints - common method for older latent finger prints is ninhydrin technique;
powder and iodine fuming could also be used for fresh prints; document is soaked in silver
nitrate solution and exposed in strong light; osmic acid fumes wherein document is treated
under a fuming hood
 Writing Offset - papers in contact with each others will leave ink to the other paper; storage
in damp condition offsets from water soluble inks.
 Impressed Writing - those small, virtually invisible indentations pressed into the paper by the
force of writing on the above sheet. Traced through light strike obliquely
 Foreign Traces - small deposits or traces of many different substances are placed by chance
contacts with foreign objects during the preparation, handling and storing of the document.
QDE Division Capabilities

• Examination of Questioned Signatures
• Handwriting Examination
• Examination of Documents suspected to have been altered/erased
• Decipherment of secret writings
• Examination of sequence of entry
• Paper and ink comparison
• Typewriting examination
• Examination of counterfeit bills
• Conduct lecture to PNP, AFP and other government agencies
• Conduct Field laboratory work
• Attend court duties

CHAPTER 2
Documents and Exemplars (its classification)
Document / LEGAL TERM

• Documents in its fullest meaning refers to any material which contains marks, symbols or sign
either visible, partly visible or invisible which may presently or ultimately convey a meaning or
a message to someone.
• It is any written statement by which a right is established or an obligation extinguished. (People
vs. Moreno, C.A., 38 O.G. 119)
Document / TECHNICAL MEANING

• is any material on which a permanent or semi-permanent message can be placed. Although
most documents consist of paper containing handwriting, typewritten material, printed matter,
or a combination, messages can be left on walls, mirrors, blackboards, or locker doors
Writings which do not constitute a document

1. A draft of municipal payroll which do not yet approved by the proper authority. (people vs.
Camacho, 44 Phil. 484)
2. Mere Blank form of official documents, the space of which is not yet filled up. (People Vs. Santiago,
CA. 48 O.G. 4558)
3. Pamphlets or books which do not evidence disposition or agreement or not documents but are
mere merchandise. (People Vs. Agnis 47 Phil. 945)
TWO CATEGORIES OF DOCUMENT
Questioned Document
 It refers to document in which an issue has been raised or which is under scrutiny.
 It has a variety of classes from a simple handwritten form to a more complex from of document
which might contains a number of security features such as the paper bills and other official
documents, Documents can be questioned as to its origin, its contents, or the circumstances
regarding its production every time that serious suspicion as to its genuineness was raised.
 Disputed document is another term used interchangeably with the word questioned
document.

Classes of Disputed Documents
A. Document with questioned signature (Common).
This class of disputed document becomes one of the most commonly encountered cases due
to the exceeding value of signature to human affairs. Man can transfer obligations and rights from
one person to another through signing of documents such as check, business contract, withdrawal
of certain money from the bank and others.
B. Document containing alleged fraudulent alterations.

Another class of disputed signature that also captured the attention of questioned document
examiner for its has a variety of sub classes such as erasure, addition, interlineations, insertion,
obliteration, contact writings, invisible writing, charred document, water-soaked documents and
others.
Photo of sample alleged fraudulent alteration
C. Holograph Document (Document which is completely written and signed by only one person).
Last will and testament, personal letters, anonymous letters, ransom notes, letter of treats are
some of the documents that falls under this class of disputed document.
D. Document questioned as to their age or date.

Document such as birth certificate is one of the most controversial documents that is being
questioned as to age, the rest as land titles, certificates, licenses and other government documents,
which are subject to expirations and renewal.
E. Document questioned as to the material used in their production

Generally most of the public documents are the one being subjected to this kind of controversy.
Our Currency bills is one of the very concrete example of documents which are being forge through
use of false materials and printing process. Passport, license and certifications also belong to this class.
F. Documents involving typewriting that are investigated or examined for the purpose of
determining their:
f. 1. Source;
f. 2. Date; and
f. 3. Contents.
G. Documents which may identify a person through handwriting; and
H. Genuine documents erroneously or fraudulently altered or disputed.
STANDARD DOCUMENTS
EXEMPLARS
 Exemplars are legally admissible, authentic samples of handwriting used for comparison with
questioned writing to determine the authenticity or spuriousness of the questioned writing
 The genuineness of the exemplars must be found to be clear and undisputed by the presiding
judge
STANDARD DOCUMENT/EXEMPLARS
 Specimen document, in which the origin is known, can be proven and can legally be used as
sample to compare with other things in questioned.
 It also referred to condensed and a compact set of authentic specimen which, if adequate and
proper should contain a true correction of the material from known source.
 The ultimate purpose of this type of document is to serve as a basis for comparison and
identification.
TWO TYPES OF STANDARD DOCUMENTS
INFORMAL
Are those specimen standards which are obtain from the records of files, these are executed in
the ordinary course of man’s activities or executed on the day to day writing activity be it social,
business, official or personal affairs.
FORMAL
It refers to those which are given or made upon request of an investigator or document
examiner for purposes of making a comparative examination with the questioned specimen. It is
sometimes referred to as Dictated Standard. It is likewise tem as Post Litem Motam Standard in the
Latin word.
BASIC POINTS THAT SHOULD BE CONSIDERED IN OBTAINING STANDARDS

A. COLLECTED/PROCURED STANDARDS/INFORMAL
 Similarity of Subject Matter
As a rule only like things are to be compared, meaning standards should always
conform with the nature of the questioned or disputed material otherwise it will be crazy on the part
of a document examiner to compare two things which are never even the same in their generic
appearance.

 Amount of Writing Standards
There is no hard or fast rule as to the fixed number of standards necessary to constitute
sufficiency or adequacy of standards. Although experience shows that at least seven (7) standards
usually constitute sufficiency of standards, but still Ten (10) is better than seven (7), fifteen (15) is
better than ten (10). In short the more standard you gather the better.
 Relative Dates of the Questioned and standard Document

Standards for comparison should relatively contemporary in dates. Contemporary as used in
questioned document refers to documents that are executed at least within five (5) years before or
after the questioned document. Those documents executed two years before or after the date of the
questioned document is better to be used, but if standards will be of the same date of the questioned
it will be the best standards to be used especially if they were executed in almost under the same
condition as that of the questioned.
 Writing Instrument and paper used

Writing instrument and paper used in the preparation of a document may somehow influence
in certain degree the quality of the writing. Thus, it will be strongly advice to utilize similar writing
instrument and paper as that of the questioned so as to eliminate the possible difference brought by
them to the over-all appearance of the writing.
 Writing Conditions
Conditions both of the writer and the relative condition under which the writing was prepared
also affect the quality of writing Conditions of the writer such as his physical, mental, emotional and
psychological conditions greatly affects the momentum of his hand in executing the writing. In the
same manner, the position in writing, the surface underneath the paper, and other outside factors
affecting the writer’s execution also affects the quality of the output.
B. REQUESTED/DICTATED STANDARDS
 Ordinary requested standards are obtained upon request to the person so authorized to
prepare and immediately thereafter standards are made and obtained.
 But in cases of dictated standards certain pointers should be taken into consideration so as to
lessen the possibility of obtaining the wrong standards such as:
CONSIDERATION FOR TAKING REQUESTED WRITING/SIGNATURE

• Use a questionnaire to identify any circumstances that could affect the writings, such as illness,
injury, or substance abuse.
• The writing conditions of the questioned document should be replicated. If a suspect writing
is handwritten, obtain handwriting for proper comparison. If a suspect document is printed in
uppercase printing, the request writing should be uppercase printing as well. Be sure to make
notes of any special instructions to the suspect.
• Replicate the writing instrument. Compare ballpoint pen with ballpoint pen, and pencil with
pencil
• Replicate the writing environment. Photocopy the document, white out the suspect writing,
and duplicate the form several times. Have the suspect sign the samples one at a time removing
each sample as it is completed so the suspect cannot copy from earlier work. If the questioned
document is not available, use similar size paper to make up exemplars

• If the questioned document was written under unusual circumstances, those circumstances
should be duplicated. If the writer was standing while signing a questioned document, the
writer should be asked to write in a standing position.
• To prevent the writer from disguising exemplars, increase the speed of dictation and rush the
writer. Distract the suspect between handwriting samples. The writer will not be able to
maintain his or her disguise if distracted.
• Have the suspect write with both hands. Indicate which hand is being used on each form that
is completed.
STEPS FOR DICTATED STANDARD

1. text must be carefully be selected – do not dictate the questioned document exactly as it is for
such will give opportunity for the subject to recall how he/she prepared the questioned if he is
the suspect to the case.
2. Dictate the test to the writer and never allow the subject to see the questioned document.
3. Dictation must be repeated for at least 3 times. – This is to give chance for the subject to cope
with the dictation and not for him to be in a hurry in preparing the standards.
4. Dictation must be interrupted at an interval so that the suspect will feel relax and be able to
execute his natural writing.
5. Utilized the same writing instrument and paper as that of the questioned.
6. Normal writing condition should be arranged so that the writer will feel relax during the process
of dictation.
SOURCES OF STANDARDS
Writing is a part of the daily life of practically everyone. Consequently, the potential sources of
writing standards are numerous, and those who frequently investigate handwriting cases soon develop
a comprehensive list of sources of standards.
Among the possible sources of standards are: cancelled checks, travelers checks, signature
cards for savings, checking and charge accounts and safe deposit boxes; signed receipts for telegram,
special delivery or registered letters, express and store package and cards, sales and charge slip, leases,
mortgages, agreements, bills of sale, contracts, deeds, notes, stock certificates of partnership, and
incorporation forms of file with government agencies; court records and affidavits, such naturalization
papers, bankruptcy proceeding, passport; marriage license affidavits; driver’s license; applications for
gas, electricity, water and telephone services; loan applications for and notes and receipts; tax returns
or affidavits; insurance application, records and beneficiaries’ forms, employment application and
records; pawnshops; voter’s registration and ID., petitions and poling list; hospital records; time sheets,
payrolls, pay receipt and personnel records and others.

Sample of dictations containing all the letters of the alphabet and numbers.
POST LITEM MOTAM

 The court can reject the use of request writing from the client as comparable standards.
 Therefore, non-request writing should always be used for comparison.
 Writing produced at the request of the opposing party is not considered post litem motam
DO’S AND DON’TS FOR COLLECTING STANDARDS

 Do obtain sufficient handwriting exemplars, at least 20 to 25 signatures or 4 to 5 pages of
handwriting or handprinting.
 Don’t rely on too little writing. How much is enough? Enough to identify the writer.
 Do collect like samples, handprinting with handprinting, ink signatures with ink signatures, lined
paper with lined paper, same size with same size.
 Don’t rely exclusively on writing that differs significantly from the questioned writing.
 Do collect standards dated at approximately the same time as the questioned writing.
 Don’t rely on documents recently written if the comparison questioned documents were written
many years ago.
 Do collect documents that duplicate the writing environment, checks with checks, contracts
with contracts.
 Don’t compare writing written under abnormal conditions, such as intoxication, with normal
writing.
Legal Classification of Documents:
Public Document
- a document created, executed or issued by a public official in response to the exigencies of the public
service, or in the execution of which a public official intervened.
- is any instrument authorized by a notary public or a competent public official, with the solemnities
required by law ( Cacnio , et.al. vs. Baens, 5 Phil. 724).

Official Document
- a document which is issued by a public official in the exercise of the functions of his office. Am official
document is also a public document as a larger classification.
Private Document - A deed or instrument executed by a private person without the intervention of a
notary public or other person legally authorized, by which documents, some disposition or agreement
is proved, evidenced or set forth. (US Vs. Orera, 11 Phil 596) e.g. Theater Ticket.
Commercial document - Defined and regulated by the Code of Commerce or other commercial law
Proof of authenticity
According to Revised rules on evidence (Rules of Court) Rule 132, Presentation of evidence
letter “B” authentication and proof of documents.
Sec. 19 Classes of documents. – For the purpose of their presentation in evidence, documents are
either public or private.
Public documents are:
• The written officials acts, or records of the official; acts of the sovereign authority, official
bodies and tribunals, and public officers, whether of the Philippines, or of a foreign country;
• Documents acknowledge before a notary public except last wills and testament, and
• Public records, kept in the Philippines, or private documents required by law to be entered
therein.
• All other writings are private.
Sec. 20 Proof of Private Documents – before any Private document offered as authentic is received in
evidence, its due execution and authenticity must be proved either:
(a) By anyone who saw the document executed or written ; or
(b) By evidence of the genuineness of the signature or handwriting of the maker.
Sec. 21. When evidence of authenticity of private documents not necessary – Where a private
document is more than thirty (30) years old, is produced from a custody in which it would naturally
be found if genuine, and is unblemished by any alternations of circumstances of suspicion, no other
evidence of its authenticity need be given. (Ancient Document)
Sec. 22 How genuineness of handwriting proved – The handwriting be proved by any witness who
believes it to be handwriting of such person because he has seen the person write, or has seen writing
purporting to be his upon which the witness has acted or been charged, and has thus acquired
knowledge of the handwriting of such person. Evidence respecting the handwriting may also be given
by a comparison, made by the witness of the evidence is offered, proved to be genuine to the
satisfaction of the judge. (RULES on Evidence)

CHAPTER 3
HANDWRITING AND HANDPRINTING
Scientific truth About Handwriting

 NO TWO PEOPLE WRITE EXACTLY ALIKE. The principles of handwriting identification are based
on basic scientific truths about handwriting.
 THE FIRST and foremost of these scientific truths is that no two people write exactly alike in
an extended handwriting sample
 The SECOND basic scientific truth about handwriting is all writing contains natural variation
so that no two writing samples by the same writer will be exactly the same
STEPS IN DEVELOPMENT OF HANDWRITING
Step No. 1 – When a person first begins to learn the art of handwriting, penmanship, copy-book-form
or blackboard illustration of the different letters are placed before him. His first step is one of
imitation only a process of drawing, painstaking, laborious, slow; copying of the letter occupies the
focus of his attention.
 Young children actually begin learning to write when they start scribbling with a pencil or a
crayon
 Coloring is a precursor to writing and helps children develop coordination.
Step NO. 2 – As the person progresses, the matter of form recedes and the focus of attention is
centered on the execution of various letters that is they are actually written instead of drawn.
 Children learn HANDPRINTING in the primary grades.

 CURSIVE WRITING is generally introduced by the end of the second grade or the beginning of
the third grade
Handwriting of a young children
• Step No. 3 – The manual operation in the execution of letters after more progress is likewise
soon regulated to the subjective mind and the process of handwriting become more or less
automatic. As the person attain maturity in writing becomes an unconscious coordinated

movement that produces a record. Attention is no longer given to the process of writing itself
because the subject matter to be written now occupies the focus of attention.
 Some people never reach graphic maturity. Their writing remains at a low form level
 EX: A person who does not find a need to write will not develop skill in writing.
PHYSIOLOGICAL BASIS OF HANDWRITING

• The impulses to form a letter begins in the brain writing center in the cortex, this center is in
the brain areas, that control vision, hearing, talking and walking and it guides the muscles of
the hand as they weave through the complex movements that make the words. Since writing
begins in the brain, emotions and attitudes both of the mind influence how we write just as
they influence how we talk and walk.
• The fingers work together to produce the forms of writing
• The contraction and release flow together to push the pen away and pull it back again. The
strokes turning leftward and downward require contraction of the muscles, and the UPWARD
AND RIGHTWARD STROKES INVOLVE THE RELEASE OF THE MUSCLES.
(flexor/extensor/lumbrical)
• Right-handed writers use their THUMB to exert pressure on the writing instrument to push it
horizontally in a rightward and upward direction
• The MIDDLE FINGER pushes the writing instrument leftward both diagonally and horizontally
while the THUMB AND INDEX finger pull the instrument down toward the baseline, which is
the imaginary line to which the writing returns.
• Skilled writers use a combination of finger, wrist, and arm movements to accomplish the act
of writing.
• POOR WRITERS use only their fingers and have to constantly lift and move their hand to reach
across the page.
• Some writers use only arm movement, which is more difficult.
Handwriting
• Is a visible effect of a bodily movement which is an almost unconscious expression of fixed
muscular habit, reacting from the fixed mental impression of certain ideas associated with
script form
• Dexterity – is a skill and grace in physical movement, especially in the use of hands;
adroitness. It is mental skill or adroitness; cleverness.
Types of dexterity
 Ambidexterity – is the state of being equally adept in the use of both left and right appendage
such as the hand.
 Right-handedness dexterity – is a form of handedness in which one has greater coordination
and dexterity in the right hand than the left hand. A variety of study suggest that 70-90% of
world populations are right handed rather than left handed or any other form of handedness.
 Left handedness dexterity, Cack handedness, sinistrality, sinistromanuality or mancinism -
is the preference of the left hand of the right for everyday activity such as writing. A variety of
studies suggest that 10% of the world population are left handed
Calligraphy – the word “Calli” came from the Greek word “Kallos” which means “beauty”, is a type
of visual art. It is also called as the art of fancy lettering.
Cacography – in the Greek word “Kakos” means bad, it is the possession of poor spelling skills or
bad writing.
Muscle being used the act of writing:

• Extensor muscle – in charge of pushing up the pen to form the upward strokes and ease the
tension produce as result of flexion.
• Flexor muscle – in charge to push the pen to form downward strokes.
• Lumbricals – it produces lateral Stroke
Handwriting FEATURES
 HANDWRITING FEATURES - are called CHARACTERISTICS
 Used to identify handwriting.
 It is a combination of CLASS and INDIVIDUAL characteristics that are used to identify an
individual’s handwriting
Class Characteristics
• These are those characteristics or features that are taught to the child when he/she is but
starting to learn the system of writing.
• These refer to the style of handwritings that varies from place and time. Such as for instance in
the U.S. they have more than thirty-one (31) system of writing, in the Philippines, there were
several system of writing also but it will be observed that there were two common systems
being taught of the students in their early years of study.
• These are the Angular and the Rounded System. The angular system is the one taught in the
early years of the students study and later as they move to the higher level of learning, they
were trained already to adopt the Rounded System.
Angular system

Rounded system
Examples of Class Characteristics

• Ordinary Copy Book form
• Usual Systematic Slant
• Ordinary Scale and proportion
• Conventional Spacing
PERSONAL CHARACTERISTICS
• These are usually in a form of an obvious deviations from the normal practice, which cause by
either consciously or unconsciously although much often by a conscious desire to man to give
his writing a marked of uniqueness of individuality.
• Permanent characteristics – can be found always in his writing
• Common or usual – can be found in a group of writers who studied the same system of writing
• Occasional – only found occasionally in his writing
• Rare – special to the writer and perhaps found only in one or two persons in a group of one
hundred individuals
• Individual characteristics are those deviations from the norm that writers make when they do
not follow the rules of penmanship. Individual peculiarities creep into everyone’s handwriting
as they MODIFY AND STYLIZE their writing
• Some habits are developed by the writer when learning to write. These are CONSCIOUSLY
executed characteristics
• DIACRITICS, or i-dots, may be consciously executed characteristics, particularly circle i-dots or
the placement of i-dots or t-bars in a location that is pleasing to the writer
• Penmanship systems teach i-dots as static; that is, the writing instrument touches the paper
and is immediately removed, leaving a dot on the page
• Many writers execute the i-dot quickly, resulting in a dash instead of a dot
• This dash may also have a specific direction. It can be horizontal, diagonal, or vertical. It may
change direction, resembling a hook or a v-formation.
Fig. 2.5. The first signature is a genuine signature written by Carol L. Mainolfi. The
second signature is her mother (this author) imitating her daughter’s signature.

INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS can be categorized as consciously acquired habits or as subconscious
acquisitions
• CONSCIOUSLY ACQUIRED habits are those the writer cultivates in his or her writing.
• The SUBCONSCIOUS HABITS creep into handwriting without conscious awareness. Because the
writer is not aware of these subconscious characteristics, they cannot be changed or deleted
from his or her handwriting
RANGE OF WRITING / MASTER PATTERN

• All characteristics that make up an individual’s handwriting represent the range of the writer.
• This includes class characteristics as well as individual characteristics.
• All deviations from the method taught and all idiosyncrasies of the writer are part of the range
of writing. This is the master pattern of the writer.
MOVEMENT
 Movement includes DIRECTION, SLANT, RHYTHM, PRESSURE PATTERNS, LINE QUALITY, AND
SPEED
 Rules of penmanship dictate that writing progresses from left to right on a horizontal plane.
 Most alphabets begin their letter formations at the baseline and move upward and to the
right
 Some letters begin in the mid-zone and move left, such as a, c, d, g, and o.
 Writing requires a movement through space. Writers start at the imaginary baseline and move
up or down to form their letters. They adhere to rules that govern the location of each letter.
 WRITING THREE ZONES
 UPPER, MIDDLE, AND LOWER
Fig. 12.3. Letters f, g, h, k, and l, all containing upper loops (letter groupings)
Fig. 12.4. Circle letters displaying various characteristics. (letter groupings)

INITIAL STROKES
• Initial strokes are strokes that occur at the beginning of an unattached letter or a word (Fig.
12.5). These strokes represent well-established habits of the writer.
Fig. 12.5. Examples of various types of initial strokes in the letter “a”
SPATIAL RELATIONSHIP
• refer to the use of space by the writer, including size and proportions of the writing, space
between letters, words and lines, and the baseline alignment.
Slant
 Slant refers to the direction in which the writing leans
 It may lean to the RIGHT or the LEFT, or it may be VERTICAL.
RHYTHM
 Rhythm refers to the writer’s consistency of the slant combined with the even return to the
baseline
 Skilled writers produce more rhythmic writing than unskilled writers.
Fig. 2.6. Good rhythm showing consistent slant, even spacing, and an even return to the baseline,
revealing a highly skilled writer
Fig. 2.7. Poor rhythm showing variable slant and a moderate skill level.

PRESSURE
 There are TWO types of pressure in handwriting
 GRIP PRESSURE, which refers to the hand’s grasp on the writing instrument, and the amount
of pressure used to push the pen across the paper.
Fig. 2.8. Pressure patterns of a normal writer showing less pressure on the upstrokes and
heavier pressure on the downstrokes.
 When the pen comes in contact with the paper, it indents the paper. The writing surface affects
the depth of the indentations in a paper. A hard surface reduces the indentations, and a soft
surface allows deeper embossing of the paper.
Fig. 2.9. Writing lines showing even pressure that is a result of drawing a set of initials in an
attempt to simulate another writer’s habits.
PERSONAL CHARACTERISTICS
Individual characteristics are those which are highly personal or peculiar and are unlikely to occur in
other instances and they may also be acquired either by:
• Hook to the right and hook to the left;
• Shapes, positions, sizes and angles of I-dots and t-crossing;
• Idiosyncrasies;
• Bulbs and other distinctive initial and final pressure;
• Embellishment, added strokes, and free movement endings;
• abbreviation of letters;
• Simple and compound curves;
• labored movements producing ragged lines;
• Terminal shading and forceful endings; and
• Presence of and influence of foreign handwriting

SUBTLE CHARACTERISTICS
• These are small inconspicuous habits of the writer that go unnoticed by most people. Examples
of inconspicuous habits would be hooks or ticks in the writing or unusual connecting strokes
Fig. 12.1. Example of idiosyncrasies that writers develop. The first example shows short initial strokes
called ticks. Small circles at the beginning of letters are called eyelets. Larger circles are called loops
Classification of Handwriting According to form:

• Handlettering or Handprinting = Generally refers to disconnected style of writing. It may take
the form of a Block Capital (All capitals disconnected style) or a Manuscript form (combination
of capital and small letters).
• Cursive Writing = It refers to the specimen of writing in which letters are for the most part
joined together.
• BLOCK – the letter in the word (s) are CAPITALIZED
Handwriting may also be classified according to their degree of proficiency in execution.

These are: Natural, Disguised and Guided writing.
Natural writing is the highest form of an individual’s writing consisting of his normal writing
habits and which is regularly being executed by a writer. Disguised connotes the idea of an attempt to
change the normal writing habits with the hope of hiding once identity or to be able to imitate the
writings of other person. The lowest specimen of writing degree is the guided writing also referred
to as assisted writing which is commonly employed by those with whom writing is but a new
experience or those because of their age or physical condition could not be able to write on their own.
Graphology
• The pseudoscientific study and analysis of handwriting, especially in relation to human
psychology. In the medical field, it can be used as an aid in diagnosis and tracking of diseases
of brain and nervous system. The term is sometimes incorrectly use to refer to forensic
document examination.

Q.D examiner vs. Graphologist
• Questioned Document Examiner – also known as handwriting specialists, study specifically
the whole document in order to recognize the source or other evidence that can be determine
authenticity document in questioned.
• Graphologist –profiles character or personality by drawing conclusion from certain type of
characteristics in handwriting sample. They do not compare handwriting to determine
authenticity or origin. Most graphologist lack of scientific proof.
Recommendation Trait of QD Examiner

1. Excellent eyesight
2. Pass a form blindness test
3. Normal color perception
4. Obtain bachelor of science degree course
5. Training and apprenticeship in Questioned Document Examination
General principles of QDE

1. Documents are questioned, disputed or attacked on many grounds and for various reasons;
2. Document should be preserved, handle and care for, in a manner that will not impair the
slightest degree of its value as evidence;
3. Document must be protected;
4. QD examination observes phases of scientific approaches.
Cases involving Questioned Document
 Forgery  Art crimes

 Counterfeiting  Theft
 Mail fraud  Robbery
 Kidnapping  Arson
 Con games  Burglary
 Embezzlement  Homicide
 Gambling  Serial murder
 Organized crime  Psychological profiling
 White collar crime  Deviant sex crimes
Table 2.1 Principles That Assist in the Identification of Handwriting
No two people write exactly alike.

Individual characteristics that are unique to a particular writer exist in every person’s handwriting,
distinguishing it from every other handwriting.
The act of writing is a skill learned through repetition until it becomes a habit
A person’s normal form of writing is based on mental images of learned letter designs
People stylize their writing from the method they were taught

People adopt writing styles by copying those they like
Many writing habits are subconscious and therefore cannot be changed by the writer.
A person’s handwriting changes over the course of his or her lifetime.
FAMILIAL CHARACTERISTICS
 FAMILY MEMBERS frequently share some handwriting characteristics
 These are called FAMILIAL CHARACTERISTICS.
 Children copy the writing style of their parents or siblings.

CHAPTER 4
RULES ON THE INDIVIDUALITY OF HANDWRITING
INDIVIDUALITY OF HANDWRITING
RULE 1. EACH MATURE WRITER HAS A HANDWRITING THAT IS PERSONAL AND
INDIVIDUAL TO HIM ALONE.
This is the basis of all handwriting identification. Early workers in the field, who pioneered the
scientific identification of handwriting, assumed that no two writers write exactly alike. This
assumption has stood the test of time. Throughout the years, numerous problems that have been
submitted to document examiners, there has never been found an example of two writers wrote
identical handwriting.
COROLLARY 1. EVERY INDIVIDUALS HANDWRITING UNDERGOES GRADUAL

CHANGES IN THE COURSE OF HIS LIFE.
Modification and changes come into an individual’s handwriting during different periods of
his life, but in most instances they are very gradual and may not be discernible except by studying
specimens written and widely separated dates. There are certain periods in which these modifications
appear more rapidly than others.
COROLLARY 2. THE GRADUAL CHANGES IN HANDWRITING THAT OCCUR DURING

A PERSONS LIFETIME WHILE FOLLOWING CERTAIN GENERAL PATTERNS ARE
INDIVIDUAL TO EACH OTHER.
Writing is an acquired art. In the initial stages of learning to write a person carefully imitate
copy-look writing as much accuracy as he can. Gradually at the form becomes to him, this copying
procedure is planted by a writing process. When this occurs and how it occurs varies with each
person? A few progress past the drawing state.
RULE 2. DETERIORATION OF AN INDIVIDUALS WRITING DUE TO ANY CAUSE

AFFECTS ALL OF THE WRITING PRIORITIES AND IS NOT CONFINED TO CHANGE OF
ONE OR TWO ELEMENTS.
 The deterioration in writing results from less accurate coordination of the highly complicated,
interrelated factors which go into the writing process.
 Thus, one would not expect only one or two identifying characteristics to be altered, while the
others continue to be reproduced exactly as before,. Yet, a defense or fraudulent writing
movement is often based upon assertion that the effect in movement and possibly those forms
which are not copied accurately due to illness.
 If a person’s handwriting is influenced by poor health or infirmity of age, both its forma and
quality of execution become less precise.

COROLLARY 1. AN INDIVIDUAL’S HANDWRITING MAY DETERIOTE VERY RAPIDLY DUE OF A SHARP
PHYSICAL DECLINE FROM EITHER SERVE ILLNESS OR OLD AGE.
Both illness and old age may be reflected in handwriting. Not very serious illness, however,
causes a lessening in writing unable to perform skillful operations are most likely to affect his
handwriting. Diseases such as heart ailments, high blood pressure, and the like, normally are not
accompanied by a deterioration of handwriting, although a layman may attempt to explain in a way a
poor forged signature by this type of illness. Writing during sickness in which the patient is confined to
bed probably reflects more strongly the effects of adverse writing conditions than the illness itself.
A. TRANSITORY CHANGE
A transitory change may be injected into handwriting by temporary physical and mental
conditions such as fatigue, nervous tension, and intoxication or serve illness, from which the writer
ultimately recovers. In these cases handwriting reverts to its normal qualities after the causes of
deterioration are removed.
Factors That Cause Changes in Handwriting

• Once a writer has reached the permanent condition of automatic writing, he or she has
reached GRAPHIC MATURITY, which continues until some physical or mental disturbance
interferes with the ability to write
ROBERT SAUDEK states that a person is capable of writing fluently, easily, and automatically only under
the following conditions
• The writer is familiar with the letters so that mention of a letter conjures a graphic image of
that letter in his or her mind.
• The writer has control of the writing instrument and the mechanical factors of the paper,
pen, and writing surface do not interfere with the writing.
• The writer is free of any physical impediment that would hinder writing.
• The writer knows how to spell the words and does not have to concentrate on the spelling.
• The writer is writing in his or her native language
Factors that can affect writing

• such as mental illness, emotional states, and even moods (Writing Condition)
What are the basic factors that influence writing?

• Level of education attained will affect the development of writing.
• Mechanical factors affect handwriting
• Mechanical factors may play a part in changes in handwriting. A simple thing such as a change
of body position may have an effect on the appearance of the handwriting
• PHYSICAL WELL-BEING will cause changes in writing ability.
• Illness and injuries can alter a person’s handwriting temporarily or permanently
• EMOTIONAL STATE of the writer alters the appearance of his or her writing.
• The PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTOR, that is, the writer’s physical makeup and personality, influences
the writing act
TIME SPAN
• Handwriting changes over the course of one’s life. It changes most strikingly from childhood
to adolescence and may change again when one reaches adulthood
• Teenagers will experiment with different styles of writing, changing letter forms until they
find a style they like. By the end of the teen years, a young adult’s writing has stabilized into
an adult style that may change gradually over the years
Fig. 3.1. The signature of Anthony Mainolfi as a child, showing careful attention to the act of writing
as seen by the carefully formed letters.
Fig. 3.2. The signature of Anthony Mainolfi as an adult, showing a higher skill level.
HEALTH
• A person’s mental and physical condition affects the ability to write. Therefore, the mental and
physical condition of the writer needs to be taken into consideration when comparing
handwriting so that writing is taken from a similar set of conditions
Fig. 3.3. The mouth writing of a QUADRIPLEGIC. Writing is done with a pen held by the
teeth.

BLINDNESS
• Poor eyesight can interfere with one’s handwriting ability.
• Although a person can write without looking at his or her writing, it is more difficult to execute
fluid writing when the writer cannot check his or her progress
MENTAL HEALTH
• Mental illness does not diminish or destroy the habitual writing patterns.
• Mental depression affects the handwriting but does not diminish or destroy the habitual
characteristics.
ALCOHOL AND DRUG ABUSE

• In addition to the side effects of medication, drug abuse will cause other adverse affects on
handwriting
RULE 3-A. A WRITER CANNOT EXCEED HIS MAXIMUM WRITING ABILITY OR SKILL WITHOUT SERIOUS
EFFORT AND TRAINING APPLIED OVER A PERIOD OF TIME.
Good handwriting is developed by a combination of manual skill and serious, continued
practice and training. The skill with which it is executed depends upon the individual and upon the
extent of his formal writing training. While writing ability is difficult to measure precisely it is one of
the more stable qualities of handwriting. Rule 2 and its corollaries set forth conditions under which it
may decline even sharply but under no conditions can there be a sudden surge above a writer’s highest
level of achievement. Improvement comes only with practice and training.
COROLLARY 2.Converse. Uniformity of writing qualities in an extended specimen of handwriting is

an indication of lack of disguise.
 Disguised is seldom rehearsed. It is an unnatural form of writing. In its execution the writer
must concentrate his attention on eliminating his personal identifying details at the same time
devise and execute a new style of writing.
 This task cannot be accomplished on the spur of the movement. We did not learn to write the
way we do now in a short time. The end result is that a page of disguised contains
inconsistencies and irregularities. In contrast uniformity throughout the extent specimen of
writing is the mark of undisguised, skillfully executed handwriting.
RULE 5. WRITING VARIATION IS AN ESSENTIAL PROPERTY OF EVERYONE’S HANDWRITING.

 Variation in writing is a natural attribute and its extent or range is an individual quality. With
some writers, successive specimens show wide variations, alternate forms and lack of precision
in execution.
 At the other extreme are those who deviate but slightly form a fixed pattern.
 Two examples of a single, short word may be so much alike that they cannot be distinguished,
but with each additional letter and word, the chance of his coincidence is rapidly reduced with
its probability of occurrences is approaching zero asymptotically.
COROLLARY 1.The degree of variation in writing tends to increase with more and less careful
execution.
A precise and accurate handwriting requires care in its execution and is generally written with
a moderate to show speed. It is based upon a well- developed writing skill. This class of writing tends
to contain the maximum degree of variation. But with persons who write faster and take less care,
successive writing are apt to show wider divergence. A high degree of variation is common to those
who are speedy and careless writer.
COROLLARY 3.The purpose for which writing were intended may govern the degree of variation in
them.
In general, lack of care and undue haste are a mark of informal and impromptu writing.
On the other hand, important papers may be prepared with greater care. A mark of the former class
of writing is a lack of preciseness of the latter, higher uniformity. Both these are measured within the
framework of the writing of itself introduce divergences.
ACCIDENTALS
• ACCIDENTAL STROKES are aberrations that occur as the result of a transitory incident
• such as someone bumping the writer’s arm or a CRUMB on the table under the writing paper
CROLLARY 4. In repeated specimens of writing prepared at one time, variation tends to be less than
between specimens from day-to-day.
This corollary is based upon the observed facts of comparing requested writing from day-to-
day writing specimens. A person who is asked to finish a group of signature and does do so by writing
them all at time, seldom incorporate as much variation between specimen as will be found in a study
of a comparable number of signature which were executed even under similar writing conditions, but
each at separated time Actually, Variation in handling result forms a large number of causes.
TREMOR IN HANDWRITING
• Tremor is indicated by an involuntary, rhythmic, and recurrent movement of the pen from side
to side
• These TREMULOUS STROKES are instant changes from the desired direction of the pen lines
and are attributed to nervous impulses affecting the muscles indicating LOSS OF CONTROL of
the pen.
• WAVERING AND BROKEN STROKES forming the letters of a writer’s signature will deviate from
the normal style, but they retain sufficient individual characteristics to identify the writer
Fig. 3.4. Poor line quality and illegible letter forms as a result of an elderly infirm writer. Tremor is a result of a
writer losing his ability to control the writing instrument

C. TREMORS
It is a writing weakness portrayed by irregular, or wavering stroke.
Kinds of Tremors
Genuine Tremor
• Tremor of old age
• Tremor of Weakness or sickness
• Tremor of Illiteracy= tremor that is not due to weakening of the muscle but due to lack
of skills on the part of the writer.
Tremor Fraud
• It refers to tremor at the wrong place or tremor that is wrongly placed.
CHARACTERISTICS OF TREMOR OF FRAUD

• Inequality in movement at any place, in any strokes or line with strokes top strong and vigorous
combined weak hesitating strokes.
• Frequent interruption of movement.
• Unequal distribution of ink in upward and downward strokes.
• Varying pen pressure. Due to change in speed and interruptions in movement, which may occur
in the middle of direct curves or even in what should be straight line?
• Too many pen-lifts and pen-lifts on wrong place
Fig. 13.2. Tremulous writing of a forger trying to imitate tremor of an elderly writer. The tremor of an elderly
writer is erratic.
CHARACTERISTICS: TREMORS OF AGE OR OF EXTREME WEAKNESS

• Show unusual and erratic departure of lives from its intended course.
• Abrupt recovery, a general indication of muscular weakness and of movement beyond the
control of writer particularly on downward strokes.
• Show awkward digression or distortion, which may be due to imperfect sight.
• Characterized by abbreviation or even omission of parts of letters or even a whole letter or
even the whole year.
• In tremor age, it often show very uneven alignment any may disregard entirely a line near
which they are written especially if the lines indistinct. Towards the end these signature
sometimes show apparent impatient and the desire to complete disagreeable and perhaps,
painful act, ant the concluding parts often are mere with nervous haste and careless and may
be distorted abbreviated.

• Illiterate tremor is characterized by a general irregularity that is not due to weakness but lack
of skill and a mental uncertainty as to form and to a general muscular closeness resulting from
familiarity with the whole writing process.
• Illiterate writing even or ruled paper, frequently show a pronounced irregularity in alignment,
some of being above the line.
VIRATION OF WRITING DUE TO THE FOLLOWING:

• Due to lack of machine like precision in the human body.
• Cause by eternal factors, such as the writing instrument and writing position.
• Influenced by physical and mental conditions such as fatigue, intoxication, illness, nervousness
due to the age of the writer and
• The quality of writing prepared in the course of time introduces variation between specimens
written at widely separated dates.
THE MAIN CAUSES OF VARIATION IN WRITING ARE:

• The varying methods and degrees of thoroughness in teaching.
• Varying personalities
• Varying occupations
• Amount of writing done
• Manual skill
• Artistic ability
• Influence of other writers
• Quality of eyesight
• Position at desk
• Relation of arm to line of writing
• Character of pen ink and paper habitually used
• Relation of the two pen ribs to paper surface
• Extended bent finger is pen holding
• Free lateral arm movement
• Writing with only finger or ban muscles
• Angle of penholder
• Uneven pressure of the two pen ribs; and
• Slant
• Size
• Proportion
• Spacing
• Alignment
• Shading qualities developed in actual writes
• The development of freakish and grotesque forms
• Tendencies toward flour ants, or towards,
• Abbreviations of letter as finally developed by the writers.
GUIDED HAND
• A guided-hand signature is one in which the writer gets support from another person when
attempting to write
• The writer is usually infirm. The result of guided hand is frequently a signature that does not
resemble either writer.

CHAPTER 5
RULES ON HANDWRITING IDENTIFICATION
RULE 1. The individuality of handwriting is the basis of all identification.
RULE 2. Handwriting is identified by the combination of all attributes and qualities, including both
those derive from the writing movement and those related to form.
EXPLANATION:
Despite writing individuality, there are common qualities to many writings. These arise from a
number of factors. The most common cause, of course, is the writing system which was taught.
However, there are instance in which member of the same family tend to write same what alike,
undoubtedly due to imitation as well as to similar writing background. Certain types of in the writing
develop in a number of persons writing for examples, the common open a: and o: which while helping
to individualized a writing may not be absolutely unique to one writer. Thus, the individuality in
handwriting, which peculiar to each and every person, is actually a unique combination of forms and
writing qualities rather than one or two highly distinctive identifying elements.
Elements of writing, therefore, serves as part of the ultimate identification, and a sound
scientific conclusion that two specimens are by a single writer cannot be based on only one or two
points of agreement. Of course the writing properties, which are most personal have the greatest
identifying value, but all other personal and group characteristics also contribute to the ultimate
conclusion.
RULE 2. COROLLARY 1. Handwriting portrays through its various attributes and writing
movements by which it was formed.
Explanations:
The elements of movement such as skill, rhythm, writings pressure, pen emphasis and shading,
location and quality of start and stops, pen lifts, and the like are reflected in the finished specimen. It
is combination of these and other elements, which describes the fundamental movement.
It may be possible from a study of the writing was executed that is by the finger movement or
arm movement But this is not always true it is possible however, to distinguish between well developed
movement an opposed to the rugged type of execution or the writing of more primitive nature which
is typical of the near illiterate.
• Line Quality / LINE VALUE – is the visible record in the written stroke of the basic movement
and manner of holding the pen of writing instrument. It is derived from a combination of factors
including writing skill, speed, rhythm, freedom of movement shading and proportion.

SPEED
 SPEED is generally the important determinant when measuring line quality
 Slow writing is tremulous and lacks good line quality
 SLOW WRITING is the result of LACK OF SKILL OR OF COPYING ANOTHER’S STYLE
 Speed of writing differs for various reasons. Some writers think fast and try to write as fast as
they think
 Some are impatient and always in a hurry. Slow writers may be deliberate and meticulous or
less familiar with the writing process.
 Writers trade speed for legibility
Fig. 2.10. An illegible signature rapidly written, showing smooth lines that represent good line quality.
Fig. 2.11. Slow writing, resulting in

tremor in the writing line as the result
of illness.
SPATIAL RELATIONSHIP
 Spatial relationships include size; proportions; spacing between letters, words, and lines of
writing; and utilization of space.
 IT REFERS TO Utilization of space includes arrangement and alignment of the writing.
Arrangement is based on the space available, and alignment refers to the baseline, real or
imaginary
Size
 Penmanship systems dictate normal size of writing.
 Young children are taught to write using larger strokes with lower case letters 0.25-in. in
height.
 By the time they master the basic letter forms, the students are expected to reduce the writing
size to half the original size. Size of writing will vary under different circumstances

PROPORTION
 Proportions usually are consistent in writing regardless of the size of the writing.
 Horizontal expansion also plays a part in establishing the identity of the writer and is
considered part of spacing
MIDDLE ZONE LETTERS

 Include a, c, e, i, m, n, o, r, s, u, v, w, and x. Letters with a middle zone area include b, d, g, h, k,
p, q, y, and z.
 UPPER and LOWER loop letters WITHOUT A DISTINCT MIDDLE ZONE area include f, j, l, and t
FORM
 Form is not limited to the shape of the letters but includes the method of constructing and
connecting the letters, including the initial and terminal strokes
Letter Designs
 The WRITING STROKES consist of lines and curves in various directions, forming individual
letter shapes
 CURVES ARE LOOPS, circles, or parts of circles
Fig. 2.12. Strokes of writing and letters of the alphabet.
Method of Construction
 Forgers will imitate letter forms, but they fail to follow the same method of construction of
letters and words when they do so.
 WRITERS DEVELOP CONSISTENT HABITS REGARDING THE CONSTRUCTION OF LETTER FORMS.
Initial Strokes
 Significant aspects of letter forms are the LEAD-IN AND TERMINAL STROKES that people devise
to begin and end their letters
 Lead-in strokes are found at the beginning of letters and words. They may be straight, curved
or hooked, long or short. The initial placement of the pen to begin each letter form is also a
strong factor in identification because of the highly individualized nature of this placement.
Terminal Strokes
• TERMINAL STROKES are ENDING STROKES on letters and words.
• They also may be straight, curved, or hooked, long or short and are consistent with writers.
These are also overlooked by forgers unless the terminal stroke is very distinctive

Medial Strokes
• Medial strokes are found between the initial and terminal strokes. They include the letter
forms and the strokes used to connect the letters in a word in cursive writing
Connecting Strokes
• Connecting strokes join the letters in words. They are also CALLED LIGATURES. Letters in a
word may be connected or disconnected. Connectors can consist of arches, garlands, angles,
or thready connections
Fig. 12.6. Letters joined by rounded connecting strokes called garlands along the baseline
Fig. 12.7. Letters joined by arched strokes above the baseline. These strokes are referred to as arcades
because they resemble arches
Fig. 12.8. Letters joined by angles (abrupt changes in the line direction).
 THREADY writers usually make poorly formed letters with thin threadlike connectors (Fig. 12.9).
 SPEED AND CARELESSNESS lead to thready writing.
 The thready writer holds the pen loosely, forming a thin trickle of ink across the page.
 PRESSURE IS USUALLY VERY LIGHT. The thready writer is generally not a highly skilled
penman.
Embellishments
1. Embellishments were once considered an important part of letter forms, but modern
penmanship systems do not use embellishments
2. Calligraphers will embellish their letters with FLOURISHES but the average writer does not

3. FLOURISHES are embellishments in the form of wavy lines or curves that are added to letters
by a writer.
4. Because flourishes are not found in most penmanship systems, their presence is a significant
individual characteristic
Types of Writing Movements

Basically these are three (3) different writing movements being employed in the writing by
different writer. But because of the existence of a more large or extended type of writing, these are
no grouped into four:
Finger movement – is mostly employed in “vertical Writing” and mainly in the formation of printed
styles of writing. Letters are formed by the actions of the Thumb. Index and the middle finger. This is
the movement employed by children, or generally by those with whom writing is an unfamiliar
process, it is otherwise called as the push and pull writing.
Characteristics of Finger Movement

• It results to an inferior or poor quality of writing with lack of rhythm and speed.
• Spacing is cropped up and he dashes are usually absent.
• Finishes are done in irregular and abrupt manner or are varied between letters.
• Pen usually starts resting on the paper and ends with short and abrupt strokes due to
limited and irregular movements of the fingers.
• Shading is pronounced.
• Lack of clear-cut, smooth and regular lines.
Hand Movement – it involves the action of the hand as a whole with fingers playing but a minor role
(mainly in the formation of small letters) and the wrist is the pivotal of the lateral movement.
Characteristics of Hand Movement:

• Affords more expensive writing
• Connections at the top and bottom of letters narrow
• There is a considerable speed in movements
• More regularity of the lines
Forearm (or Muscular Movement) – Writing is produced by the movement of the hand and arm and
also fingers in some cases. The elbow is the pivotal of the lateral movement.
Characteristics of Forearm Movement:

• Shows the greatest freedom and speed
• Smooth clear-cut as indicative of rhythm
• Slight shading is produced
• More even baseline

• Lateral movements is longer, making the shifting of the lateral movement hard fewer
• Uniformity in size of letters
Whole- arm Movement – It involves the action of the entire arm without rest and is employed in very
large writing. Ornamental penmanship, blackboard writing and by a few writers making all the capital
letters are some of the writing where this movement is being employed.
THE FOLLOWING ARE THE GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF WRITING

MOVEMENTS:
1. Clumsy, illiterate and hating
2. Hesitating and painful through weakness or disease
3. Nervous and irregular
4. Strong, heavy and forceful
5. Smooth flowing and rapid
How can one distinguish between finger movement and wrist movement?
• The writer using finger movement must constantly readjust his or her hand when writing
across the page.
• This constant adjustment can be seen in abrupt turns and breaks in the letters
• It is primarily used by unskilled writers and indicates unfamiliarity with the writing process
Fig. 2.2. Writing created using only finger movement, requiring the
writer to adjust the writing instrument for each individual letter.
• Wrist motion results in longer continuous motion before adjusting the pen position
• .Often, the baseline forms an arc in the writing because the hand swings from left to right
• PHRASES and WORDS are COMPLETED in a single movement of the writing instrument
Fig. 2.3. Writing created using wrist movement, enabling the writer to
complete one syllable before adjusting the writing instrument.

• Modern writers have not been taught to use whole arm movement when writing. Although
ARM MOVEMENT was used by the writing masters in the 19th century, in modern times this
method is employed primarily on large writing surfaces such as blackboards
ELEMENTS OF WRITING MOVEMENTS
Writing (Pen) Pressure - is the average force with which the pen comes in contact with the paper
or the usual force involves in the writing. This is one of the most personal but somewhat hidden
characteristics in writing
Pen emphasis - is the act of intermittently forcing the pen against the paper surface with increase
pressure or the periodic increase in pressure of the writing.
Shading --- writing with the use of fountain pen
Rigid/Strong Strokes --- writing with ball points
Rhythm - is the balance quality of movement or the harmonious recurrence of strokes or impulse.
AS an element of writing movements, rhythm accounts to be one of the very essential for there is
nothing in handwriting so difficult to imitate as the exact quality of a muscular rhythm.
POINTERS CONCERNING RHYTHM

a. Lack of rhythm, as shown by a succession of awkward, independent, poorly directed and
disconnected motion is often sign of forgery.
b. Perfect and continuous coordination of impulse are more often sign of forgery.
Skill - refers to the relative degree of the writer’s proficiency. It cannot be accurately measured
although it can be grouped as to poor, average and good. Writing skill is independent to many factors,
manual dexterity being the most important. Its basis is either legibility or symmetry.
POINTS TO BE CONSIDERED IN CONNECTION WITH SKILL

a. it is difficult for the average writer to improve his skill in writing without considerable effort
or long practice, as rule "A person cannot write better than his usual best."
b. That contrarily, most writers can write a poorer handwriting than his accustomed one
without much effort.

Speed - cannot be measured precisely from the finished handwriting but it can be interpreted in board
term as to slow and drawn, deliberate, average and rapid.
INDICATION OF SPEED OF RAPIDNESS IN WRITING

1. Smooth, unbroken strokes
2. Misplaced and misshaped "i" dots and "t" crosses
3. Joining of initial or of words
4. Letters tapered illegibly towards end of words
5. Mark difference in pressure contact and down strokes
6. Wide writings and Spacing
7. Simplification of letters especially in capitals
INDICATION OF SLOWNESS IN WRITING

1. Broken strokes, wavy lines
2. "i" dots and "t" crosses made and placed perfectly
3. Pauses, unnecessary marks and angles retouching
4. Carefully made final spacing
5. Little difference in pressure on up and down strokes
6. Ornamentals of flourishing letters
Pen lift - an interruption in a stroke caused by removing the writing instrument from the paper.
Disconnection between letters and letter combination may be due to lack of movement control. Using
a ballpoint pen may cause pen lift due to failure of the ball to rotate.
Shading - refers to the more obvious increase in the width of the letter strokes or the widening of
the ink strokes due to the added ink on the flexible pen point or the use of the stub pen.
POINTS TO BE CONSIDERED REGARDING SHADING:
a. its form
b. its intensity
c. its skill
d. its frequency
e. its exact location

Pen Position (pen hold) - is the location of the pen in relation to the paper surface, which can be
determined by the presence of the emphasis or pen shading.
Pen Scope - represents the reach of the hand with the wrist at rest. It is the average scope or limits
of the pen during the process of writing with the wrist of the hand at still.
Retracing or Retrace - is the stroke that goes back over another writing strokes; it is slightly to
occur in others handwriting.
Retouching or Patching - is a stroke going back to repair a defective portion of the writing stroke.
Careful patching is a common fault in forgeries.

12. Size of handwriting – it refers to the relative size of the letter and length of ascending strokes in
relation to the size of another letter. Size of letter may be: large, medium and regular.
13. Ratio of letter – is the relation of tall and small letters. Two types of ratio. Regular and irregular.
ELEMENTS OF LETTER FORM
ARC - the bend, crook, or curve on the inner side of the upper loop of such letters as c, h, m, n, etc.
BEARD - The slight up and down introductory or sort of double hitch, seen at the beginning of many
capital letters.
BLUNT - the beginning and ending strokes of letters, both small and capital, in which the pen touch the
paper without hesitation, beard, Hitch or knob.
BUCKLE KNOT - the horizontal and looped strokes that are often used to complete such letters as A, F,
f, H and D.

CENTRAL PART OF THE BODY - the part of a letter ordinarily formed by a small circle that usually lies
on the line of writing, as the bodies of a, b, d, g, o, p.
DACTUS BROKEN OR JUNCTION BROKEN - the disconnected and non-continuous stroke between two
letters.
EYE LOOP OR EYELET - the small loop formed by strokes that extend in divergent directions as in b, c,
f, k, p. q, r, s, v, w, and z
FOOT - the base, or bottom of a letter that lies on the line of writing.
HITCH/TICK - the introductory backward stroke added to the beginning of many capital letters; it is
also occasionally found in some small letters.

HOOK OR THROUGH - the bend, crook, or curve on the inner side of the bottom loop or curve of small
letters.
HUMP - the rounded outer side of the top of the bend, crook, or curve in small letters such as h, k, m,
n.
INITIAL SPUR - The long initial rising stroke of a letter.
KNOB - found either at the beginning or end of letters, both small and capital in which the pen touched
or left of the paper so slowly that a tiny pool of ink spread slightly.
SPACE FILTER OR TERMINAL SPUR - an upward horizontal or downward final stroke usually seen in
small letters such as a, s, u, y.

WHIRL - the upward stroke, usually on letters that have a high loops such as h, d, and I.
ASCENDER – is the top portion of the letter or upper loop

BEADED – preliminary embellishment or initial stroke which usually occurs in capital letters
BOWL – a fully rounded oval or circular form on a letter complete into “o”
DESCENDER – the opposite of ascender, the lower portion of the loop
DIACRITIC – an element added to complete a certain letter either a cross bar or a dot.
LATERAL SPACING – three types of spacing: (a) Space between Letters (b) Space between words (c)
space between lines.
COROLLARY 2. A particular writing instrument may not fully reflect all of the qualities of writing
movement.
The various elements that make up writing movement are not always reflected in the specimen
prepared with same classes of writing instrument. For example, variation in pen emphasis appears as
shading with a flexible but most of this lost when the writing is performed with a stiff pen. But the
same token, pencil and ball pen position which may be clearly disclosed when the writer uses a
relatively flexible nib pen. If one specimen of writing fail to show certain writing qualities because of
the instrument used and another does disclose these qualities, this does that we are dealing with two
different writers. The examiner must carefully determine the kind of writing instrument used in each
specimen and with this knowledge evaluate apparent differences of this nature
Rule 3. Writing Standards are necessary to establish the individual’s normal writing habits and to
show the degree of variation common to his writing.
This rule actually defines adequate and proper standards. Useless thy completely fulfill these
conditions their usefulness in any examination is limited. In fact, in certain standards, which do not
comply with those requirements may in certain instances lead to erroneous conclusion especially in
the examination of a writer who actually prepared the specimen in question.
COROLLARY 1. The best standards include writing which was prepared for a comparable purpose and
under similar writing conditions to the matter under investigation.

With standards consisting of relatively small sample of a person’s total writing, it is well to select
them carefully. Statistical studies have shown that small properly selected and controlled may give
much more accurate picture of whole tan substantially larger but controlled sample.
The problem is one of the selection and control. Thus, in writing standards all influencing factor
should be kept as much like those of the questioned material as possible. This means that writing is
similar instrument prepared under comparable condition at or about the same time should e sought.
It doesn’t mean, however that writing which was prepared for every different purpose may not permit
and accurate identification. If the two writing contain the same identifying element, then certainly the
identification is valid. It does not mean, however, that the best procedure is to seek writings prepared
for a similar purpose, as reference has shown that writing generally leads to the best identification and
requires for less interpretation by the expert.
RULE 4. A specimen of writing was written by a particular person of all its identifying elements are
part of his handwriting and furthermore the variation within its specimen falls within his range of
writing variation.
RULE 5. (Converse) A specimen of writing was not written by a particular person if there exist
significant difference between is identifying elements and those of the suspected writer.
In identifying the writer of the unknown material, the standards must contain all of the
identifying elements present in the questioned specimen. These elements include personal writing
habits, the manner of execution, and quality and extent of variation. The unknown writing may contain
elements not found in the unknown. If those elements are rate or unusual characteristics of the
unknown writer, or it due unknown material is very limited, their occurrence does not necessarily
invalidate the identification. With no longer question specimen by the same writer and under similar
condition to the standard, not only should the same combination of identifying characteristics to be
expected but also those personal writing attributes should occur in a somewhat frequency in both
specimens.
Difference between the known and the unknown writing become significant due to their clearly
fundamental nature or to the repeated occurrence to the same, all unconscious element. It is that the
converse rules govern, and writing are by different writers. Fundamental differences must be clearly
distinguished from variables, which are a part of every writer’s handwriting. Thus, the identification of
writing involves certain point of judgment as to whether an apparent difference is really fundamental
or is a variable or was introduced purely to change. Fortunately, in the vast majority of question, non-
identity is established by the presence of not one but a number of significant basic difference.
These rules are basic and fundamental. No doubt could be added, but such omissions in this
paper are not many detract from or mitigate against the significance of the anxious and corollaries set
forth herein. The identification of handwriting depends upon a consideration of each of these rules
whenever applicable.
HANDPRINTING AND NUMERALS
HANDPRINTING HAS BEEN CALLED

 LETTERING,
 HAND LETTERING,
 PEN AND PENCIL PRINTING,
 PRINT SCRIPT,
 PRINT WRITING,
 PRINTING SCRIPT,
 AND SCRIPT WRITING
 Handprinting may be more individualized than handwriting, and it is this individuality and
diversity that enable a document examiner to identify the writer
 In addition, lack of familiarity with printing contributes to more variation in letter styles
Fig. 4.1. Handprinting by several writers, showing the significant differences that occur
among different writers
 Adults who print do not adhere to the letter forms they were taught as children. Most mix
uppercase and lowercase letters. Some combine printed and cursive letters
Fig. 4.2. Handprinting of various writers

CAPITAL LETTERS
 IN CURSIVE, a writer may use two or three different designs for each letter depending on the
location of the letter in a word
 2. The writer sticks to one letter design for each letter
 Another common tendency among writers WHO USE ALL UPPERCASE letters is to make the first
letter of a sentence taller than the rest.
Fig. 4.3. Uppercase printed letters, also called capital letters
Capital letters can be divided into three groups according to their construction
1. LETTERS MADE WITH STRAIGHT LINES
2. LETTERS CONTAINING ANGLES
3. LETTERS IS CURVED
Similar letter forms can be grouped and compared in handprinting and cursive writing
 The letters B and D are similar, as well as P and R, E and F, and O and Q
 IN THE LOWERCASE LETTERS, humped letters h, n, and m can be compared. The humps may
be rounded or pointed. Lowercase b and d share a similar construction as well
Fig. 4.5. Letters that can be grouped together because of their similarities.
Fig. 4.6. Examples of various methods of construction used by different writers when creating
printed letter forms.

Another highly stylized capital letter is “E”.
 The placement of the bars across the letter will differ with various writers.
 Some writers make a continuous stroke when forming the BARS OR ARMS.
 The center stroke of the E may be higher or lower than normal.
The letter K has several possible methods of construction.

 K is traditionally made with straight lines, but some writers curve the second stroke of K, or
they attach a C formation to the initial stem of the K.
 Others change the direction of the lower curve so that it resembles an h.
 A few writers add a third stroke to the K that makes it unique
Fig. 4.7. Various styles and methods of construction of the letter K.
LOWER CASE LETTERS

Lowercase letters can also be grouped according to their method of construction
 The letters a, d, g, and o are referred to as the CIRCLE LETTERS
 CURVED LETTERS include c, e, s, and u, although some writers curve the w as well
 The letters h, m, n, and r are sometimes called the HUMPED LETTERS
LETTERS GROUPED ACCORDING TO ZONES OCCUPIED

 MIDDLE ZONE = letters include all the letters that have no extenders:
 UPPER ZONE LETTERS: letters that extend to the top line of the writing line
 LOWER ZONE letters: letters that extend to the lower portion of the base line
 METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION of the lowercase letters can be a clue to their author.
 Follow the DIRECTION OF THE STROKE to determine if it is made in the traditional way or if
the writer has reversed the normal direction.
Fig. 4.8. Various styles and methods of construction of the letter y.

 The placement of t-bars tends to be habitual in handprinting as well as handwriting

 Some writers never deviate in the location of the t-bar on the stem of the t.
 Others cross at a variety of levels. Some cross at the top of the t, and others miss the t-bar
altogether
Fig. 4.10. Examples of various styles and methods of construction of the letter t.
Fig. 4.9. Example of both printed and cursive letters containing circles (a, d, g, and o.
 Placement of i-dots is routine.

 Some writers dot their the letter i close to the stem of the letter, whereas other i-dots float
high above the i to the right or to the left of the i-stem
Fig. 4.11. Various types of i-dots
HISTORY OF NUMBERSE
 People have been looking for VARIOUS TECHNIQUES TO COUNT AND DESCRIBE AMOUNTS
since early civilization.
 Notches in a tree, sticks or stones, and knots tied into ropes are among the early methods used
to indicate amounts
 Early civilization began marking days using the phases of the moons as delineators. Gradually
a calendar began to take form.
 Egyptians and Mesopotamians used strokes and marks to represent numbers more than 5000
years ago. The Chinese used simple strokes for the first 3 numbers, but different marks for the
rest of the numbers up to 10. ROMAN numerals still consist of strokes for the first three
NUMBERS (I, II, III).
 During the era of pyramid building in Egypt, the Egyptians measured distance by means of an
early geometry system. Egyptian measurements were based on body measurements.
 A pace was the length of a man’s foot, a span the width of his hand.

IDENTIFICATION OF NUMBERS
 Many document cases involve numbers not written in the same hand as the other material on
a document.
 They include alterations of numbers on checks or other negotiable instruments,
 changes in dates, embezzlement of funds, as well as genuine numbers that act as identifying
factors
 In addition to studying the numbers, look at the related signs associated with numbers:
 the Peso Sign (₱) dollar sign ($), the ampersand (&), the comma that separates thousands (,),
the cent sign (¢), and the decimal point (.).
 Search for peculiarities there. These signs will vary from writer to writer but remain internally
consistent for a writer
Individual Characteristics to Look For

 Are the numbers aligned with the baseline as taught by some of the handwriting systems with
the numbers three, four five, seven, and nine sitting below the baseline, the six and eight above
the baseline, and the one, two, and zero being on the baseline?
 Are there similarities between the numbers two and three?
 Are there eyelets in the numbers two and three?
 What is the relationship of the down stroke of the number four with the cross stroke?
 What is the shape of the four? Is it open or closed?
 How many strokes were used to form the number five, one or two strokes?
 Is the five well-formed or does it resemble the letter S?
 What is the shape of the loop in the number six? Is it round, oval, an eyelet, open, or closed?
Where does it attach to the stem?
 Does the seven have a short initial stroke? Does it have a cross bar common to European
sevens?
 In what direction is the number eight formed? Does it start on the right or the left? Is it made
in one continuous stroke or two small circles?
 Is the circle of the number nine round or flattened on the side connected to the stem? Where
is it attached to the stem?
 Where does the zero start and end? Is there a gap in the circle? What shape is the circle?
 Are there any tails in addition to ticks or hooks in the numbers?
 Are any of the numbers smaller? Zeros are sometimes made smaller than other numbers.
 Are any of the numbers joined? For example, are double zeros joined?
 Do any of the strokes show signs of being altered? For example, is the number one changed
into four, seven, or nine?
 Are there any unusual number combinations?

DISGUISED WRITING
• Disguised writing is any deliberate attempt to alter one’s handwriting to prevent recognition
• ANONYMOUS LETTERS, BLACKMAIL ATTEMPTS, RANSOM NOTES, THREATS, AND SIMILAR
DOCUMENTS are created by writers who feel their altered handwriting cannot be attributed to
them.
METHOD OF DISGUISE
The principal methods of disguise are:
1. change of slant,
2. change of size,
3. substitution of letter forms,
4. block letters,
5. opposite hand writing, INVERTED WRITING, use of broad pen, or change in speed of writing.
CHANGED OF SLANT
 The most frequently used method of disguise is CHANGE OF SLANT because it has the most
dramatic effect on the appearance of the writing
 Most writers change from a forward slant to a back slant
Fig.17.1. Example of a change of slant in a writing sample. Most writers have a consistent or uniform slant
CHANGED IN SIZE
• Although the overall size of handwriting changes according to space available, SIGNIFICANT
CHANGES IN SIZE will be used in an attempt to conceal one’s identity
• Most writers prefer to enlarge their letter forms, but some will greatly reduce the size
ALTERED LETTER FORM

 Writers alter letter forms from the system of penmanship they were taught, as shown in Fig.
17.2.

 Writers also alter letter forms in an attempt to disguise their writing. THE SIMPLEST
ALTERATION IS CHANGING A CURSIVE LETTER TO A PRINTED FORM
Fig.17.2. Altered and unusual letter forms in anonymous writing cases for the purpose of disguising
handwriting
Fig.17.3. Altered writing as a method of disguise in an anonymous writing case.
BLOCK LETTERS
• Many writers (about 25%, according to Harrison) believe they can effectively disguise their
handwriting if they use block letters instead of cursive.
• Block letters are uppercase, PRINTED LETTERFORMS
OTHER HAND WRITING/ OPPOSITE HAND / WRONG HANDED WRTING

• Writing refers to writing with the unaccustomed hand. Not many people are ambidextrous
• Most writers favor one hand over the other and have developed their handwriting with a
dominant hand
Fig.17.4. An example of attempted disguise by using the unaccustomed hand resulting in poor letter
formations.

UP-SIDE DOWN WRITING

• Because few people can write extended passages upside down, this method is usually
employed for short messages.
• The document examiner should invert the writing to study it. Many characteristics of writing
will be discernible.
Fig.17.5. The writer attempted to alter his handwriting by writing upside down. Although change of slant is
a well-known disguise, this writer used his normal slant
REASONS FOR DISGUISE

 People disguise their handwriting when they want to deny their writing
 Disguise is found in poison pen letters, threatening letters, and ransom notes

CHAPTER 6
Signature and Forgery
Historical Background of forgery

• In 1562, a statute was passed in England prohibiting forgery of publicly recorded, officially
sealed documents.
• In 1726, an expansion of the forgery laws made a false endorsement on an unsealed private
document a capital crime punishable by death. Pillory, fines, and imprisonment were the
penalties in cases not subject to capital punishment.
• 1784, England, John Toms. Was convicted for murder on the basis of the torn edge of
newspaper in a pistol matching the remaining piece into his pocket.
• In 1819 in England, an issue of one pound notes consisting of simple pen and ink inscriptions
on ordinary white paper proved irresistible to a great mass of people. Over the next 7 years,
94,000 people were arrested and 7700 were sentenced to death
• In the United States, the principal federal forgery statute prohibiting false making, forgery, or
the alteration of any writing for the purpose of obtaining financial gain was enacted in 1823
• French army officer, accused of treason, through letters, found attempting to sell French
secrets to Germany. Later it was found that DREYFUS did not write the letter.
EXPERT WITNESSES
 The comparison of handwriting by an expert was permitted under the Justinian Code of 539
 Judges were entitled to appoint experts to give testimony in court as to the genuineness of a
writing based on a comparison with other admitted genuine writings
PIONEER OF DOCUMENT EXAMINATION

 The earliest record of expert comparison testimony in America was in Sauve v. Dawson, 2 Mart.
(La.) 202 (1812).
 One of the FIRST FORENSIC DOCUMENT EXAMINERS in this country was ALBERT
SOUTHWORTH (1811–1894)
 The first significant forgery case in this country was tried in Massachusetts in 1867
 DR. BENJAMIN PIECE, The likelihood of 30 strokes occurring in two separate signatures could
occur only once in 931,000,000,000,000,000,000.
 Around this time, handwriting experts began to testify in court as expert witnesses.
 Most of these experts were calligraphers.
 DANIEL AMES AND WILLIAM KINSLEY had a private practice from 1861 to 1909.
 In 1900, Ames wrote Ames on Forgery, which was one of the first books on document
examination

 JOHN TYRRELL, born in 1861, was a pioneer in DOCUMENT PHOTOGRAPHY. He worked as a
document examiner for Northwestern Mutual Life Insurance Company for 45 years and had a
private practice from 1896 to 1955
 Albert S. Osborn, American Handwriting expert, noticed that there is need to be the basis of
handwriting knowledge. He is considered the pioneer of questioned document examination
field because he published a book, Questioned Documents. It was widely accepted because of
his extensive use of scientific techniques
 The case of Roland B. Molineux
 In 1903, the Rice Will Case
 The first two government examiners were Dr. William Souder of the National Bureau of
Standards, Department of Commerce and Bert C. Farrar of the Treasury Department
 1930’s, the FBI Questioned Document Examination Laboratory was established
 Lindbergh kidnapping case
 In 1948, ALGER HISS was tried for treason
 people that were signed by wives and secretaries or a robot signature using a writing machine
CALLED AN AUTOPEN
 In 1971, CLIFFORD IRVING convinced the publishers of McGraw-Hill that he had been
authorized by HOWARD HUGHES to write his autobiography. McGrawHill agreed to pay
$750,000 for the autobiography
 In 1983, the world was stunned with the “discovery” of the Hitler diaries.
 The forger, Konrad Kujau
SIGNATURE is a name of a person signed by him on a document as a sign of acknowledgement.

 Signature is said to be one important thing that a person owns.
 You can be the riches among the rich or the poorest among the poor because of your signature.
Examination of signatures is considered specialized branch of Handwriting examination

(BIBLIOTICS) for the following reasons:
1. A signature is a most practiced by many people and therefore most fluently written.
2. A signature is a means to identify a person and have a great personal significance
3. A signature is written with little attention to spelling and some other details
4. A signature is a word written without conscious thought about the mechanics of its production
and is written automatically.
5. Signature is the only word the literate can write with confidence.
CLASSES OF SIGNATURE
FORMAL OR COMPLETE – class of signature

used in acknowledging important document
such as will, checks, contract and business
papers.
INFORMAL OR CURSORY – a class of signature for routinely executed document or made for personal
correspondence.
CARELESS SCRIBBLE – Used for mail carrier, delivery of goods, purchase of equipments and an
autograph collector.
Some writers make use of all these three classes of signature especially those working in a business
or a company in order for the them to have a distinction between important and not so important
documents in the company an differentiate them with his personal document. Some even makes a
distinctive or somewhat hidden mark to their signature in awareness of possible forgery of his
signature.
Problems of signature examination:

1. Signature of the careless or erratic writer;
2. Receipt signature;
3. Near – illiterate writer;
4. Signature of physically impaired person;
5. The intoxicated signature;
6. Old age deterioration;
7. The sick bed signature; and
8. Disguised signature or writing.
FORGERY
Documents containing disputed signature occupies the highest level in the hierarchy of
questioned document cases. It is due to this, that a specialized branch of questioned document
examination was established --- the Signature Verification. The identification of ones signature calls for
a greater emphasis than in handwriting identification but the basic principles remains the same. There
are certain characteristic or features that a signature has that do not appear in the ordinary
handwriting of a person, making signature more unique, complex and truly individualized. The way
signature is written is a great factor to its recognition. Although it contains fewer letters and even
sometimes unrecognizable letters strokes being in a form of highly individualized signature its

identification being accomplished. This is due to the frequent use of ones signature, its great
importance, its value to the author somehow that makes it more automatic than the usual
handwriting. Here the skills, the momentum of the pen and the forms of the letters plays a very
important role.
To ordinary layman letter structure is the most common eye-catching part but the lenient
person who knows the art and science of signature identification he know the factor or movements or
execution is the most important aspects for accurate and effective identification.
Once a person signed his name in a form of a signature there is automatically that desire to
produce something based on pre-determined pattern as to how his signature would look like. This
pattern consists of personal designs with certain touch of artistic ability and personality. Once this is
done in repetition it will turn into a form that makes it distinguishable over all others.
Basically, there are two sets of elements to be considered. Those elements associated to the
form or designs of the letters that usually gives the general form of the signature and those properties
that are relative to the motion of writing instrument. If the questioned and all the standard signatures
show an excellent number of similarities with none of the significant differences, therefore, you may
say that same person wrote them.
Natural variations play a very important role in ascertaining the genuineness of a signature. Its
presence or absence, its degrees or extents are very significant in determining whether or not the
questioned and the sets of standards belong to the same person. The concept of natural variation is in
line with the truth that no two specimen of signature are completely and absolutely identical.
Therefore, the extent in which variations in the specimen signature varies the condition of the writers,
the condition under which the writing was prepared and other factors that might affect the over-all
appearance of the writing should e taken into consideration. Especially in determining differences that
are part of variation as distinguished from that of significant differences.
The process by which signature was forged is also important factor that is to be considered in
determining the true nature of the signature. It is always said that anything done out of imitation will
leads to a poorer quality of writing. But as what was discussed in earlier a matter of form or design is
only one of the factors to be considered in signature identification. The way a fraudulent signature was
made is also the reason for which it is identified to be truly forged and not a genuine one. There is no
perfect process of forgery, be it done by simple, simulated or tracing for each one of these processes
leave its trade mark of being fraudulent to whatever will be its product.

These are various classes of forged signature but how they are made are generally categories
into three Major Types – The simple, the simulated and the traced forgery
What is forgery?
 A person who makes, utters, or alters a writing in such a way as to convey a false impression
concerning its authenticity imposing a legal liability with the purpose of deceiving or injuring
another is guilty of forgery in its CONTEMPORARY SENSE
THE ELEMENTS OF FORGERY

• false making,
• legal liability,
• identity of the forger, and
• the intent to defraud.
FALSE MAKING
 involves the creation of fraudulent writing on a document or the alteration of an existing
document
 ALTERING a document is considered FALSEMAKING. Changing the name of the payee on a
check or raising the amount is an example of Falsemaking
LEGAL LIABILITY
 The fraudulent writing must impose a legal liability on another if the document had been
genuine.
 A person is guilty of forgery when he or she issues a false document even if no money is
collected on the document
FORGER’S IDENTITY
 The identity of the forger must be established. It is necessary to prove the accused made or
altered a false document or uttered, issued, or offered the fraudulent document knowing its
spurious nature.
INTENT TO DEFRAUD
 The forger must know the document is fraudulent. He or she must intend to swindle the victim.
FORGERY / METHODS OF FORGING

• Documents containing disputed signature occupies the highest level in the hierarchy of
questioned document cases.
• It is due to this, that a specialized branch of questioned document examination was established
--- the Signature Verification. The identification of ones signature calls for a greater emphasis
than in handwriting identification but the basic principles remains the same.

Legal Term
 Is an act of simulating, copying or tracing somebody’s signature without the permission of
the latter’s profit.
 It has a variety of classes from simple handwriting to a more complex form of signature. It is
an act of falsifying, counterfeiting bank notes, treasury, paper bills, check etc.
SIMPLE FORGERY
 Simple forgery is a forged signature made without any attempt on the part of the forger to
imitate or make a facsimile of the genuine signature of the person purported to sign the
document.
 As the name implies, this is one of the SIMPLEST TYPE FOR THE FORGER need not have a
genuine signature at hand in order to make such a forgery. Using his own style of writing, the
forger executes the name of the person who supposed to sign the document.
 This type of forgery is also called as Spurious Signature.
SIMULATED FORGERY
 The Simulated forgery is considered to be the most skillful type of forgery.
 Although this from appears or made in various level of skills depending upon the forger, The
reason for its being branded as the most skilful type, lies on the fact that this process is done
in not just ordinary way, it takes real skill of different degrees in order for a forger to
successfully imitate the signature which he intends to sign.
 THROUGH FREE-HAND IMITATION a gifted forger will make a practice over a scratch paper
to twenty-thirty times before signing it to the fraudulent document.
Fig. 6.1. An attempt to imitate the tremor of an elderly writer.
TRACED FORGERY
The traced forgery like a simulated forgery necessarily requires the aid of a model signature.
As the name implies, the result of an attempt of the forger to make a close resemblance of the original
by means of some tracing processes so as to transfer it to the fraudulent document.
Most cases of traced are easy to identify than a simulated one. This is due to the fact that a
traced signature is done in a way foreign from writing or this actually not more of writing rather than
drawing.

Fig. 6.2. An example of a traced signature and the model from which it has been traced.
The traced signature contains less detail than the known signature
CARBON OUTLINE PROCESS

 This process is one of the most common means utilized by forger in making a number of
identical copies or records of certain entries.
 A piece of carbon paper either blue or black is interleaved between the genuine signature and
the fraudulent document with the genuine document placed on top.
INDENTION OR CANAL-LINE PROCESS – INDENTATION/WRITING OFF-SET

 This is done in similar way the carbon outline process is made, only that now a carbon paper
is eliminated in the process, the genuine document is laced above the fraudulent document,
Fig. 13.5. Side-lighting has been used to show indentations in a forged signature.
Fig. 13.5.1 Oblique has been used to show indentations.

TRANSMITTED LIGHT OR PROJECTION PROCESS
 Among the three methods being utilized by some forger, the method has greater advantage
on the part of the forger. Here the fraudulent document is the one placed above the document,
using a transmitted light, these two documents will be placed on the top of the plane glass of
the transmitted light.
 With a strong light passing through these documents, the image/outline of the signature will
be projected to the fraudulent document and later be traced with ink.
 MORE ASTUTE FORGERS will copy parts from several signatures, tracing them from different
documents and presenting them as a single genuine signature.
 If the signatures used for models are presented as proof of genuineness, the document
examiner may be able to match the signatures, because the parts copied will overlay the
traced signature. Another ploy is to move the SIGNATURE SLIGHTLY AFTER COPYING the first
few letters or the first name. This prevents the material from aligning exactly
Fig. 13.9. Overwhelming and unnatural similarity of writing showing that the forger used the
same model to create the words that appear to be almost identical
N.B. (NOTA BENE / Note Very Well)

Simulated and traced forgeries have something in common. Both utilized model signature and
the objective of the forger is to affect a facsimile. They only differ somehow on the manner of executing
it or having it done.
There are number of drawback on the part of the forger using simulation as well as tracing and
they are: (1) Giving much attention to conspicuous features of form and not to other details
encompasses the execution of a genuine writing; (2) Imitation or tracing leads to disguised, and
disguised leads o a poorer result; (3) Too much consciousness of the process leads to hesitation; (4)
Failure to identify significant characteristics of the writing of another; (5) Difficulty in elimination or
discharging his own writing habits; (6) It needs great muscular skills to produce the writing being
imitated; (7) awareness of criminal act, fear of discovery and anxiety to do the work well; and (8) the
most basic and fundamental defect is not on the divergent from but in the quality of the line strokes.

HOLISTIC FORGERIES
 Entire documents can be fabricated, or parts of a document may be altered
 An entirely fabricated document is known as a HOLISTIC FORGERY
 It requires tremendous concentration to forge a holistic document
PROBLEMS ON HOLISTIC FORGERY

• The forger must keep in mind all the habits of the original writer while simultaneously
eliminating his or her own habits
• As the forger’s attention wanes, he or she reverts to his or her own writing habits.
• Anachronism – there is something wrong in time and in place
• This means that the forger has troubled matching the paper, ink or writing materials to the
exact date it was supposed to have been prepared/written.
MODERN FORGERS are using SCRIBERS and PANTOGRAPHS. These are instruments used by artists and
draftsman to change the size of the drawing
Defects that a traced forgery might be evidence by looking on one or more the following:
• Quality of line stokes
• Naturalness of movement, freedom strokes and speed of execution of the writing;
• Hesitation causing pen lifting, retouching and shading;
• Selecting and dating model signatures;
• Presence of pencil, carbon or indention outlines which point to the process used; and
• Identification of the questioned signature with a genuine or model signature used such as using
actual measurements with the aid of test plates, superimposition with transmitted light, or
taking photographs and producing transparencies to easily superimpose one over the other
transparent glass with uniform ruled squares or various line to shall all parts agreeing with said
squares or lines.
Seven Classes of Disputed Signatures/Questioned Signatures

1. Forged Signature where no attempt has been done to make a copy facsimile of the genuine
signature of the person purporting to sign the document. This is commonly referred to as
Simple Forgery.
2. Forged Signature of Fictitious person.
3. Forged signature that closely resembles the genuine signature since they have been produced
by a tracing process referred to as Traced Forgery.
4. Forged signature that resembles the genuine signature written in freehand also called as
Simulated or Copied Forgery.
5. Genuine signature which the writer honestly unwilling to accept as genuine.
6. Genuine signature obtained by trickery.
7. Genuine signature deliberately written illegibly or in an unusual manner to afford signatures
some plausible ground for disclaiming them should they deem it expedient.
TECHNIQUES OF THE FORGER (MODERN DAY FORGERY)

• The modern-day forger uses modern equipment to duplicate checks, gift certificates, and
other NEGOTIABLE INSTRUMENTS primarily through desktop publishing
DESKTOP PUBLISHING
 The proliferation of computer equipment in recent years simplified the technique of creating
fraudulent documents. Desktop publishing MADE IT EASY TO FORGE documents from letters of
credit to spurious checks
 NINETY FIVE percent of modern counterfeit checks are produced on desktop computers.
CUT-AND-PASTE DOCUMENTS
 Some forgeries are committed by cutting a valid signature from a document and pasting it to
a fraudulent document.
 TRASH MARKS can be used to help determine cut and paste on spurious documents. TRASH
MARKS are the marks left on the copy by a photocopier when a document is copied. They are
caused by nicks on the drum and dirt on the glass
ELECTRONIC SIGNATURES
 With the advent of computer-generated signatures, it is becoming more difficult to identify
forgeries because electronic signatures can legally be used in business
Fig. 6.3. A genuine signature that has been scanned into the computer and printed
IDENTIFICAITON OF FORGERY
1. Hesitation and pen stops at unusual places
2. Abrupt change in direction of strokes, showing uncertainty of movements
3. Concealed joining or carefully made patching or retouching
4. Blunt initial and/or terminal strokes
5. Lack of difference in pressure on up and down strokes
6. Misplaced shading or shading in more than one direction caused by a false part.

7. Defective line quality
8. Slow, broken, strokes, or wavy lines (Tremors)
9. Unnatural pen lifting
10. Presence of carbon, pencil or indented outlines along the strokes
EVIDENCE OF NATURALNESS IN WRITING HALLMARKS OF SPONTANEOUS WRITING

1. A general rhythmic writing through out
2. Smooth unbroken strokes in writing
3. Finely tapered stokes both at the beginning and ending letters
4. Tendency towards illegibility especially towards end of signature or other words indication great
speed.
PRIMARY SIGNS AND FORGERY

1. Slow broken strokes, way lines
2. Unnecessary retouching or patching
3. Lack of difference in pressure on up and down
4. BLUNT STARTING and ending strokes REAVEALING INK BLUB
5. Meaningless markings and blots caused by a false start
6. Shading in more than one directed caused by a false start by an effort to imitate line, which by
twisting the pen rather than varying the pressure or imitating pen hold.
7. Erasure and backward writing
Fig. 13.1. A signature containing indications of forgery in blunt initial and terminal strokes and line tremor
Fig. 13.3. Patched writing

showing that a writer wrote
over an existing line to improve
its appearance. Forgers patch
their work to improve its
appearance

Fig. 13.4. Example in which a writer

wrote over an existing word
BLOBS OF INK OR SIGNS OF HESITATION

• When the writer pauses with pen on paper, the ink continues to flow from the pen and leaves
a blob of ink on the writing line.
• Forgers will stop to check their progress and leave these telltale signs on the signature they
are copying. Normal pauses occur in appropriate places, but forgers stop at awkward spots
Fig. 13.6. Tiny blobs of ink where a writer hesitated during the
act of writing indicative of a forger pausing to check his progress
while copying a signature
CHECKLIST OF IMPORTANT ELEMENT IN HANDWRITING IDENTIFICATION

• 1. Line Quality - (Natural or Feigned)
• 2. Letter form - (General or Individual)
• 3. Proportions - (Balance or disproportionate)
• 4. Height Ration - (between different letter)
• 5. Skill - (lowest and highest level of dexterity and artistic or not)
• 6. Writing Movement - (Rhythmic or varied)
• 7. Writing Continuity - (Join or disjoined letters)
• 8. Writing Pressure - (light, medium, heavy)
• 9. Pen Scope - (Short, Average or extended)
• 10. Letter Spacing - (narrow or broad)
• 11. Speed - (Slow, Average, or rapid)
• 12. Slant - (Controlled or extremely variable)
• 13. Letter size - (Large, medium, small)
• 14. Connections - (Angular, rounded or broken)
• 15. Other individual idiosyncrasies such as manner crossing t-bars, split letter excessive
underlining, bent staff and diacritical markings.
IDENTIFYING FORGED DOCUMENTS

• Some forgeries are so obvious that they will stand on their own merit as being forged. It is not
always necessary to have known signatures for comparison. The signs of forgery, such as
poorly formed and/or badly patched signatures, can identify a fraudulent document (see Fig.
13.12).
Fig. 13.12. The letter j is overwritten to improve its appearance.

Tremor of forgery is also present most notably in the second
signature
OTHER TYPES OF FRAUD

What is WHITE-COLLAR CRIME?
 The term white-collar crime was coined by Edwin Sutherland in 1949. He describes white-
collar crime as a crime committed by a person of respectability and high social status in the
course of his or her occupation
 INSURANCE FRAUD
 EMBEZZLEMENT
 INDUSTRIAL ESPIONAGE
 IDNTITY THEFT
Documents Used in Criminal Acts

 RANSOM NOTES, extortion and blackmail letters, and crank mail.
 Examiner may be asked to identify the author of a hold-up note or a death threat

 Did the suspect write the murder confession or is he or she being framed? (FAILON CASE)
Fig. 7.1. A handprinted hold-up note written naturally. There was no attempt to disguise the
handprinting on the note
Graffiti or Anonymous Poison Pen Letters

 Graffiti or anonymous poison pen letters in a business environment cause a decline in morale
in employees
 Occasionally, a disgruntled employee will write a poison pen and/or threatening letter to a
previous place of employment or a sexually explicit letter will be sent anonymously to a fellow
employee
 Graffiti often involves writing on media other than paper, SUCH AS WALLS, LOCKER DOORS,
OR MIRRORS. It may be SPRAY-PAINTED, SCRATCHED WITH A SHARP INSTRUMENT, OR
WRITTEN WITH LIPSTICK OR CHALK
Fig. 7.2. A handprinted anonymous threatening letter. There has been some attempt to disguise the
writing as seen in the tremor of some of the letters
INTERDELINEATION OF LINES
 Problems sometimes arise involving co-mingled writing. It may be necessary to determine
which writing was placed on the document first. Lines that intersect can be studied to ascertain
the SEQUENCE OF WRITING

INDENTED WRITINGS
 Document examiners are confronted occasionally with cases involving indented writing.
Indented writing is created when sheets of paper sitting under the original receive the
impression from the pressure of the writing instrument.
 INDENTATIONS may AFFECT THREE OR FOUR SUBSEQUENT PAGES of writing
COUNTERFEIT DOCUMENTS
 Counterfeiting involves the FABRICATION OF FALSE REPRESENTATIONS.
 Counterfeiters may make a copy without authority or a right to such a copy for the purpose
of perpetrating a fraud. The most likely documents to be counterfeited involve money or
securities but can include other items such as counterfeit credentials.
SINGS OF FRAUD
• Has information been erased from a document?
• What has been obliterated?
• What was written on documents under blackout or whiteout?
• Has additional information been added to a document?
• In what order has information been written or printed on the document?
• When was the alteration done?
• What is the age of a document and/or entries on the document?
AGE DETERMINATION
1. When was the watermark manufactured?
2. Has the paper been artificially aged by heat or by chemicals or by staining and WRINKLING?
3. Can the age of the ink be discovered from the chemical tracings?
4. What type of pen was used to create the document?
5. Was that type of pen in existence when the document was purportedly executed?

CHAPTER 7
CARE, HANDLING, PRESERVATION OF DOCUMENTS and

EQUIPING LABORATORY
The improper or careless handling of a disputed document can lead to a serious curtailment
of certain technical examinations. Most frequently this condition is brought about by ignorance of the
consequences of mishandling just the simple act of removing and replacing a letter in its envelop
repeatedly can cause noticeable deteriorate.
The care, handling and preservation of documents can be discussed adequately by setting forth
certain positive rules of action in the form of "DO's" and listening in several admonitions in the from
of "DONT's"
"DO's"
1. Keep documents unfolded in protective envelope

Protective Envelopes
The most useful and effective protective covering of a disputed document is a transparent
plastic envelope. This kind of envelop can easily be purchased commercially or can easily be made from
sheets of clear plastic to a size sufficient to accommodate any flat unfolded paper.
As an alternative, a large, heavy manila or craft envelope or folder can be used. Again, the
document should be laid flat, unfolded as to prevent wear along folds. If a nontransparent envelop is
used, it should be carefully labeled for convenience and to eliminate unnecessary handling. This kind
of envelope makes a poor permanent substitute for a transparent one because the document is not
easily examined but protection by any sort of envelope preserve the documents and reduces the
chance of damage.
2. Take disputed papers to the document examiners laboratory at the first opportunity.
3. If storage is necessary, keep the document in a dry place away from excessive heat and strong
light.

Proper Storage
Once a document is disputed, it is a seldom stored or filed long, but important documents are
often kept for years. Some of these may be challenged long after they prepared, the document may
deteriorate seriously. Moist or humid atmosphere, excessive heat and strong light accelerate the
normal effects of aging, bringing about changes in a relatively short time. Under these conditions. It is
entirely possible that even though there is no apparent effect for exposure to moisture, heat or light,
the document had undergone microscopic changes.
“DON’T’s”
1. Do not handle disputed papers excessively or carry them in a pocket for a long period of time.
Avoid Excessive Handling
Repeated handling of document can actually wear it out, In this way of paper becomes dirty,
frayed, and stained. Folds deepened and finally broken by repeated opening and folding.
2. Do not mark disputed document (either by consciously writing or by pointing at them by a writing
instruments or dividers)
Do not mark
Interfering marks may result either from someone’s deliberately writing in the paper or from
those unconscious strokes and smudges placed there by someone’s pointing at the document with a
pen, pencil, pair of devices, or eraser. Both must be avoided.
3. Do not mutilate or damage by repeated refolding, creasing, cutting, tearing or punching or filing
purposes.
4. Do not allow anyone except qualified specialist to make chemical or do not treat dust or latent
fingerprints before consulting a document examiner.
Do not allow “Amateur Testing”

Charred documents, because of their extremely fragile nature, must be handling as little as
possible. Even transporting them to the laboratory care. When documents of this kind are discovered
much is to be gained y discussing all aspects of the question with a qualified document examine before
any attempt is made to move the materials to this laboratory.

When possible, the charred documents should be moved in the container when they are found.
If the fragments are not packed tightly lightweight absorbent cotton may be used as padding. Jarring
of the box must be kept to minimum if not entirely eliminated.
TRANSPORTING DOCUMENTS
 Originals should never be sent through ordinary mail.
 If documents are picked up from the client, be sure to take proper materials for transporting
the documents safely
 Original documents should be protected in envelopes or folders.
 ENVELOPES should be LARGE enough for the documents to lie flat
 Documents should never be folded
 Clear plastic folders can be used if they are the type of plastic that does not stick to the
documents
 They should never be placed in a pocket or pocketbook.
CHAIN OF CUSTODY
 Evidence requires a chain of custody to ensure its physical integrity at all times.
 Each party that handles the evidence must sign the chain-of-custody form.
The Equipment of a Document Laboratory
The Room
It is ideal that separate room should be built for physical examination and for photographing
and processing to the extent of utilizing specialized photography.
The room should provide a means for storage of documents, a cool, dry and ventilated storage.
Ample bench space over which a number of documents can be placed and can be scrutinized within
an easy sight and reach of the examiner. These can make the examination easier and less time
consuming. Comparison or collation can be made well and organized despite the number of documents
being examined.
Optical Equipment
Some equipment can be made through improvise but when we talk about magnifiers,
microscopes and camera lenses. A job well done cannot be attained with the use of inferior optical
equipment. Mounting of exhibits is of great significance for demonstration and proving in court, thus
quality should not be compromise with the use of cheaper equipment of poor performance.
B. Microscopes
Microscopes also appear in various forms, there are compound microscope for biological
testing, microscope with a wide-flat form for documents to be laid and comparison microscope for
simultaneous viewing and matching of two specimens at one time.

One of the most useful types is that of a stereoscopic microscope for it gives document
examiner an extensive examination, showing great details of documents, and anything on it that our
naked eye alone is impossible being deciphered. The microscope is of unique form for it gives an
examiner three dimensional enlargement of the specimen under consideration making it ideal for
examination of cross writings, writing across, a folds, sequence of strokes and disturbs fiber partly
concealed.
• most important piece of equipment in the document examination laboratory is a

STEREOSCOPIC MICROSCOPE between 10 and 50 power that includes both incident and
transmitted illumination
 An OPTIVISOR is a lightweight binocular magnifier that fits comfortably around the head on
an adjustable band. It can be worn over eyeglasses. This instrument allows the document
examiner to view documents while leaving both hands free
Hand Magnifier
 There are varieties of magnifiers that are used at present. What is needed? Practically, that is
necessary for use is one, which will serve the greatest purpose of the examination. A
magnifying lens that is just enough in its magnification (at least capable of making four-times
the size of the original), having a diameter of about two inches but not more than o less than
one inch will be reasonable to cover a wider field of view.
Hand Magnifier
There are varieties of magnifiers that are used at present. What is needed? Practically, that is
necessary for use is one, which will serve the greatest purpose of the examination. A magnifying lens
that is just enough in its magnification (at least capable of making four-times the size of the original),
having a diameter of about two inches but not more than o less than one inch will be reasonable to
cover a wider field of view.
MEASURING APPARATUS
In document examination, measurement plays a very significant role for in some cases it even become
a sole basis in determining genuineness of the document. These are various standards measuring
instrument but some of which were not available to our document examiner. In addition to the regular
photographing equipment it is necessary to have a number of measuring devices that can be
photograph with the documents when making court exhibits.

a. Handwriting Measuring Test Plates
This instrument is about a foot or fifteen inches in length either plastic, metal or glass made,
an instrument with graduated scales in both inches and centimeters. With these scales, measurements
will be easy and direct on the document. Handwriting measuring test plates also varies in form
depending on what is to be measured in a document. There are what we called Handwriting slope
measuring test plates, design to measure degree of writing inclination; Handwriting comparison test
plates design to make a simultaneous comparison of two specimen handwriting, showing their
alignment, slant or scale and proportions.
b. Typewriting measuring test plates

Measuring instrument design to measure the typeface pitch of a given typewriting as well as
determining alignment, scale and proportion of the type characters. A valuable scale for use on
typescript consist of a set of parallel line about half-inch apart. Each line has short intersecting lines at
usual spacing of 9, 10, 12 and 16 to the inch as well as one of 2.6 mm. If a type prints does not conform
to any of his thin scale it only connotes that was space on the metric system.
One such article of universal utility is accurate rule on paper which can be placed directly on a
document and photographed with it aid the photographer is securing the exact extent of enlargement.
For instance, if a paper ruler an inch in length is placed on the document being photographed, the
length of the image of the ruler on the ground glass is a measure of the degree of enlargement.
Therefore, the image of the inch ruler measures six inches; the enlargement is six-inch diameters. The
degree enlargement can also be determined in court in the same way by measuring the length of the
ruler on the photograph.
To show accurately the difference or to identity in the slant, spacing, alignment, curve, angle
or proportion of two writings to be compared, the document examiner must have a number of special
measures on colorless glass plates that can be placed over the documents and photographed with
them. This is an approved practice. When document testimony is illustrated photographically in this way,
points of identity or dissimilarity in different writings can be seen by anyone able to understand the measures
of the common ruler and protractors

SPECIAL LIGHTING EQUIPMENT
The visible Light application
1. Direct Lighting
This type of light examination is generally applies for photographing purpose. In as much as
document are to be photograph in a close distance a separate light should be required in order to
obtain a good exposure of the document being photograph and in some case this light examination is
also useful in cases of erasures and concealment of erased surface by addition of certain substance
after erasure has been made
DUPLICATING DEVICES
 Document examiners use camera equipment for close-up photography
 One simple-to-use inexpensive camera is a Polaroid Spectra Camera with a close-up stand
and case
 A good-quality 35-millimeter film or digital camera is most suited for document work
 A HIGH-QUALITY PHOTOCOPIER will enable the document examiner to make enlarged
photocopies of documents for easy examination
 A SCANNER ATTACHED TO A COMPUTER can be used to create exhibits by scannig the
documents into the computer
2. Oblique Lighting
This type of lighting process positioned the lamp at one side with the source of illumination
striking the surface of the paper at a very low angle. This will cause varying angles to light incident for
every uneven area on a document. This light examination is best use in indented writings and erasures.
3. Slide lighting
In this process the paper is held vertically and the light strikes the surface of the paper from
one side. This is used in showing presence of disturb fiber due to mechanical erasure and indention
4. Transmitted light
One of the very useful instruments in document examination is the transmitted light gadget. It
gives a source of illumination that would strike back or the bottom of the paper. This apparatus is so
simple, it is essentially consisting of a plane glass on which the document is placed and a source of light
placed beneath it. The lamp is house in a box sealed in all side except with one with the glass or lamp
may also be backed with a metal reflector for a more powerful source of illumination. This lighting
examination in very useful in determination of watermarking in paper shows fiber arrangement in
paper as well as sequence of strokes.
LIGHT BOX
 good investment for examining documents
 simplifies the comparison of documents by the use of transmitted light

 One document is placed over the other for quick and easy comparisons. Transmitted light is
also used to photograph watermarks. Light boxes come in various sizes with the smaller sizes
easily carried in a briefcase
ARTIFICIAL LIGHT GADGETS AND SPECIALIZE EQUIPMENT

1. The X-ray or Roentgen
This gadget is rarely at used in questioned document examination although sometimes X-rays
of very soft duration or Genz rays can be of use for purposes of making a transmitted light photograph
to show up watermarking as well any thinner surface of the paper like the site of erasures. But such
activity can likewise be best shown with the used of ordinary transmitted light, that is only X-ray is not
commonly at use or practically it is more applied in medico-legal examination.
2. The Ultra-Violet Light gadget

The ultra violet light gadget appears in various forms, some in a form similar to a fluorescent
lamp where the glass envelope also acts as a filter which absorbs the bulk of the visible radiation
and allowing the shorter wave lengths to pass through. This lamp is commercially termed as the
“black light” for at times that the power if off the bulb is colored black. This lamp is found to be very
useful both commercial and laboratory application. One of the widest applications is in detection of
counterfeit Philippine Currency Notes. Many businesses established big or small that are directly
involved in money transaction utilizes Ultra-Violet lamp for security reason.
3. Infra-red Lamp
The used of infra-red photography refers to the special type of black and white photography
whereby image are reproduced through the action of infra-red rays on sensitized films.
The word infra-red means “below or beyond the red”. As the wave increases to 700 milimicrons
and above the radiation merges into heat wave and finally into the radio waves.
Uses of infra-red
• Show gun powder stains;
• Deciphering altered or faded writings due to age;
• Restoration of writing in charred documents;
• Decipherment of Obliterated writing;
• Differentiate paints or pigments which visually identical but of different composition;
• Detection and demonstration of certain secret writings or stains ion cloth or paper;
• Record subject in total darkness without being detected;
• Addition, interlineations or insertion; and
• In Surveillance Photography and night vision.
VIDEO SPECTRAL COMPARATOR,
 It consists of a camera, a video monitor, various light sources and filters for exciting radiation
and reflected or fluorescent light, an image integrator and comparator, and a video recorder.

CHAPTER 8
Inks and Writing Instruments
INK
 a liquid solution containing dyes and/or pigments used to make visible marks on a writing
surface.
 Ink is manufactured for pens, RIBBONS for typewriters and printers, stamp pads, and
commercial printer’s ink
IMPORTANCE
 Practical knowledge about inks, their composition, resistance to moisture, performance and
absorption effects, manufacturing dates, is a valuable asset in questioned document
examinations.
 Ink used is usually examined when the date or age of document is questioned or when
some parts of a document are suspected to have been corrected, added, Altered and/or
inserted by another hand with the intent to defraud.
ANCIENT INKS
Pre-Christian era links were mostly soot or carbon blacks dissolved in water with
holding solutions to attain desired fluidity. The Chinese and Indians were expert crude ink
manufacturers using pulverized stones and saps of woods.
MODERN BLACK INKS
• The modern Chemist, learned from the ancient crude preparations, has the following ink
solutions in black:
• Tanno-gallate from sulphate of iron with gum – the most durable ink solution for records
purposes.
• Lampblack with alkaline solution
• Coal tar dyestuff with water
• Iron tannate with aniline colorings
• The ink containing tannin and iron salts takes an everlasting nature for it resist alcohol and
stays black indefinitely.
ANILINE INK
This is made out of coal tar dissolved in acids. This was used as early as 1870. However, the
ink is washable and, therefore, is not good for permanent records.
FOUNTAIN PEN INKS
Fountain pen inks are supposed to be the best writing inks, quick drying, waterproof and
durable. So, manufacturers introduced alkali-resistant dyes ink caustic soda solutions.

INDELIBLE FLUIDS
These are used mostly when a penetrating marking is desired that will not be erased. It is
commonly used except for special reasons. It is composed of logwood, potassium, aniline, bi-chromate,
nutgall, gum and silver nitrate.
INVISIBLE OR SECRET INKS

These are classified according to the mode by which can make them visible:
• Heating Process
• Chemical Reaction
• Moistening or Immersing in water
• Crude preparations take the form of secretions, juices, saliva, gum, milk etc.
CLASSES OF INK
Printing ink – made by grinding carbon in the form of vegetable char with a varnish made of natural
gum and drying oil.
Record ink – an ink with high quality which is assured a long life under a reasonable conditions of
storage of document.
Colored ink – synthetic dyestuff from the basis of practically all colored ink, whether intended for use
of fountain pens or not.
Copying ink – is a substantially concentrated record ink to which has been added chemicals, such as
glycerin or dextrin.
Hectograph ink – consist of a layer of either gelatin gycerol mixture of special clay.
Stamp pad ink – this ink are very similar to hectograph inks except that they heavily loaded with
humectants, such as glycerol or glycol, which prevent the pad from drying up.
Liquid lead pencil ink – is an ordinary ball point pen with a fluid containing finely divided carbon
substitute for the usual dyestuff.
Ball point ink – is a viscous ink that is dispense at the tip of a ball point pen during use by the rolling
action of the small sphere.
RESTORATION TECHNIQUES
• When writing is suspected to be erased either by optical illusion or by chemical erasures or by
removing paper fibers by rubber erasures, the following are recommended to restore the
writing:
• Expose it under ultra-violet rays then, photograph.
• Test ink used before erasure (thru chemical analysis). Depending on the ink, the erased writing
containing iron would appear by means of:
• Iodine or Ammonium Sulfide Fuming;
• Treatment of Tannic or Gallic Acid

THREE BASIC TYPES OF INK
 One is WATER-BASED and dissolves in water. This ink is mixed with dyes and used in roller
ball pens.
 Another is ALCOHOL-BASED and is dissolved by alcohol.
 The third is OIL-BASED, which dissolves in oil; it is used in ballpoint pens. Oilbased ink is more
viscous (thicker) than other inks.
UNUSUAL WRITING FLUID

• LIPSTICK on a mirror is one example.
• A STYLUS OR OTHER SHARP INSTRUMENT may be used to scratch a message onto a metal
surface.
• BLOOD has also been used to leave notes. White Out, nail polish, and other chemicals are
sometimes used.
SEQUENCE OF WRITING
The difference in absorption effects of inks accounts for the easy determination of the
sequence of writing where the problem is to determine which of the two (2) writings with crossed lines
was written first or fast.
The following factors are considered, kind and quality of ink, pen used, quality of paper and
time. Extensions of letters above or below the baseline are helpful especially under magnifications.
Consider the following: (1) when the fist ink line is still moist, the crossing second line will not only
darken the scored portion but will have its ink on the scored portion fused through the first line
appearing as expanded. (2) When the fist line is dry, the crossing line will darken the scored portion
and will appear to be overlapping or plowing the first line.
In this problem, it is a lot easier to determine ink writing versus lead writing. When pen and ink
are used to cross some lead lines, the ink flowing from the pen will fully cover the lead. But when a
pen is used first and the pencil is used to cross some ink lines, the lead strokes scoring the ink lines will
appear on top of the ink when the ink is dried and will appear plowing the ink line if it is not yet
completely dried.
Whether it is ink versus ink or ink versus lead, ten to fourteen times magnification is necessary
to expose the crossing lines.

OUTLINE OF EARLY HISTORY OF WRITING INSTRUMENTS, WITH
APPROXIMATE DATES
CUNEIFORM STYLUS
• ANCIENT MESOPOTAMIA was the first identified writing instrument. It was used to imprint
wedge-shaped characters into clay tablets, which were then allowed to dry.
REED PEN
• These were replaced by the REED PEN made from calamus plants, found along riverbeds. The
porous fibers absorb ink readily. However, the reed’s soft fibers tend to break down in a short
period of time, and the reed must be set aside to dry.
• Reed Pen – is a cut from a reed or bamboo with a slit in a narrow tip. Its mechanism is essentially
similar to that of quill pen.
Quill pen – is a pen made from a flight feather of a large bird most often a goose.
STEEL PEN
• The first usable STEEL PEN was manufactured in France in 1784. Perigreen Williamson of
Baltimore was the first to make the two side slits in the pen. Joseph Gillot of Birmingham,
England, devised the steel pen press and introduced the practical manufacture of pens in 1822
BRAZEN PEN
• Although PEN of BRONZE may have been known to Romans, the earliest mention of BRAZEN
PENS was in 1465.
• the 16th century Spanish Calligrapher JUAN DE YCIAR mention brass pens for very large writing
in his 1548 writing manual, but the use of metal pen did not become widespread until the early
part of 19th century.
FOUNTAIN PEN and BALL-POINT-PEN
 The Fountain pen is a modern pen-nib point with a reservoir of ink at the upper back portion
of the pen. This is said to have been patented by Mr. Lewis Watterman.
 Fountain pen has the advantage of being difficult to copy or forge for it reflects the true
writing characteristics of the author.
 W.A. SHEAFFER developed the lever-fill fountain pen in 1913
 Being so, it is easier to determine the genuineness of a suspected writing made using this pen.
 The Ball-point pen was patented by two persons: John Loud and Laszlo Biro.
 The FIRST BALLPOINT PEN was patented in 1888 by John J. Loud but did not become popular
until 1945
 This type of writing instrument has a ball bearing at its tip which controls the transmission of
ink to the paper surface.

 Ball-point pen is more disadvantageous for aside from the fact that it may not fully shows the
true writing characteristics of the author, a writing made with this pen makes it easier to be
imitated and more difficult to be examined.
FIBER PEN
• On the other hand, a fiber pen was first used in Hong Kong in coloring pens and at present this
type of writing instrument is more common as marking instrument
• FIBER TIP PENS were first manufactured in 1963. Also known as POROUS TIP OR FELT TIP,
Etymology of Pen
• Pen Came From the Latin word “penna” meaning feather.
NIB PEN – consist of metal nib with capillary channel, like that of a fountain pen, mounted on a handle
or a holder, often made of wood. A dip pen usually has no ink reservoir and must be repeatedly
recharge with ink while drawing or writing.
Ink brush – is a traditional writing instrument in East Asia calligraphy.
Roller Ball pens – writing instrument which use ball point writing mechanism with water based liquid
or gelled ink. As oppose to the oil based.
GEL PENS
• are the newest innovation. These pens contain a permanent gel in a liquid solution. The gels
are fade proof and come in many different colors.
IDENTIFICATION OF PENS
 The fountain pen contains two parallel nibs that penetrate the paper, leaving a slightly heavier
line of ink along these groove.
 Flow-back of the ink at the end of the grooves is also characteristic of nib pens.
 The ball from a ballpoint pen leaves a groove in the paper in the center of the line of ink,
which can be seen under a stereoscopic microscope
 The POROUS PEN POINT LEAVES FLAT, even inking sometimes accompanied by hairline
dragging of ink along the edge of the line
 The MECHANICAL PENCIL is filled with a stick of graphite, which can be replaced
STICK CHARCOAL is popular among artists. It is easy to apply and can produce delicate lines as well as
broad heavy strokes. Charcoal is made from carbonized wood
CHALK - COMPOSED of a mixture of dry pigments and binders. There are many combinations used in
chalk manufacturing today. CRAYONS CONSIST OF WAX AND PIGMENTS. These waxes adhere to the
surface of paper and are difficult or impossible to remove
Chapter 9
Importance of Paper
Development of paper manufacturing cailun (Tsailun)

Its widely claimed that invention of paper is generally attributed to Chinese court official,
CAILUN (TSAILUN), in about AD.105. they were first to succeed in making paper from vegetable.
Fibbers, tree bark, rug, old fish netting.
TSAILUN
• In the first century, the Chinese began making paper from the inner bark of bamboo and hemp.
• Eleven hundred years later Europeans began making paper, using cotton and linen as the base.
William Rittenhouse of Roxborough, PA founded the first paper plant in America in 1690. Today
most paper is made from wood pulp and may contain some cotton. Higher quality paper uses
cotton rag.
Papyrus – a brittle material made by criss-crossing strip sliced from the plant’s pith, glued end-to-end
like a scroll, an early form of book.
VELLUM
• was created as a writing surface from THE SKIN OF CALVES.
• It came into use in the second century bc and was the precursor of parchment that is made
from the skins of goats and lambs.
Straw - was used to make paper in 1800

Codex – made primarily from the skin of sheep, its name was driven from the ancient greek city of
Pergamum
PAPER MAKING
• The process begins by chipping pulpwood into small pieces that are then mixed with
chemicals and fed into pressure vessels called DIGESTERS to soften the lignin, which binds the
fibers together
• In this cooking process, the cellulose fibers are separated.
GRADE
Quality of papers used for writing purposes varies according to materials used. Manufacturer’s
technical specifications and market demand on certain kinds. The best grades of paper now used in
are those having cellulose fibers, cotton, rags and the Philippines abaca fibers. What most people
know is that when the substitutes another page containing his spurious writings in a set of genuine
documents, these can be easily detected by paper grade comparison.

THICKNESS
 Paper Manufacturer’s measure thickness of papers by means of knowing how many pounds is
the weight of one ream.
 Document examiners measure thickness by means of micro-calipers with thousand of inch
readings.
CONDITIONS
Written documents of whatever kind of paper used are usually suspected because of
unaccounted alterations or erasures. Most document showing altered portions contain genuine
information, which were changed and superimposed by visible writings. When proper examination is
done, these suppressed and hidden physical facts would be concrete proof of unauthorized alterations,
and the real meaning is exposed.
WATERMARKS
Paper manufacturers place water markings in their papers to denote their origin and
production. Some use the same watermarks in all their grades of paper but when any portion of their
market is damaged, they take not. Some cases of questioned documents resulted to the discovery of
a paper used in an instrument dated several years before the actual manufacturing.
PAPER FOR PRINTING OR WRITING

• Newsprint is the least expensive paper manufactured. It is composed mostly of GROUND
WOOD, causing it to discolor easily
• BOND PAPER is so named because it was originally used to print stocks and bonds. It is popular
in the modern business office. RAG BONDS, made from cotton, are commonly used for
business stationary and come in a variety of colors. The finish can be smooth, laid, or cockle.
The higher the rag content, the more expensive the paper. Law firms frequently use high-
quality bond paper.
• LIGHTWEIGHT, uncoated papers include onionskin, which comes in smooth or cockle finishes,
and snap-out forms, which are frequently made with manifold papers made from wood
fibers. Another classification in lightweight paper is “bible” paper.
• SPECIALTY PAPERS include carbonless paper, which is coated on both sides to transfer data
from one page to another. Both sheets contain special finishes that must come in contact with
each other to transfer the writing or typing to the subsequent page.
• GUMMED PAPERS are used primarily for labels and come with a variety of features. The major
desire in gummed papers is their curl-proof feature.
• TEXT PAPERS are the MOST EXPENSIVE, uncoated papers because of their superior grade. They
are used for promotion pieces and come in a wide variety of colors and finishes.
• Cover stocks are used for announcements, invitations, and greeting cards. They come in
antique, vellum, or smooth finishes. Deckle edges are found in this category.
• COATED PAPER, used primarily in publications, is the next level of paper. The better grades of
coated paper go through several layers of coating. Some papers are dull-coated to cut down
the glare. Many TEXTBOOKS Use dull-coated paper. Some coated papers are coated only on
one side
• KRAFT PAPER is a coarse, unbleached, heavy paper also noted for strength. It is used for paper
bags, package wrapping, and corrugated boxes.
• The proliferation of plastic has brought about a new kind of paper strengthened with PLASTIC
FILAMENTS, KNOWN AS TYVEK. This paper is noted for its strength and inability to tear. It is
principally used in the manufacture of large mailing envelopes. It repels most ink, thus gummed
labels must be used with the envelopes
• SAFETY PAPER, used principally for checks, is designed to reveal alterations. Originally, checks
were used exclusively by banks and large businesses to exchange funds.
Basis in the examination of paper

• Color – color can be well appreciated with as good, light, dint stain or fading
• Surface appearance – it maybe smooth o rough, damage or wringkled
• Watermarks – exposure of a paper to a strong light may reveal the watermark of the
manufacturer or type of the paper
• Weight and thickness – the thickness may be measured by paper micrometer

Chapter 10
Typewriting Identification
Brief Historical Dates on the Development of

Typewriter
• January 7, 1714 – is the fist recorded attempt to invent a typewriter found in the records of
the British patent office, granted by her majesty Queen Anne, to Henry Mill, an English
engineer.
• 1827 – the first United States patent for a mechanical writing machine was issued to William
A. Burt of Detroit, Michigan.
• 1867 – Christopher Latham Sholes developed the sholes glided and sole typewriter patented
on June 23, 1568, it mechanically impressed the upper cased letter for the alphabet into a piece
of paper. It may be viewed at the Smithsonian Institute, Washington D.C.
• March 1, 1873 – Sholes entered into contract with the Remington arms Word Lion New York to
produce the sholes Gladder and Scult typewriter.
• 1874 – model no. 1 of the Remington typewriter become available to the public.
• 1878 – Remington model no. 2 which first wrote both upper and lower cased letters was
introduced.
Important Terms In Connection With Typewriting

• Typeface – it is the printing surface of the type block.
• Typeface defect – any peculiarity of the typewriting caused be actual damage to the typeface
metal, which may be actual break in the outline of the letters.
• Characteristics – In connection with typewriting, is used to include letters symbols, numerals
or point of functions.
• Pica type face – Typeface impression ordinarily spaced ten (10) characters to the horizontal
pitch.
• Elite type face – Typeface impression ordinarily spaced twelve (12) characters to the horizontal
pitch.
• Proportional Spacing Machine – A typewriter with type letter spacing similar to the type
spacing of conventional printed in which all letters are allotted horizontal in conformity with
their relative widths.
• Transitory defects – Is an identifying typewriter characteristic, which can be eliminated by
cleaning the machine or replacing the ribbon.
• Permanent Defects – Any identifying typewriting characteristic of a typeface of replacing the
ribbon.

Identification Rule in Typewriting Identification
Two specimens of typewriting are the works of a single typewriter if all type- sized, design, and
the spacing are same in the two documents and if there is a unique combination of defective character
and no significant difference in common between the sets of specimen.
Principal Techniques Utilized Typewriting Identification
The principal technique utilized in comparing a questioned typewriting with a known
typewriting on their proper sequence are the following:
Measure the type pitch

 Letter spacing in majority of typewriters has been traditionally made either in 1/12 inch (Elite
type face pitch) and 1/10 inch (pica type face pitch0 in certain countries,
 types sizes have been designs in various metric system such as in the case of elite spacing it is
not only limited to 1/12 inch it is likewise express in 2.12 mm, 2.00, 2.20, 2.23, 2.25, and 2.30
mm while in pica spacing includes 2.50 and 2.60 mm in addition to 2.54 mm which is the
equivalent of 1/10 in.
 the identification of type measurements would greatly help the investigator in search of the
probable instrument despite the existence of modern equipment.
 Most of the typewriter designed for commercial use largely in a form of manual or
conventional type, where type character are form with the use of a type bar or type metal bar,
which carries the designs of the character. This becomes prevalence up to the mid of the 20th
century.
 In 1939 a different type of typewriter mechanism was introduced by the IBM Company which
was called the Proportional spacing machine and which is known in the market as executive
typewriter.
 This type of typewriter usually designed to make typescript with 1/32, 1/36 or 1/45 in spacing.
This type of machine was largely manufacture in United States by Remington and Olivetti
(Underwood) companies. Through the combination of letter spacing and letter designs, makes
and model of typewriter can be determined.
2. Verify the size and design

The determination of the size and designs of typefaces is an accurate means in determining
the make and the model of a typewriter especially in dealing with domestic machines. Actually, in
determining the make and model of a containing the various changes in typeface designs by different
manufacturer, but a random search for a particular specimen in such a file might entail unnecessary
loss of time. Such determination of the make and model will lessen the burden and the time element
necessary in looking into the probable typewriter from which a questioned typewriting was
typewritten. This is true especially when the make and the model were properly identified.

Individual Typeface Defects
1. Vertical Mal alignment
A character printing above or below its proper position is vertical alignment
2. Horizontal Mal alignment
An alignment defect in which the character prints to the right or left its proper position.
3. Twisted letter
Letter and character is design to print at a certain fixed angle to the baseline due to the wear
and damage to the type bards and the type bars and the type block some letters become twisted so
that they lean to the right or left of their correct slant.
4. Off-Its-Feet
The condition of the typeface printing heavier on one side or corner than the remainder of its
outline.
5. Rebound
Typeface defect in which a character prints a double impression with the lighter one slightly off
- set to the right or left.
6. Actual Breakage
Any peculiarity of typewriting caused by actual damage to the typeface metal which maybe
actual breakage in the line of the letters.
7. Clogged
The typeface became filled with dirt and ink. Particularly in enclose letters such a small letter
o, e, p, and g.

Nine Points That Maybe Involve In Question Typewriting
1. That of ascertaining the exact date of such typewriting.
2. Whether every line of the document was written at one time.
3. Whether the various lines of the document were written at different time by same machine.
4. Whether the document was written at different times several machine.
5. Whether spurious, typewritten pages have been added to the original document.
6. Whether interlineations have been added to the original document.
7. Whether additional words of sentences have been written at the end of the paragraph.
8. Whether the entire document was written by one machine.
9. Whether the document was written by a particular suspected typewriter.
Principal Typewriting Questions That May Be Resolved In Typewriting Examination

1. to determine whether an evidence typewriting was accomplished on a suspected typewriter.
2. to determine whether an evidential typewriting was accomplished on a suspected typewriter.
3. To determine whether all of typewriting was prepared by a suspected typist.
4. To determine the make or brand of typewriter on which a questioned typewriting was prepared.
Procedure in Examining Questioned Typewriting Documents

1. Get specimen from standards typewriting, measure the typeface pitch.
2. Use the Three Points of preparing standards of typewriting.
3. Examine the individual letters of the specimen.
IDENTIFICATION OF TYPIST
The points for consideration to identify the operation and who wrote a particular piece of
typewriting are:
1. Spelling;
2. Punctuations;
3. Use of Capital;
4. Division of words;
5. Choice of Words;
6. Construction of sentences;
7. Observance or non-observance of grammatical rules; and
8. Subject matter in general as relating to specifically to the typewriting itself the matter to consider
in addition to those mention above are:
a. Depth of identification of paragraph (indention);
b. Spacing before and/or other punctuations;
c. Use of characters in an unusual ways as:
(1) capital "I" for figure "1"
(2) Small "l" fro capital "l"
(3) Sign "&" for the word "and"
d. Arrangement of conclusions;
e. Erroneous repetitions of letter or words;
f. Arrangement of heading;
g. Striking shift key letters in the wrong position
h. Repeated heavy impressions of certain letters;
i. Uniform light impressions of certain characters;
j. Peculiar erasures or corrections;
k. Uneven margin;
l. Balanced or unbalanced placing of letter on page;
m. Length of lines; and
n. method of writing numbers, amounts and fractions.
Identification of Age of the Typewriter:

The basis of identification is upon selected letters. Each of these letters is turn in classified by
means of various features of its designs into one of several groups:
The three (3) basic letters in the system in the order of their use are "w", "g" and "t", may not
be always positively identify the machine.
The letters r, y, m, and l, and s, serves as supplementary factors in the pica systems and a, r, y,
l, m, and comma (,) in the elite type.

CHAPTER 11
SCIENTIFIC HANDWRITING EXAMINATION PROCESS
I. Analysis
• Properties or characteristics of the disputed writing are observed, taking into consideration its
feature of form (general or individual) and line quality (whether in a natural manner or not).
Consistency and oneness of execution of the disputed writing is also verified
• The FIRST STEP of the initial examination of the material (Questioned Document) is
determining whether the material is of good quality and contains enough characteristics of
handwriting to be identifiable
• Once the examiner has determined the material contains sufficient characteristics that can be
compared, his or her attention should turn to the exemplars to determine if they are suitable
for comparison with the questioned material.
A. Determine whether date of execution of questioned and known writing are contemporary.
B. Determine are and physical condition of writer at the time of execution of questioned and known
writing.
C. Determine lowest and highest level of writing capability of the writer thru the questioned and
known writing.
D. Also, determine separately whether questioned and standard writings were written by one person
and how identifiable (individualistic) are writings.
 Most writers change the slant of their writing, feeling this is sufficient because it alters the
appearance of the writing. THEY DO NOT CHANGE ANY OTHER CHARACTERISTICS
 Lack of internal consistency is the principal sign of disguised writing
II. Comparison
Properties or characteristics of the unknown (disputed) as determined through analysis are
compared with the known attributes of the standards items.
Five Elements or examination aspects that should be considered in all handwriting comparisons:
a. General (system of writing) characteristics against individual features.
b. Consistency or inconsistency of individual features, i.e. habitual,
accidental, temporary or rare.
c. whether writing is within the demonstrated capability of the writer.
d. whether the individual features are hidden characteristics or not.
e. Frequency or occurrence of a certain feature based on experience.

III. Evaluation
• Writing elements or characteristics is assigned a value based on the following:
• Degree of consistency with which it occurs throughout the specimens;
• Degree of speed or spontaneity with which it was made;
• Extent to which it deviates from the prescribed or copy book standards.
• Frequency with which it is encountered in writings taken at random; and
• Degree of conspicuousness of the element in question and others of a more or less complexity.
Steps in the Examination of Signature

 STEP 1 - Place the questioned and the standard signatures in the juxta-position or side by side
for simultaneous viewing of the various elements and characteristics;
 STEP 2 – the first element to be considered is the handwriting movement or the manner of
execution (slow, deliberate , rapid etc.) the fundamental difference existing between a genuine
signature and an almost perfect forgery is in the manner of execution.
 STEP 3 – second elements to examine is the quality of line, the presence of tremors, smooth,
fluent or hesitation. Defect in line quality is only appreciated when simultaneous viewing is
made.
 STEP 4 – examine the beginning and ending lines, they are very significant, determine whether
the appearance blunt, club-shaped, tapered or vanishing
 STEP 5 – Design and structure of the letters , determine as to roundness, smoothness,
angularity and direction. Each individual has a different concept of letter design.
 STEP 6 – look for the presence of patching or retouching.
 STEP 7 – connecting strokes, slant, ratio, size, lateral spacing
 STEP 8 – do not rely so much on similarity or difference of small and capital letters for these
are change according to the notion of the writer.
MAKING IDENTIFICATION
• The basic PRINCIPLE of handwriting identification is always a twofold process
 There must be sufficient similarities in the CLASS CHARACTERISTICS and INDIVIDUAL
CHARACTERISTICS
• FUNDAMENTAL DIFFERENCES include line quality, pressure patterns, method of construction
of letters and words, and subtle subconscious handwriting characteristics
• ELIMINATION - It is more difficult to eliminate a writer than to make an identification.
Identification can often be made with a small sample of known handwriting. To eliminate a
writer, one must know all of the different ways a writer can write. This requires much larger
samples of known handwriting before elimination can be made.

CHAPTER 12
MISCELLANEOUS DOCUMENT PROBLEMS
Documents as discussed in chapter two are questioned not only because of the signature that
it bare nor only because of the handwriting it contains but rather on variety of ways depending upon
the issue that was raised and what it completely made up. This chapter discussed on the miscellaneous
problems that a document examiner might encounter in relation to the genuineness of the document
such as (1) Detection of alteration, (2) Decipherment and/ or restoration of erased writing, (3)
Decipherment of obliterated writing, (4) Examination of Indented writing, (5) Developing secret
writings, (6) Examination of Charred Documents, (7) Examination of Contact writings, (8) Examination
of Water-Soaked documents, (9) Determination of age of Documents, (10) Developing Latent Prints in
Paper etc.
I. ALTERATION
Alterations in documents can either be an addition or deletion in its original content, which is
not a part of its original production.
Alterations in documents do not necessarily mean a forgery in as much as there can be
alterations that are considered a part of the genuineness of the document. Usually an obvious
alteration is a common indication of a genuine alteration considering that the author is not bothered
by its alteration for anytime he or she can attest to its genuineness. On the other hand, documents
containing partly concealed alterations are the usual indication of forgery. This is true in most cases
because of the attempt of the forger to successfully passed the document without being easily notice,
for he is afraid of easily being detected.
Alterations are either addition or a deletion in the contest of the document.
Alterations Are Made In Any Of The Following Means:

1. ERASURE
Erasure refers to the removal of the writing from the paper. An erasure can be made by
mechanical or chemical means. Erasure by abrasions which leaves spots and black patches too
pronounced to escape detection by the alert examiner. Eradication by means of chemicals, on the

other hand, leaves traces of some reagents in a document especially in newly bleached document
which when viewed in some instruments will often show a yellowish discoloration.
A. Erasure by Mechanical Means

This process involves the use of some abrasive objects like Indian rubber eraser, knives, razor
blades and other sharp instrument. Using a rubber eraser by rubbing off the writings usually leaves
traces of partially left inks, thinner, roughened surface which if over written rapidly absorbs inks and
makes the writing ragged and fuzzy and translucently under the transmitted light.
Some forgers in the hope of hiding traces of abrasions, applies a solutions of rosin or glue
pressed, smoothed and glazed the erased area; other make use of wax, paraffin or starch to cover
up a thinned-out placed caused by erasure.
In the case of overwritten erased writing such as alterations can be identified through the
applications of transmitted light from the back of the paper and supplement with photomicrograph of
the surface to show traces or erased inks or writings.
Erasure is observed at number 8 as shown in the photograph.
In a document pressed with rosin, hold the paper in a reflected light and you will observe that
a smoothened area appears glossier than the rest of the paper or it looks duller than the normal
surface. If wax, paraffin or starch was used, bend the paper in a decided arc and move it so that the
bend or arc (not a break) travels along the paper, which will stretch the surface of the erased area and
such coating will crack into place or powder.
Heavy abrasions which has eliminated all visible traces of the original writing and seriously
disturbed paper fibers of the affected area usually defies restorative efforts but never the less through
transmitted light the area of erasure can still be identified. Nonetheless, we should not expect
impossibility when we really desire to decipher an erased writing. Neither should we pessimistically
neglect restorative efforts because they are not successful in all case.
B. Erasure by Chemical Means

This process involves the use of some chemicals or reagents that is capable of oxidizing or
bleaching an ink. They are commonly called by document examiner as Ink Eradicator. They are usually
composed of solutions of chlorinated lime or soda. This mixture made more active by first touching
the ink mark with a fifty percent (50%) of acetic acid, which accelerates the liberations of the chlorine
gas, the chemical which is responsible for bleaching the ink writing. The common commercial ink
eradicator which is effective with the widest range of inks of the "two-solution" type. The two solutions
which have been mixed before being applied to the ink line, allowed to remain in contact until
bleaching is complete and then removed by blotting. This solution is capable of bleaching both dyestuff
and iron inks although the iron inks if it is old and well-mature, takes a longer time to decipher.
It will be observe that the smell of the bleaching powder associated with ink eradicator
disappears completely after a day or so. The ink lines made with the washable ink will be found to have
been completely removed with no suggestion of their reappearing with the lapse of time. A similar
state of affairs will probably be found on the cheap yellow-tinted paper with respect to the line
made by both inks, but on clear white paper, a yellow patch will slowly develop where the eradicator
is applied, and unmistakable traces of the ink lines will slowly reappear as a pale-yellow makes
especially where record ink was used. This only shows that it is very difficult to detect a permanent
eradication of a record ink, especially on a white paper where the slightest trace of yellow is easily
apparent. Incidentally the record ink lines will have also reappeared on the yellow paper just as they
did in a white paper - the essential difference being that on the white paper the yellow traces could
have been seen, whereas on the paper of poor color they are lost in the background color.
Iron based inks when eradicated can usually be developed through ultra-violet light, chemical
fuming or chemical staining vial aerosol on direct application. Difficulty is encountered when
subsequent overwriting lies in the same paths or pen traces as the erased writing. Good results may
be expected provided that there will be no appreciable disturbance to the paper.
Synthetic dye inks chemically eradicated or washed rare respond to development, attempts
a need for sufficient impressions produced by the pen is necessary to permit decipherment by oblique
light examination.
Erasure of ink by rubbing or by chemical may apparently be complete to the naked eye, but in
many cases, the document examiner is able to decipher what has been erased and in some cases can

actually restore the erased faded writing. Photographic methods involving special lighting, the use of
filters and especially sensitive plates are often sufficient, but in certain cases that document examiner
can render visible the residual traces of the ink line which lie buried in the paper by the use of liquid
or gaseous reagents. This process is one for the laboratory for amateur examiner might only stain the
document than restore the writing.
The oldest and simplest method is to sponge the document with the solution galls [25%
solutions of tannic acid, or a 50% solution of potassium ferro-cyanide (acidulated)] so that the tannic
will combine with the iron to make a new ink compound. Other makes use of 1 % solution of
hydrochloric acid to form Prussian blue which makes the writing plainly visible.
The most scientific method of restoring ink is by fuming. Hold of stretch the document over a
saucer containing ammonium sulfide. If the writing is very dim, support the document over the saucer
and cover the glass. The ammonium sulfide fumes will cause the iron in the ink to turn dark enough
to read. For permanent record, photograph this because the moment the document is lifted out of the
fumes the writing disappears again.
Metallic iodine crystals may also be used in fuming, but they usually discolor the paper.
Though useful in helping to bring out latent ink lines, much care must be exercised in their use.
Indelible pencil writing can also be restored using ammonium sulfide or iodine fumes and documents
should be photographed by transmitted light (throwing strong light through the paper from behind it.)
METHODS OF EXAMINATIONS IR ERADICATION IS SUSPECTED

I. Physical Methods or Non Destructive Process
A. VISUAL INSPECTION - ARTIFICIAL LIGHT, varying in intensity and reflected at different angles is used.
at times oblique lighting is useful but later transmitted light, if the effect of the reflected and oblique
light is unsatisfactory. DIRECT LIGHTING, it is the normal method of looking at the document wherein
the light is arrange in a manner that it falls more or less directly on the surface of the paper and the
eyes also looks down on to it. Transmitted light is one of the most powerful methods in the document
examiners armory. In essential, it is nothing more than placing the document in front of a powerful
source of light so that the eyes perceives only the light which has traveled through the document. In
practice, it is most convenient to have the document supported on a sheet of opalescent glass, which
act as both support and light diffuser. The sheet of glass is itself support above a powerful source of
light by a wood or metal frame. To protect the eye from glare a hole in a sheet of cardboard is moved

over the portion of the document, which is to be explored. This method is also very useful in showing
watermarks of the paper; although ultra violet light is still much powerful in detecting watermarks.
Oblique light, here the source of light is a bulb but the narrow area at the bottom of the inside of the
reflector. It is useful in bringing out any physical faults in the nature of the paper surface across which
the light passes.
B. ULTRA VIOLET LIGHT - Viewing the document under the ultra violet radiations is very useful
especially recently applied ink eradicators in water markings. The term ultra violet light was derived
from the color arrangement of the visible light wherein the ultra violet rays where located nearly
before the visible light or that portion in the wavelength that is occupied by the violet color of the
visible light.
C. PHOTOGRAPHY - Printing the paper as a negative on the process film is found to be useful to
conform any doubtful results of the visual and ultra violet light examinations. Photography is very
essential from the start of the process for it records the original conditions of the document the
moment the examiner receives the document. In order to have accurate descriptions of the visible
results of the ultra violet light and other light examinations, photograph is an SOP for it will come a
time that a need for presentations of proof is of out most important. Photomicrography, thus play a
special role in the presentations of exhibits especially in showing minute characteristics of the
questioned document.
Chemical Methods
A. AMMONIUM SULFIDE VAPOR - a reagent capable of coloring an erased area into black or brown if
a stannous chloride or inorganic reducing agents were used. In which case, photograph is necessary
also because visible results are only temporary as if the moment the document was removed from
the fumes, writings will also disappear.
B. STRACH-IODINE PAPER/FUMES - When a starch-iodine paper is moistened and touched an area on

which hypochlorite eradicator was recently used, the paper will turn blue. This is due to the oxidation
of the iodine to iodine which in turn reacts with starch to produce the blue color. A control test must
be made on an untouched area of the paper.

C. PH INDICATOR PAPERS - Merely pressing a piece of moistened pH indicator paper against the
suspected area is sufficient to show if any acid or basic substance has been used. Many ink eradicators
are acidic. A comparison test must be made on the other part of the paper not close to the area in
question.
Iii. Deciphering or Erased Writing

A. Visual and microscopic examinations - The document is illuminated with light of varying sources,
first reflected, then transmitted and finally oblique. Then, observation can be made either by naked
eye or with the use of a lens of microscope.
B. Ultra-Violet Light - Some colored inks are fluorescents so that if the erasure has not removed all the
inks from the fibers of the paper, traces maybe seen in the intersection of the paper when viewed
under the ultra violet light.
C. Polarized Light - This is useful for developing pencil writing, which was erased. This principle is based
upon the fact that traces of graphite which cannot be seen in an ordinary light can be detected to
polarized light through polarized screen as is used in photography or a document may be viewed
through the low power of polarizing microscope.
D. Photography - A photograph of the erased surface may be made using process film, panchromatic
film of infrared film. In all cases, proper filter must be used.
E. Chemical methods - Iodine fumes is considered to be very useful since it reacts in almost all kinds
of erased inks and it is also the only chemical that can be used in deciphering erased pencil writing,
carbon and nigrosine inks. Others are ammonium and potassium sulfide, thiocynite or hydroxide for
other types of inks.

2. OBLITERATION
It refers to the obscuring of writing by superimposing inks,
pencil or other marking materials. It is otherwise called as Smeared
Over Writing. A person may cross out or obliterate ink writing with
the same ink, with different inks, crayon, pencil or other pigments.
The intentional obliteration of writing by overwriting or cross out is
seldom used for fraudulent purposes because of its obviousness.
Nevertheless, such cases may be encountered in all types of
documents. Success at permanently hiding the original writing
depends on the material that is used to cover the writing. If it was done with the same ink as the
original writing, recovery will be difficult, if not possible. However, if the two inks are of different
chemical composition, photography with infra-red sensitive film may be reveal of writing. Infra-red
radiation may pass through the paper layer of writing while being absorbed by the underlying area. In
one case, a canvas money bag was recovered from the automobile of a suspect in a daring $50,000
robbery. The area of the bag, which normally contained the identifying numbers, was saturated with
a heavy blue-black ink which entirely obliterated all traces of identifying markings. The saturations was
so dense that it rendered opaque the effected area of the bag in what seemed to have been obvious
effort to prevent identification of the bag. Despite of the opacity of the near black saturation to
transmit light, it proved relatively transparent to infrared radiation. Retracing overwriting when one
writing is made over another, the strokes made last show clearly on top. The last writing was made at
least several minutes after the first had dried and therefore there is no fusing or spreading of the ink
on the places where the strokes or lines crossed.
In case of a writing obliterated by a blue crayon, acetone or any inorganic solvent can be used
to dissolve the crayon. If a suitable solvent is not immediately known, the preliminary experiments on
the pigments similar to those involved in the obliteration may be made to find what solvent will remove
the covering pigments without destroying the or leaving the original writing undisturbed. The following
solvents may be tried: water, alcohol, benzene, acetone, carbon tetrachloride, toluene, xylene,
turpentine, amyl acetate, and morpholine.
If the obliteration was accomplished by the use of paper cardboard, or seminal materials to
cover the writing dry carbon tetrachloride or benzene may be used to render the reverse side
translucent by rubbing against the surface of the paper is then made.

The following methods are offered in examination of obliteration:

1. Visual observation using transmitted light or oblique light.
2. Fuming with iodine or in some cases with ammonia, ammonium sulfide, or thiocyanic acid,
these three (3) are very useful if iron is a constituent of the writing.
3. Bleaching the covering layer.
4. Photography with color filters.
Very recently, Joseph D. Nicole, Chief technician of Dade country criminal Bureau of
investigation laboratory develop a new method or reproducing cancelled writing made with printing
inks composed of organic dyes by application of "Thermo Fax" duplicating machine. This machine can
only reproduce writing, which is made up of graphite or carbon black.
3. ADDITION
The validity of a document is sometimes quite naturally questioned because it contains those
parts in the form of interlineations or additions, which may greatly change, extend or limit its effect
and value. In a case of this kind, the question to be determined is of course whether the additions or
interlineations are fraudulent writing, which the document did not contain when it was signed.
Questions of this kind are the basis for much litigation especially in these days of typewriters.
Changes or interlineations in a will are especially reprehensible and if at the last moment before
execution they must be made, they should be described at the end of the will itself before execution;
but this commendable practice is by no means universal and therefore it frequently becomes necessary
to determine if possible whether these interlined or added parts are genuine or fraudulent. Numerous
of these careless practices in the drawing of will are open temptation to fraud and in many instances.
It is impossible by any method to determine whether a change was honestly or fraudulently made.
Many important wills not only contain erasures, additions and interlineations but are written
on several separate sheets of paper loosely fastened together, and in an important recent case the
attestation clause and in the signatures of the witnesses were on a sheet separate from the will itself
bearing the signature of the testator. These careless practices render it easy to make a fraudulent
addition or interlineations or even to substitute without authority whole pages.
If it is possible that the interlined or added part may be in a different handwriting, then
carefully study and comparison must be made, as with a simulated forgery, but often the part in
dispute is concededly written by the writer of the remainder of the document and the order, date and
continuity of the writing are the questions to be investigated.
If an interlined part immediately precedes the signature, as often the case, careful examination
should be made to see if any parts of this writing cross or touch any strokes of the writing of the
signature itself. If these are these crossed lines they must be examined with great care and
thoroughness and with proper instruments as outlined in a preceding chapter. It is not easily
understood without actual experiment and examination with that clearness and certainty; it can often
be shown which the last stroke was made when two (2) strokes cross. Crossed lines may also point to
unnatural order of writing of other parts of the document and it should be carefully examined
throughout with this point in mind.
The question whether any part of the writing followed the folding of the paper should also be
carefully consider if that fact has any bearing on the genuineness of the document or shows anything
irregular in its preparation. This question may be entirely overlooked if a document is not
systematically examined.
The question is sometimes presented as to whether several book entries, charges, credits or
debits were made in the regular course of business on the dates they bear or were fraudulently made
at one time at some later period to some desired result. In an inquiry of this kind, it is highly probable
that there will be greater uniformity in the fraudulent additions that in the regular writing written at
different times and under different conditions.
The unnatural uniformity may show, (1) in the tint or condition of the ink; (2) in the quality of
line; (3) its width; (4) its smoothness or roughness; (5) in the size of writing; (6) in its position, especially
its vertical alignment; (7) in the size, position and arrangement of figures, ditto marks, or abbreviation;
(8) gradation of blotted lines.
Continuous writing of this kind, whether pencil or pen, will almost certainly show less variation
in numerous ways that if written at different times with the writing instrument in various conditions
and the writer necessary surrounded by differing circumstances of time, position, light, haste and care
with variable conditions inevitably affect the result. Some of these habits of uniformity differ with
different individuals and the basis of comparison in an inquiry of this kind should, if obtainable, be
other similar work by the same writer.

A part of a document that is undoubtedly genuine is sometimes carefully retouched in order to
make it conform in ink color to fraudulent or added part. When this retouching of a genuine or
unimportant part is discovered the whole document should be examined with the microscope.
If the task of the forger is to add thus materially change its significance the task is, as a natural
consequence, vastly more difficult than simply to write a signature under such conditions. Even with
the same materials and under the same external conditions, it is exceedingly difficult to produce a
fraudulent written addition without making some conspicuous differences which when pointed out
and properly interpreted are perfectly apparent.
This difference can actually be shown even if it has been possible to match the exact tint of ink,
quality of line and width of strokes, which after the lapse of a little time, is exceedingly difficult if not
actually impossible.
When the task undertaken is that of adding a line or paragraph, or even a word in typewriting,
many almost in surmounting difficulties arise. As is described and illustrated in a later chapter
typewritten characters are in line both ways, vertically as well as horizontally, and in ordinary spacing
the lines are exactly forty one-hundred-and twentieths of an inch apart and exactly parallel. It is of
course possible to get these four positions positively correct but it is a task of very great difficulty.
Another difficulty, if the typewritten addition is made some days, weeks or months after the
original writing, is to exactly match the ribbon condition.
Many documents have been change by a substitution of a whole fraudulent sheet for a genuine
sheet where a document consist more than one sheet. Wills, patent applications, and other documents
have thus been altered and no doubt have in many instances wholly escaped detection. This naturally
is a problem involving almost all the elements or phases of a document and questions may arise
regarding paper, watermarks, ink, handwriting, typewriting, binding, contents, continuity and other
questions discussed in various preceding chapters. An investigation of this kind should give attention
to all these matters.

OTHER FORMS OF ILLEGIBLE WRITINGS
A. Invisible Writing
This type of writing specifically referring to writing which
have no readily visible or legible writing for they have been made
by using sympathetic ink or visible ink. It is generally used by
criminals to avoid possible interception of the information they
want to transmit. The development and detection of this is quite
simple but when in a more serious aspects of it like cases of
espionage, developing is somewhat a difficult task. The rationale of it lies on the fact that persons
involved in espionage usually make use of no ordinary chemicals in preparing their correspondence
compare to that of ordinary criminals who have a limited mentally respecting the use of sympathetic
inks. Since an invisible writing is done using a chemical such of its development depends on the type
of chemicals to be applied to make the writing legible.
In case of possible presence of an invisible writing, the first step that the investigator should do
is to mark and photograph any document in order to preserve the original condition necessary for the
court presentation or other purposes. Methods of the development can be done by physical or
chemical means but still means should always be the first option since it does not give any damage to
the documents.
A. Physical Methods
The methods like the usual one involve the use of light source of varying intensity. It includes
examination by transmitted light, oblique light, reflected light, ultra violet light, and infrared light.
The APPLICATION OF HEAT is also one method of which of the essence for there are invisible writing
which are developed when the document is dried and was heated. For example, hydrated cobaltous
chloride is pink but forms a colorless solution when diluted. If writing with the substance are heated,
it losses it water of hydration and becomes blue.
B. Chemical Methods
Chemical methods of developing an invisible writing is often accomplished using the fuming
method.
1. Fuming with hydrogen sulfide, ammonium sulfide or ammonium poly sulfide in the fuming
chamber will commonly develop invisible writing made up of metallic salts.

2. Fuming with iodine, by placing a suspected document containing an invisible writing under
the fumes of iodine writing can be made legible by the action of the vapor to the chemical making the
secret writing. Starch and other organic materials are the most commonly used invisible writings that
are decipherable by iodine fumes. In restoring the original condition of the document, treat it with a
3% solution of sodium thiosulfate (hypo) solution and then the papers is pressed and reglossed.
3. If acid and base solutions are the one used, fuming with ammonia or acetic acid will develop
the writing.
4. Potassium Ferricyanide or potassium ferrocyanide may be used as developing agents if salt
of copper, iron zinc and silver were used in invisible inks.
5. Silver nitrate is also one, which can be used when an ordinary salt has been employed in the
writing.
Other than fuming, a method of swabbing can also be employed using a colored powder, which
will retain in the rougher surfaces.
B. Charred or Burned Documents

Very often you maybe asked to examine
blacked or partially burned documents.
Documents or paper bills, which have been
burned either accidentally or intentionally, may
sometimes be deciphered in the laboratory. The
method of examination will depend on the degree
of burning and the kind of paper and ink used.
Usually burned papers do not remain intact; instead they appear in fragments, the edge of which is
frequently curled. This piece is quite brittle and great difficulty is often encountered in setting the
fragments in one plane so that they may be photographed. The deciphering of charred documents
often proves impossible and is variably difficult in spite of the infallible methods describe by other
persons who have a little information regarding the burned document. The principle of possible
deciphering of the writing lies on the presence of enough iron compounds on the charred papers that
may be develop using some artificial light strikes in a certain way, same is true when graphite and
indelible pencil marks. Before any attempt to examine this type of altered document, precaution
should be taken into consideration on the fact that charred documents are often so brittle that due

care should be exercise in order not to totally destroy the paper. If the charring is not severe, the
documents may be mounted on a glass using a 2% collusion in amyl acetate, as adhesive. If the charring
is serve and the fragments are very brittle, the paper is first placed in a fuming chamber of
desiccators with a tray of water at the bottom of the paper by absorbing the moisture become more
flexible. Once this condition is attained, the fragments can be placed carefully between glass plates
and photographed.
Since in many cases some of the writing is visible, a photograph with a process film can be made
first to increase the contrast and to record the writing, which may be visible. Chemical methods may
be used to achieve contrast for photographic work other than the use of light. Using a sensitized
emulsion plates pressed interleaving the paper and leave in contrast for about two weeks, the plates
are then developed, fixed and washed. A carbonized sheet used by Murray ca also be utilized in a piece
of glass is set into the enamel tray, as percent of aqueous solution of silver nitrate is carefully poured
into the tray. A second glass plate is set to cover the paper to protect from damage. The writing appears
as black image against a gray background. The writing is photographed in situ in order to preserve the
result of the examination and then the document is washed several times with distilled water to
remove excess of silver nitrate at dried. The principle of this development depends largely on the
presence of certain agents in the ink that can reduce silver ions into a free silver. This method is best
to be undertaken in a room that is free from direct sunlight.
Another method devised by Taylor and Walls employed chloral hydrate to develop the printing
or writing on charred document. This examination is done using a solution containing 25 grams of
chloral hydrate in 125 of ethyl alcohol in which the document is to be immersed and taken out
immediately and dried at 60 degree Celsius. This procedure is repeated several times until a mass of
chloral hydrate crystals from the solution of which 13cc of glycerin have been added. The document is
again dried at 60degree Celsius, Both sides are examined and photographed using process film.
Mr. Purisima T. Dumaul, NBI Chemist, has her own method of producing burned money by
heating the specimen in a furnace under controlled temperature and time sufficient to convert the
carbon deposit to carbon dioxide. When this is through the original design, serial number and
denomination of the paper will be restored. Examples of this were burned money submitted by the
Central Bank which was reproduced.

C. Indented Writing
Indented writing usually applied to a partial depressions appearing on a sheet of paper
underneath the one on which the visible writing appears. The depressions or indentions are due to the
application of pressure on the wiring instrument and would appear as a carbon copy if a sheet of paper
has been properly inserted. It can also appear on a blank sheet of paper used as the backing of the
sheet while typing or writing out certain message. Although, writing are often illegible the message so
impressed can be possibly develop or become more legible by appropriate treatment. This kind of
writing can be often being found in alterations made to a document consisting of two or more pages.
An example of this is in a case of a questioned will, where the husband of the diseased claimed that
the alterations found on the will was made before it was signed. Upon examination of the document,
it was found that on the second page of the will showed some indented writings over the typewritten
words. Common sense will tell you that the alterations were made after the testator had signed the
will.
The following are some of the physical and chemical methods in deciphering indented writing:
A. Physical
1. Side Lighting - letting a strong beam of nearly parallel light almost horizontally over the surface of
the paper. The indentions will appear as a shadow as on the untouched surface and the writing will
then be outlined.
2. Use of Powders - This method is just same with procedure done in developing fingerprint, which
requires a considerable skill and best choice of powder for the best results of the examinations.
3. Indention on the Reverse Side - In cases of obliterations where the writing on a sheet of paper has
been obscured by overwriting with inks, pencil or crayon, it is sometimes possible to discern the nature
of the writing by examination of the reverse side. If the original writing of typewriting was made with
heavy strokes, the paper will be pushed out on the reverse side in the pattern of the writing, such
indented writing may be reproduced by photography with side lighting as describe above.
B. Chemical

1. Fuming - Some procedure with the deciphering of erased writing or obliterated writing. Usually
these methods leave no perceptible trace of any sort of treatment because of the absence of the ink.
2. Use of Chemical Solutions - The principle behind the use of the chemical solutions due to the fact
that the pressure applied to the paper will create a deformation of the fiber structure of the paper
beneath. If an iodine solution (1g iodine, 8g potassium iodine in 8cc of water and adding 20cc of
glycerin) is dabbed with cotton paper, the indented writing will become readily visible and can then
photographed.
The paper can be restored to its original condition by dabbing it with 1% solution of hypo
sodium thiosulfate. Always remember that this method does not apply to all kinds of paper especially
to a ruled paper for the lines will appear slightly smudged.
3. Contact Writing - Writing Off-Set

Partially visible writing due to the sudden contact of a blank paper into another paper
containing freshly applied inks. Cases of this are often referred to the NBI, in one case an envelope in
which a letter was sent to one of the detained prisoners was found to contain traces of illegible writing.
These invisible traces which nothing but constituents of the ink used in writing the letter and placed
inside the envelope before the writing was allowed to dry, may be processed and photographed.
The following procedure of Paul Ermel is recommended for the processing of the contact
writing.
The surface of the paper is treated in a dark room by red light with a solution composed of 5g
silver nitrate, 1g citric acid, 0.5g tartaric and three (3) drops of nitric acid in 100g of distilled water. The
writing is developed in ordinary light and fixed with ordinary light and fixed with ordinary fixation.
Since the process of fixation weakens the intensity of the letters, it is advisable to photograph the
writing first.
The principle of this method is based on the oxidation of the ferrous ion of the ink by the silver
nitrate to ferric ion and reduction of silver, which is deposited.
Since the reaction takes place at boiling temperature, it is necessary to add citric and tartaric
acids to the reagent in order to form complexions with the ferric ions, which are formed. This method
is applied only if the treatment is made before the treatment is made before the lapse of thirty days
since only a negligible amount of iron is present in the inks after this period.

If the inks involved the contact writing contains iron, copper, and vanadium, it is possible to
develop the illegible writing by the following methods:
1. IRON - Solution of ammonium thiocyanate and sodium sulfide may be used to develop the cationic
pictures i.e. the colored compound, which results when the metallic cation reacts with the reagent,
forming an outline of the original writing.
2. CHROMIUM - with a capillary pipette and to the area one (1) drops of solution containing 4g sodium
hypo chlorite and 2g barium chloride in 1200cc of distilled water. After a few seconds, add a very small
amount of phenol and one (1) drop of 1% diphenylacabazide solution of alcohol. A red color will appear
which can be discharged by adding a few drops of 10%sulfuric acid solution. A blue color appears if
cromate is present and an outline of a mirror image of the original writing will be apparent. Any result
must be photographed.
3. COPPER - A drop of 2% ammonium hydroxide is placed on the area selected. After a few seconds, a
drop of dithizone (diphenylacarbazone) is added (10 mg of dithizone in 500cc carbon tetrachloride).
The green color of the reagent changes to brown, if copper is present and reverse outline of the original
writing will develop. Photograph the result.
4. VANADIUM - To the area selected, add one (1) drop of a solution of 12% nitric acid. After a few
minutes, add one (1) drop of 1% hydrogen peroxide solution avoiding excess. If vanadium is present, a
reddish brown color will be developed and reversed outline of the original writing will appear.
Photograph the result.
Identification Of Documents Through Watermarks

Every document made or manufactured contains distinctive characteristic which makes a
paper different from the other paper. Such characteristics is called watermarks. This was placed on
the paper during the time of its manufacture through the aid of dandy roll.
Watermarks are being identified using transmitted light gadget with an illumination, either
from the back or bottom of the paper that will suit to be identified. In some instances, it can also be
used to determine the dater of manufacture of papers because sometimes they make different designs

depending upon the date of manufacture. This is true to say especially in the most famous paper
makers. Thus, in order to have an accurate determination of papers, examiner should strive to go in
contact with the different manufacturers for their records of watermarks they are using in the
manufacture of the papers.
Accidental Markings and Impressions on a Document

The preparation of a document represents a series of planned acts, but at times important
elements become part of the document purely by chance and not through the premeditated design of
either those who prepared the document of those who subsequently handle it. In this way, latent
fingerprints, writings offset some other document, embossing from writing strokes that are not part
of the page in question, and traces of foreign matter with which the document has been in contact
find their way into it. More than likely their presence is entirely unknown the documents author, but
under propitious circumstances these chance markings and additions can play a significant role.
LATENT FINGERPRINTS
Latent (Invisible) fingerprints are place upon papers simply by handling and remain until
chemically developed. The case with which they are added to a paper and their invisibility is definite
assets, especially in criminal investigations. If it is possible to develop and identifiable print to be
compared with those of suspect, a very positive form of evidence may be forthcoming. With some
types of criminal investigation, such as stolen checks cashed with a disguised, fraudulent endorsement,
such a print can assume significant importance.

CHAPTER 13
Detection of Counterfeit Currency Bills
How to Detect Counterfeit Bank Notes and Coins
STUDY the workmanship of each denomination of known genuine Central Bank notes and coins.
Take note of and FAMILIARIZE yourself with the various characteristics of the following features:
NOTES:
1. Distinctive feel 6. Lacework design;
2. Portrait; 7. Color of each denomination;
3. Watermark; 8. Style and size of serial no.;
4. Colored fibers 9. Vignette; and
5. Metallic thread; 10. Cleanness of print
COINS:
1. Even flow of metallic grains;
2. High relief of letters and numerals; and
3. Regularity of readings and beadings.
Examine each note being received and closely observe the following
GENUINE COUNTERFEIT
The fingers will readily feel the Generally smooth. The fingers will hardly feel the
main prints on the front and back on main prints of the embossed effect. This is brought
fairy new notes. This is due to the about by offset printing, the most common process
measurable thickness of the ink employed by counterfeiters.
deposited on the paper which gives Photocounterfeits (reproduced by straight
the prints and embossed effect. photographic copying) generally feel "smily". The
prints are mere stains on the coating of sensitized
paper, which is glossy.
PORTRAIT
GENUINE COUNTERFEIT
Appears life-like. The eyes "sparkle". The Appears "dead'. The face and/or forehead
tiny dots and lines forming the details of are often unnaturally white of pale due to
the face, hair, etc., are clear, sharp and absence of most of the details. It appears
well-defined. Each portrait stands-out blurred, dull, smudgy and poorly printed.
distinctively from the background. This is The eyes often do not sparkle. The
very noticeable along the shoulders. concentric lines depicting the eyes often
The background is composed of multi- merged into solid printed areas. The hair is
colored fine pattern of lines in varying tone lifeless. The background often blends with
and shades interlacing with each other. the portrait and is usually "scratchy". The
These shadings of tonings are intricately lines are thick with rough edges, broken
printed in such a way that the contrast or and fused. The multi-colored prints on
shifting of colors creates the impression of genuine notes are extremely difficult to
life and vividness to the notes. duplicate and as a result, counterfeit notes
are usually off-color and not of the right
shade or tone.
WATERMAKRS
GENUINE COUNTERFEIT
The watermark underneath the security This is imitated printing white ink or dry.
lacework on the right hand side of the note Block on the finished paper. Sometimes
is the same as the colored portrait. This wax or other oily medium is stamped to
design is placed by means of a dandy roll give transparency to the portion where the
during the manufacture of the paper. design appears. Or, a printed outline is
Consequently, sharp details of the outline placed on inner sheet where two sheets are
or the "light and shadow effect" are used, or merely a paper cutout is placed
discernible when viewed with the aid of a inside. As a result coarse or harsh and
transmitted light. The relief of the features occasional irregular lines and sometimes
can be felt by running the fingers on the opaque areas are very obvious.
design.
METALLIC THREAD

GENUINE COUNTERFEIT
This is a special thread placed vertically on Faked by means of printing on the back of
the paper during manufacture. On the the note, on the inner side of the paper,
surface of the paper where this thread is insertion of twine thread or by simply
located are a pattern of short vertical lines. folding the note vertically where the thread
appears on the genuine bill.
COLOR FIBERS
GENUINE COUNTERFEIT
These fibers are scattered at the random Simulated by printed lines, cannot be
on both surfaces and can be readily picked picked off, but can be easily erased with
off by means of any pointed instrument. ordinary rubber or by agitating with wet
fingers.
LACEWORK DESIGN
GENUINE COUNTERFEIT
This geometric pattern are often blurred,

The geometric pattern which looks like a
rough on the edges and blotched on the
delicate lacework along the border on
joints. Its continuity could not be traced.
both surfaces, embellishing the portrait,
The colored appears faded.
value panel and vignette and under the
legend ANG BAGONG LIPUNAN, are multi-
colored and composed or sharp lines which
are continuous and traceable even at the
joints.
COLOR OF EACH DENOMINATION

GENUINE COUNTERFEIT
Genuine notes have polychrome Generally there is an irregular sputtering of

background with one predominant color white spots caused by non-registry or
for each denomination. breaks of the background tint. Most often
100 peso Muave counterfeits of this type of notes lacks the
50 peso Red vividness of the color inherent in genuine
20 peso Orange bills.
10 peso Brown
5 peso Green
SERIAL NUMBER
GENUINE COUNTERFEIT
The prefix letter (s) and numbers six of The letters (s) and numbers are poorly
them except on replacement a peculiar printed. They are usually of different style.
style and are uniform in size and thickness. Most often, they are not evenly spaced and
Spacing of the numbers is uniform and are poorly aligned, either too big or too
alignment is even. small, too thick or too thin; and in certain
cases shaded on the curves
VIGNETTE
GENUINE COUNTERFEIT
The lines and dots composing the vignette Usually dull and poorly printed. It appears
are fine, distinct and sharp, the varying dirty. The lines are comparatively thicker
color tone gives a "Bold Look" to the picture with rough edges. There is no variation in
that makes it "stand out" of the paper. color tone so that the picture appears flat.
CLEANESS OF POINT

GENUINE COUNTEFEIT
The registry of the different printed In general, a spurious note exhibits a
features is perfect. The lines are very "second hand" look. It is dirty due to the
clean and sharp. There are no "burrs" sputtering of ink on the interior area.
clinging to the sides. Over inked areas are visible instantly.
The shadings and ornamentations of the
letters and figures are thick and usually
merged.
COINS
GENUINE COUNTERFEIT
Most counterfeit coins feel greasy and

Genuine coins show an even flow of
appear slimy. The beading composed of
Metallic grains. The details of the
tiny round dots surrounding the
profile, the seal of the Republic of the
genuine coin appear irregular and
Philippines, lettering and numerals are
elongated depression and are not sharp
of high relief, that it can be readily felt
and prominent as in genuine. The
distinctly by running of fingers on these
letterings and numerals are low and
features. The beadings are regular and
worn out due to lack of sharpness of
the readings are deep and even.
details. The readings are uneven and
show signs of filing.
Make it a HABIT to FEEL and LOOK at all currency being received so that the FINGERS
AND THE EYES WILL BECOME FAMILIAR with all the foregoing features of genuine
Central Bank notes and coins.
Compares with a known genuine currency of the same denomination when a note or coin
is suspicious.

ALWAYS REMIT all questionable currency to the CASH DEPARTMENT, Central bank of
the Philippines, for verification.
CASH DEPARTMENT
MANILA
GUIDELINES ON HOW TO DETECT COUNTERFEIT UNITED STATES CURRENCY

NOTES
1. CHARACTERISTICS OF U.S. PAPER MONEY
A. TYPES
a. Federal reserve Note - with GREEN treasury seal and serial number
b. United State Note - with RED treasury seal and serial number
c. Silver Certificates - with BLUE treasury seal and serial number
(Special currency issued for emergency use during World War II still circulates to a
limited extent. This include National Currency Notes, Series of 1929. with Brown treasury seals
and serial numbers; currency with the word "HAWAII" overprinted on face and back and
Silver Certificates with bear Gold treasury seals and Blue serial numbers.)
B. FEDERAL RESERVE NOTES

Each Federal Reserve Note also carries a regional seal at the left of the portrait on the
face of the bill. This seal is printed in black and bears the name of the Federal Reserve Bank
of issue and the number and letter representing the Federal Reserve District in which the
Bank is located, as follows:
"1" - Boston - "A" "7" - Chicago - "G"
"2" - New York - "B" "8" - St. Louis - "H"
"3" - Philadelphia - "C" "9" - Minneapolis - "I"
"4" - Cleveland - "D" "10" - Kansas City - "J"
"5" - Richmond - "E" "11" - Dallas - "K"
"6" - Atlanta - "F" "12" - San Francisco - "L"
C. SALIENT FEATURES COMMON TO ALL TYPES

1. Portrait - Every denomination has the following identifying portraits.
$1 - Washington $100 - Franklin
$2 - Jefferson $500 - Mckinley
$5 - Lincoln $1000 - Clevelan
$10 - Hamilton $5000 - Madison
$20 - Jackson $10000 - Chase
$50 - Grant
2. Check letter and face plate number - These are located to the lower right corner of the face
of the note. An identical check letter (without the face plate number is also found in the upper
left corner).
3. Back Plate Number - This is located in the lower right hand portion of the back of the
note.
4. Serial numbers - Identical numbers are found on the face of the note, one on the top to the
right of the portrait and the other, at the bottom on the left. The figures are uniform in size and
alignment.
5. Series - U.S. paper currency bears a series identification located on the upper-left or lower
right portion of the note.
6. PAPER - U.S. currency notes are printed on distinctive paper in which RED and BLUE
threads are scattered. These threads are not always readily noticeable on bills that are badly
soiled worn.
7. Lathe or scroll work - the borders are executed in minute detail with lathe or scroll work
(commonly known as lacework) which are continuous and evenly shaded.
General Characteristics of Genuine and Counterfeit U.S. NotesMain

Prints
The fingers will readily feel the Generally smooth. The fingers will hardly
main prints on the face and back feel the main prints of the front and back
particularly on fairly new notes. even on new notes.
This is due to the measurable ink
deposited on the paper, which
gives the prints an "embossed"
effect.
Portrait

The portrait appears life-like. The The portrait appears dead. The face and/or
eyes "sparkle". The tiny dots and forehead are often unnaturally white or pale
lines forming the details of the due to absence of most of the details. It
face, hair, etc. are clear, sharp and appears blurred dull, smudgy and poorly
well-defined. Each portrait stands printed. The eyes do not sparkle and the hair
out distinctly from the background is lifeless. The background often blends with
are very fine, but clear and the portrait. This is usually noticeable along
distinctly visible. In cases where the shoulders. The lines are thicker with
these lines cross each other the rough edges, broken and often fused, such
intervening white "square" are that the intervening "squares: are merged
clear and uniform. and appear as solid black.
Paper
Counterfeit notes are printed on inferior
The genuine notes are printed on
quality paper does not contain the colored
special quality paper which has a
threads. However, oftentimes, these security
typical "banknote crackle" when
fibers of the counterfeit notes are simulated
agitated by the fingers. There are
by hand drawn or plate printed small red and
numerous red and blue threads,
blue lines. These line are very few not of the
distributed over both surfaces,
right color; and appear only on the surface
which can be picked off with an
and could easily be erased with ordinary
ordinary pin.
rubber or by agitating with a wet fingers.
Lathe or scroll work

The white security lines compose a This network of white lines are often
geometric patter which looks like a blurred, rough on the edges and
delicate lacework along the borders on blotched on the joints. Its continuity
both surfaces. These white line are could not be traced.
sharp, continuous and traceable even at
the joints.
Serial Number The letters and the numbers are poorly
The serial numbers are clearly printed printed. They are usually of different
with a peculiar style and are uniform in color and style. Most often , they are
size and thickness. unevenly spaced and very poor aligned.
Treasury Seal The Treasury Seal has usually uneven
The saw-tooth points of the Treasury and broken saw-tooth points along the
Seal are sharp and pointed. border.

List of Philippine Currency, which have ceased to be legal tended and/ or already
demonetized
Denomination Issue/Series Withdrawal from Demonetized
circulation
1-, 2-, 5-, 10-, 20-, Victory Treasury 30-07-63 30 - 07 - 67
50-, 100- peso Note
Half-peso, 50-, 20-, Fractional Central 04-01-66 04-01-70
10-, 5-, centavo Bank Notes

50-, 20-, 10-, 5-, 1-, Central Bank 01-07-73 28-02-74
peso Notes (Pilipino

Series)
100-,50,-20-,10-,5- Central Bank 01-07-73 28-02-74
,2-, 1- peso Notes (English

Series)
1/2-, 1-, 5-, 10-, 20- Philippine
07-02-75 31-03-79
, 50 centavo and 1- Treasury Coins
peso (1903-1944)
1-, 5-, 25-, 50-, Central Bank
01-09-75 31-08-79
centavo Coins (1958-1966)
- May be surrendered for exchanged at par and without charge at the Central
Bank of the Philippines, it authorized agents banks or government treasurers
during the three-year period ending March 31, 1979.
- May be surrendered for exchange at par and without charge at the Central
Bank of the Philippines, Its authorized agent banks or government treasurers
during the three-year period ending August 31, 1979.

CHAPTER 14
Presentation of Questioned Document Evidence in Court
COURT LITIGATION
A forensic document examiner’s duty is not only limited on examining and establishing proof
of authenticity and authorship of a suspected disputed document because conviction still lies on
the decision of the judge to decide on issue. With that, the document examiner has to present his
findings in a court trial as an expert witness for him to convince the trier-of-fact and the interested
party on the result of his examination and as an expert witness he needs to prepare a list of
questions to help qualify him or her in court. An expert may also be disqualify to appear in court
due to insufficiency of proper preparation of the case hence, he has to prepare exhibits to properly
demonstrate his findings. Also, he must be prepared to present a testimony effectively to the
triers-of-fact through direct testimony and to defend it during cross-examination corroborated by
clear, well-organized and convincing exhibits.
The document examiner must be prepared to answer questions such as:

1. Questions that are designed to highlight his expertise and accomplishment on the field of forensic
questioned document examination.
2. Knowledge on the rules of court specifically on the rules on evidence.
3. Expert needs to anticipate questions and prepare suitable un-contradicted answers during cross-
examination of opposing attorney because the latter will try to impeach him.
Witness will be qualified in the court to testify when the qualification of the witness was
presented proving that the witness is an expert and can really assist the trier-of-fact in the
interpretation of evidence in the court. The opposing attorney may also try to prove that the
witness is not an expert and therefore not qualified to testify but in some cases the opposing
counsel will stipulate that the witness is qualified to prevent the presentation of background of
the witness.
When the witness is already qualified the counsel will start direct examination by asking the
general procedure of analyzing handwriting in a case, when the general methods of examination
was explained it will be followed by a question of what was asked to determine by the examiner
pertaining to the disputed document. Then the opinion of the examiner pertaining to the issue will
be the next question to be explain to the court on how did the witness arrived to his opinion in the
case supported by introducing the exhibits. The counsel may also ask supplementary questions to
the witness if he thinks that there are overlooked point which was not asked or explain.
After the direct examination the opposing counsel may cross-examine the witness, the
purpose of this examination is to impeach the witness so that the judge may exclude the testimony
of such witness. The opposing counsel will then try to establish weak points on the testimony of
the witness by looking on contradictory statements previously stated by the witness. So, it is
advisable that the expert witness shall thoroughly review his prior statements especially in
disposition before testifying. This will refresh the memory of the witness so that he could
anticipate the problems in his previous testimony and think about an explanation and rebut any
disproof that will be asked by the opposing counsel. After the cross-examination the witness
client’s attorney may again ask question to clarify any misconception. After, the opposing party
may also present an expert witness to contradict the statements of the other witness.
Most of handwriting cases benefits on the presenting exhibits, the opinion of the document
examiner should always be demonstrated and his testimony may be boost by a visual aids
demonstrating the following:
1. Information that is complex.
2. Important points that need to be emphasized.
3. Side-by-side comparisons of questioned and known signatures.

APPENDICES
APPENDIX “A”
Provision of Criminal Law on Forgery and Counterfeiting
REVISED PENAL CODE (RPC) OF THE PHILIPPINES

Art. 161. Counterfeiting the great seal of the government, forging the signature or stamp of
the Chief Executive.
Art. 162. Using forged signature or counterfeit seal or stamp.
Art. 163. Making and importing and uttering false coins-committed by any person who shall
make, import or utter false coins in connivance with counterfeiters or importers.
Art. 164. Mutilation of coins- committed by any person who shall mutilate coins of the legal
currency of the Philippines or import or utter mutilated current coin in connivance with mutilator
or importer.
Art. 165. Selling of false or mutilated coins, without connivance.
Acts Punishable:
1. Possession of coins, with knowledge that it is false or mutilated and with intent to utter the
same- and the same coin was counterfeited or mutilated by another person
2. Utterances of such false or mutilated coins, knowing them to be false or mutilated
Art. 166. Forging treasury or bank notes or other documents payable to bearer; importing
and uttering such false or forged notes and documents
Acts Punishable:
1. Forging and falsification of treasury or bank notes or other documents payable to bearer.
2. Importation of these false or forged obligations or notes
3. Uttering these forged or false obligation and notes the utterer conniving with the forgers or
importers
Art. 167. Counterfeiting, importing and uttering instruments not payable to bearer. -
committed by any person who shall forge, import or utter, in connivance with the importer or
forgers, any instrument payable to order or other document of credit not payable to bearer.

Art. 168. Illegal possession and use of false treasury or bank notes and other instruments of
credit –committed by any person who shall knowingly use or have in his possession, with intent
to use any of the false or falsified instruments referred to above.
Art. 169. How forgery committed (Panghuhuwad)
1. By giving to a treasury or bank note or any instrument payable to bearer or to order mentioned
therein, the appearance of a true and genuine document.
2. By erasing, substituting, counterfeiting, or altering by any means the figures, letters, words, or
sign contained therein
Art. 170. Falsification of legislative documents- committed by any person who, without proper
authority shall alter any bill, resolution or ordinance enacted or approved or pending approval by
either house or any provincial or municipal board or council
Art. 171. Falsification by public officer, employee or notary or ecclesiastical minister-

committed by these people who, taking advantage of their public position, shall falsify a document
by committing any of these:
1. Counterfeiting or imitating any handwriting, signature or rubric;

2. Causing it to appear that persons have participated in any act or proceeding when they did not
in fact so participate
3. Attributing to persons who have participated in an act or proceeding statements other than
those in fact made by them
4. Making untruthful statements in a narration of facts
5. Altering true dates;
6. Making any alteration or intercalation in a genuine document which changes its meaning
7. Issuing in an authenticated form a document purporting to be a copy of an original document
when no such original exists, or including in such copy a statement contrary to, or different from,
that of the genuine original; or
8. Intercalating any instrument or note relative to the issuance thereof in a protocol, registry or
official book.
ELEMENTS OF FALSIFICATION BY PUBLIC OFFICER, EMPLOYYEE OR NOTARY PUBLIC:
1. The offender is a public officer, employee or notary public;

2. He takes advantage of his official position;
3. He falsifies a document by committing any of the acts above enumerated;
4. If the offender is an ecclesiastical minister, the falsification is committed with respect to any
record or document of such character that it may affect the civil status of another.
Art. 172. Falsification by private individuals and use of falsified documents- committed by:

1. Private individual who shall commit any of the falsifications mentioned in the preceding article
in any public or official document or letter of exchange or any kind of commercial document; and
2. Any person who, to the damage of another, or with intent to cause such damage, shall in any
private document shall commit any of the acts of falsifications therein
3. Any person who shall knowingly introduce in evidence in any judicial proceeding to the damage
of another or who, with intent to cause such damage, shall use any of the false documents
embraced in the preceding article or in any of the subdivision of this article.
ELEMENTS OF FALSIFICATION UNDER PARAGRAPH 1
1. The offender is a private individual or a public officer who did not take advantage of his official
position;
2. He committed any acts of falsification enumerated in article 171;
3. The falsification is committed in a public or official or commercial document.
ELEMENTS OF FALSIFICATION UNDER PARAGRAPH 2
1. The offender committed any acts of falsification enumerated in article 171 with the single
exception of that stated in paragraph seven;
2. The falsification is committed in a private document;
3. The falsification was done with intent to cause damage or it actually caused damage to a third
party
Kinds of documents under Philippine laws that maybe falsified:
1. Public document: is any instrument executed by a notary public or by public or a competent

public authority, with the solemnities required by law;
2. Private document- a deed or instrument executed by a private person without the
intervention of a notary public or persons legally authorized, by which document some
disposition or agreement is proved, evidenced or set forth.
3. Official document- a document issued by a public official in the exercise of the functions of his
office.
4. Commercial document- a document or instrument used by merchants or businessman to
facilitate or promote trade or credit transactions.
Art. 173. Falsification of wireless, cable, telegraph, and telephone messages, and use of said
falsified messages.
Art. 174. False medical certificates, false certificates of merit or service, etc. - committed by:

1. Physician or surgeon who in connection with the practice of his profession , shall
issue a false certificate
2. Public officer who shall issue a false certificate of merit of service, good conduct, or
similar circumstances
3. Private person who shall falsify any of the above mentioned certificates.
Art. 175. Using false certificate. - committed by anyone who shall make use of the false
certificates mentioned in the next preceding article.
Art. 176. Manufacturing and possession of instruments or implements for falsification. -

committed by any person who shall:
1. Make or introduce into the Philippines any stamps, dies, marks, or other instruments or
implements for counterfeiting or falsification
2. Possess with intent to use the instruments or implements for counterfeiting or falsification
made in or introduced into the Philippines by another person.
- do -

APPENDIX “B”
RULES OF COURT - RULE 132
PRESENTATION OF EVIDENCE
A. EXAMINATION OF WITNESSES
Section 1.Examination to be done in open court. — The examination of witnesses presented in

a trial or hearing shall be done in open court, and under oath or affirmation. Unless the witness is
incapacitated to speak, or the questions call for a different mode of answer, the answers of the
witness shall be given orally.
Sec.2.Proceedings to be recorded. — The entire proceedings of a trial or hearing, including the

questions propounded to a witness and his answers thereto, the statements made by the judge or
any of the parties, counsel, or witnesses with reference to the case, shall be recorded by means of
shorthand or stenotype or by other means of recording found suitable by the court.
A transcript of the record of the proceedings made by the official stenographer, stenotypist or
recorder and certified as correct by him shall be deemed prima facie a correct statement of such
proceedings.
Sec. 3.Rights and obligations of a witness. — A witness must answer questions, although his
answer may tend to establish a claim against him. However, it is the right of a witness:
1. To be protected from irrelevant, improper, or insulting questions, and from harsh or
insulting demeanor;
2. Not to be detained longer than the interests of justice require;
3. Not to be examined except only as to matters pertinent to the issue;
4. Not to give an answer which will tend to subject him to a penalty for an offense unless
otherwise provided by law; or
5. Not to give an answer which will tend to degrade his reputation, unless it to be the very fact
at issue or to a fact from which the fact in issue would be presumed. But a witness must
answer to the fact of his previous final conviction for an offense.
Sec. 4.Order in the examination of an individual witness. — The order in which the individual
witness may be examined is as follows;
a. Direct examination by the proponent; (Also known as EXAMINATION IN CHIEF)
b. Cross-examination by the opponent;
c. Re-direct examination by the proponent;
d. Re-cross-examination by the opponent.
Sec. 5.Direct examination. — Direct examination is the examination-in-chief of a witness by the

party presenting him on the facts relevant to the issue.
Sec. 6.Cross-examination; its purpose and extent. — Upon the termination of the direct
examination, the witness may be cross-examined by the adverse party as to many matters stated
in the direct examination, or connected therewith, with sufficient fullness and freedom to test his
accuracy and truthfulness and freedom from interest or bias, or the reverse, and to elicit all
important facts bearing upon the issue.

Sec. 7.Re-direct examination; its purpose and extent. — After the cross-examination of the
witness has been concluded, he may be re-examined by the party calling him, to explain or
supplement his answers given during the cross-examination. On re-direct-examination, questions
on matters not dealt with during the cross-examination, may be allowed by the court in its
discretion.
Sec. 8.Re-cross-examination. — Upon the conclusion of the re-direct examination, the adverse
party may re-cross-examine the witness on matters stated in his re-direct examination, and also
on such other matters as may be allowed by the court in its discretion.
Sec. 9.Recalling witness. — After the examination of a witness by both sides has been concluded,
the witness cannot be recalled without leave of the court. The court will grant or withhold leave
in its discretion, as the interests of justice may require.
Sec. 10. Leading and misleading questions. — A question which suggests to the witness the
answer which the examining party desires is a LEADING QUESTION. It is not allowed, except:
library
a. On cross examination;
b. On preliminary matters;
c. When there is a difficulty is getting direct and intelligible answers from a witness who is ignorant,
or a child of tender years, or is of feeble mind, or a deaf-mute;
d. Of an unwilling or hostile witness; or
e. Of a witness who is an adverse party or an officer, director, or managing agent of a public or private
corporation or of a partnership or association which is an adverse party.
A MISLEADING QUESTION is one which assumes as true a fact not yet testified to by the witness,
or contrary to that which he has previously stated. It is not allowed.
Sec. 11.Impeachment of adverse party's witness. — A witness may be impeached by the party
against whom he was called, by:
1. contradictory evidence,
2. by evidence that his general reputation for truth, honestly, or integrity is bad, or
3. by evidence that he has made at other times statements inconsistent with his present,
testimony, but not by evidence of particular wrongful acts, except that it may be shown by
the examination of the witness, or the record of the judgment, that he has been convicted
of an offense.
Sec. 12. Party may not impeach his own witness. — Except with respect to witnesses referred
to in paragraphs d (unwilling or hostile witness) and e (witness who is adverse party) of Section 10,
the party producing a witness is not allowed to impeach his credibility.
A witness may be considered as unwilling or hostile only if so declared by the court upon adequate
showing of his adverse interest, unjustified reluctance to testify, or his having misled the party
into calling him to the witness stand.
The unwilling or hostile witness so declared, or the witness who is an adverse party, may be
impeached by the party presenting him in all respects as if he had been called by the adverse party,
except by evidence of his bad character. He may also be impeached and cross-examined by the
adverse party, but such cross-examination must only be on the subject matter of his examination-
in-chief.

Sec. 13 .How witness impeached by evidence of inconsistent statements. — Before a witness
can be impeached by evidence that he has made at other times statements inconsistent with his
present testimony, the statements must be related to him, with the circumstances of the times and
places and the persons present, and he must be asked whether he made such statements, and if
so, allowed to explain them. If the statements be in writing they must be shown to the witness
before any question is put to him concerning them. (This section is known as LAYING THE
PREDICATE)
1. RELATE to the witness the statement with the circumstances of time, persons and places.
2. ASK the witness if he made those statements.
3. EXPLAINATION is demanded of the witness regarding the alleged inconsistencies.
Sec. 14.Evidence of good character of witness. — Evidence of the good character of a witness
is not admissible until such character has been impeached.
Sec. 15.Exclusion and separation of witnesses. — On any trial or hearing, the judge may exclude
from the court any witness not at the time under examination, so that he may not hear the
testimony of other witnesses. The judge may also cause witnesses to be kept separate and to be
prevented from conversing with one another until all shall have been examined.
Sec. 16.When witness may refer to memorandum. — 1. A witness may be allowed to refresh
his memory respecting a fact, by anything written or recorded by himself or under his direction
at the time when the fact occurred, or immediately thereafter, or at any other time when the fact
was fresh in his memory and knew that the same was correctly written or recorded (This is known
as Present Recollection Revived); but in such case the writing or record must be produced and may
be inspected by the adverse party, who may, if he chooses, cross examine the witness upon it, and
may read it in evidence. 2. A witness may testify from such writing or record, though he retain no
recollection of the particular facts, if he is able to swear that the writing or record correctly stated
the transaction when made; but such evidence must be received with caution (This is known as
Past Recollection Recorded).
Sec. 17.When part of transaction, writing or record given in evidence, the remainder,
admissible. — When part of an act, declaration, conversation, writing or record is given in
evidence by one party, the whole of the same subject may be inquired into by the other, and when
a detached act, declaration, conversation, writing or record is given in evidence, any other act,
declaration, conversation, writing or record necessary to its understanding may also be given in
evidence. (This is known as the OPEN YOUR DOOR POLICY OR THE COMPLETENESS RULE).
Sec. 18.Right to respect writing shown to witness. — Whenever a writing is shown to a witness,
it may be inspected by the adverse party.
PROPER ORDER IN THE EXAMINATION OF A WITNESS
1. Direct examination by the proponent- direct examination is the examination in chief of a

witness by the party presenting him on the facts relevant to the issue.
2. Cross examination- a mode of procedure to test the truth of the statements made by a witness
under direct examination by testing the recollection, veracity, accuracy, honesty and bias or
prejudice of a witness, and exhibit the improbabilities of his testimonies.

3. Re-direct examination- a procedure to meet and answer the cross examination, to explain or
supplement statements made on cross examination which tend to create doubts and to contradict
matters drawn forth on direct examination.
4. Re-cross examination- a procedure by which a party re-examines the witness on matter stated
in his re-direct examination.
LEADING QUESTIONS, defined- it is a question which suggests to the witness the answer which
the examining party desires to hear. It is one by which the answer of a witness may be rather an
echo to the question than a genuine recollection of events. As a general rule leading questions are
NOT ALLOWED.
Exceptions to the rule that leading questions are not allowed

(In the following cases leading questions are now allowed)
1. On cross examination;
2. On preliminary matters;
3. When there is difficulty in getting from ignorant or child witness, or deaf mute witness a
direct and intelligible answer.
4. Unwilling or hostile witness
5. Witness who is an adverse party
AUTHENTICATION AND PROOF OF DOCUMENTS

Sec. 19.Classes of Documents. — For the purpose of their presentation evidence, documents are
either public or private.
Public documents are:
a. The written official acts, or records of the official acts of the sovereign authority, official bodies and
tribunals, and public officers, whether of the Philippines, or of a foreign country;
b. Documents acknowledge before a notary public except last wills and testaments; and
c. Public records, kept in the Philippines, of private documents required by law to the entered therein.
d. All other writings are private.
Sec. 20. Proof of private document. — Before any private document offered as authentic is
received in evidence, its due execution and authenticity must be proved either:
a. By anyone who saw the document executed or written; library
b. By evidence of the genuineness of the signature or handwriting of the maker.
c. Any other private document need only be identified as that which it is claimed to be.
Sec. 21.When evidence of authenticity of private document not necessary. — Where a private
document is more than thirty years old, is produced from the custody in which it would naturally
be found if genuine, and is unblemished by any alterations or circumstances of suspicion, no other
evidence of its authenticity need be given (This is known as ANCIENT DOCUMENT RULE)
Sec. 22.How genuineness of handwriting proved. — The handwriting of a person may be

proved: 1. by any witness who believes it to be the handwriting of such person because he has
seen the person write, or 2. by a witness who has seen writing purporting to be his upon which
the witness has acted or been charged, and has thus acquired knowledge of the handwriting of
such person. Evidence respecting the handwriting may also be given 3. by a comparison, made by

the witness or the court, with writings admitted or treated as genuine by the party against whom
the evidence is offered, or proved to be genuine to the satisfaction of the judge.
Sec. 23.Public documents as evidence. — Documents consisting of entries in public records

made in the performance of a duty by a public officer are prima facie evidence of the facts therein
stated. All other public documents are evidence, even against a third person, of the fact which gave
rise to their execution and of the date of the latter.
Sec. 24. Proof of official record. — The record of public documents referred to in paragraph (a)
of Section 19, when admissible for any purpose, may be evidenced by 1. an official publication
thereof or 2. by a copy attested by the officer having the legal custody of the record, or 3. by his
deputy, and accompanied, if the record is not kept in the Philippines, with a certificate that such
officer has the custody. If the office in which the record is kept is in foreign country, the certificate
may be made by a secretary of the embassy or legation, consul general, consul, vice consul, or
consular agent or by any officer in the foreign service of the Philippines stationed in the foreign
country in which the record is kept, and authenticated by the seal of his office.
Sec. 25.What attestation of copy must state. — Whenever a copy of a document or record is
attested for the purpose of evidence, the attestation must state, in substance, that the copy is a
correct copy of the original, or a specific part thereof, as the case may be. The attestation must be
under the official seal of the attesting officer, if there be any, or if he be the clerk of a court having
a seal, under the seal of such court.
Sec. 26.Irremovability of public record. — Any public record, an official copy of which is
admissible in evidence, must not be removed from the office in which it is kept, except upon order
of a court where the inspection of the record is essential to the just determination of a pending
case.
Sec. 27.Public record of a private document. — An authorized public record of a private

document may be proved 1. by the original record, or 2. by a copy thereof, attested by the legal
custodian of the record, with an appropriate certificate that such officer has the custody.
Sec. 28.Proof of lack of record. — A written statement signed by an officer having the custody
of an official record or by his deputy that after diligent search no record or entry of a specified
tenor is found to exist in the records of his office, accompanied by a certificate as above provided,
is admissible as evidence that the records of his office contain no such record or entry.
Sec. 29.How judicial record impeached. — Any judicial record may be impeached by evidence
of: (a) want of jurisdiction in the court or judicial officer, (b) collusion between the parties, or (c)
fraud in the party offering the record, in respect to the proceedings.
Sec. 30.Proof of notarial documents. — Every instrument duly acknowledged or proved and
certified as provided by law, may be presented in evidence without further proof, the certificate
of acknowledgment being prima facie evidence of the execution of the instrument or document
involved.
Sec. 31.Alteration in document, how to explain. — The party producing a document as genuine
which has been altered and appears to have been altered after its execution, in a part material to
the question in dispute, must account for the alteration. He may show that the alteration was made
by another, without his concurrence, or was made with the consent of the parties affected by it, or

was otherwise properly or innocent made, or that the alteration did not change the meaning or
language of the instrument. If he fails to do that, the document shall not be admissible in evidence.
Sec. 32.Seal. — There shall be no difference between sealed and unsealed private documents
insofar as their admissibility as evidence is concerned.
Sec. 33.Documentary evidence in an unofficial language. — Documents written in an unofficial

language shall not be admitted as evidence, unless accompanied with a translation into English or
Filipino. To avoid interruption of proceedings, parties or their attorneys are directed to have such
translation prepared before trial.
C. OFFER AND OBJECTION

Sec. 34.Offer of evidence. — The court shall consider no evidence which has not been formally
offered. The purpose for which the evidence is offered must be specified.
Sec. 35.When to make offer. — As regards the testimony of a witness, the offer must be made at
the time the witness is called to testify.
Documentary and object evidence shall be offered after the presentation of a party's testimonial
evidence. Such offer shall be done orally unless allowed by the court to be done in writing.
Sec. 36.Objection. — Objection to evidence offered orally must be made immediately after the
offer is made. Objection to a question propounded in the course of the oral examination of a
witness shall be made as soon as the grounds therefore shall become reasonably apparent. An
offer of evidence in writing shall be objected to within three (3) days after notice unless a different
period is allowed by the court. In any case, the grounds for the objections must be specified.
Sec. 37.When repetition of objection unnecessary. — When it becomes reasonably apparent

in the course of the examination of a witness that the question being propounded are of the same
class as those to which objection has been made, whether such objection was sustained or
overruled, it shall not be necessary to repeat the objection, it being sufficient for the adverse party
to record his continuing objection to such class of questions.
Sec. 38.Ruling. — The ruling of the court must be given immediately after the objection is made,
unless the court desires to take a reasonable time to inform itself on the question presented; but
the ruling shall always be made during the trial and at such time as will give the party against
whom it is made an opportunity to meet the situation presented by the ruling.
The reason for sustaining or overruling an objection need not be stated. However, if the objection
is based on two or more grounds, a ruling sustaining the objection on one or some of them must
specify the ground or grounds relied upon.
Sec. 39.Striking out answer. — Should a witness answer the question before the adverse party
had the opportunity to voice fully its objection to the same, and such objection is found to be
meritorious, the court shall sustain the objection and order the answer given to be stricken off the
record.
On proper motion, the court may also order the striking out of answers which are incompetent,
irrelevant, or otherwise improper.

Sec. 40.Tender of excluded evidence. — If documents or things offered in evidence are excluded
by the court, the offeror may have the same attached to or made part of the record. If the evidence
excluded is oral, the offeror may state for the record the name and other personal circumstances
of the witness and the substance of the proposed testimony.
PRESENTATION OF EVIDENCE
A. EXAMINATION OF WITNESSES
SECTION 1.Examination to be done in open court. — The examination of witnesses presented
in a trial or hearing shall be done in open court, and under oath or affirmation. Unless the witness
is incapacitated to speak, or the questions call for a different mode of answer, the answers of the
witness shall be given orally.
Sec.2.Proceedings to be recorded. — The entire proceedings of a trial or hearing, including the

questions propounded to a witness and his answers thereto, the statements made by the judge or
any of the parties, counsel, or witnesses with reference to the case, shall be recorded by means of
shorthand or stenotype or by other means of recording found suitable by the court.
A transcript of the record of the proceedings made by the official stenographer, stenotypist
or recorder and certified as correct by him shall be deemed prima facie a correct statement of such
proceedings.
Sec. 3.Rights and obligations of a witness. — A witness must answer questions, although his
answer may tend to establish a claim against him. However, it is the right of a witness:
1. To be protected from irrelevant, improper, or insulting questions, and from harsh or insulting
demeanor;
2. Not to be detained longer than the interests of justice require;
3. Not to be examined except only as to matters pertinent to the issue;
4. Not to give an answer which will tend to subject him to a penalty for an offense unless otherwise
provided by law; or
5. Not to give an answer which will tend to degrade his reputation, unless it to be the very fact at issue
or to a fact from which the fact in issue would be presumed. But a witness must answer to the fact
of his previous final conviction for an offense.
Sec. 4.Order in the examination of an individual witness. — The order in which the individual
witness may be examined is as follows;
(a)Direct examination by the proponent; (Also known as EXAMINATION IN CHIEF)
(b)Cross-examination by the opponent;
(c)Re-direct examination by the proponent;
(d)Re-cross-examination by the opponent.
Sec. 5.Direct examination. — Direct examination is the examination-in-chief of a witness by the

party presenting him on the facts relevant to the issue.
Sec. 6.Cross-examination; its purpose and extent. — Upon the termination of the direct
examination, the witness may be cross-examined by the adverse party as to many matters stated
in the direct examination, or connected therewith, with sufficient fullness and freedom to test his
accuracy and truthfulness and freedom from interest or bias, or the reverse, and to elicit all
important facts bearing upon the issue.
Sec. 7.Re-direct examination; its purpose and extent. — After the cross-examination of the
witness has been concluded, he may be re-examined by the party calling him, to explain or
supplement his answers given during the cross-examination. On re-direct-examination, questions
on matters not dealt with during the cross-examination, may be allowed by the court in its
discretion.
Sec. 8.Re-cross-examination. — Upon the conclusion of the re-direct examination, the adverse
party may re-cross-examine the witness on matters stated in his re-direct examination, and also
on such other matters as may be allowed by the court in its discretion.
Sec. 9.Recalling witness. — After the examination of a witness by both sides has been concluded,
the witness cannot be recalled without leave of the court. The court will grant or withhold leave
in its discretion, as the interests of justice may require.
Sec. 10. Leading and misleading questions. — A question which suggests to the witness the
answer which the examining party desires is a LEADING QUESTION. It is not allowed, except:
library
a. On cross examination;
b. On preliminary matters;
c. When there is a difficulty is getting direct and intelligible answers from a witness who is ignorant,
or a child of tender years, or is of feeble mind, or a deaf-mute;
d. Of an unwilling or hostile witness; or
e. Of a witness who is an adverse party or an officer, director, or managing agent of a public or private
corporation or of a partnership or association which is an adverse party.
A MISLEADING QUESTION is one which assumes as true a fact not yet testified to by the witness,
or contrary to that which he has previously stated. It is not allowed.
Sec. 11.Impeachment of adverse party's witness. — A witness may be impeached by the party
against whom he was called, by:
1. contradictory evidence,
2. by evidence that his general reputation for truth, honestly, or integrity is bad, or
3. by evidence that he has made at other times statements inconsistent with his present,
testimony, but not by evidence of particular wrongful acts, except that it may be shown by
the examination of the witness, or the record of the judgment, that he has been convicted
of an offense.
Sec. 12. Party may not impeach his own witness. — Except with respect to witnesses referred
to in paragraphs d (unwilling or hostile witness) and e (witness who is adverse party) of Section 10,
the party producing a witness is not allowed to impeach his credibility.
A witness may be considered as unwilling or hostile only if so declared by the court upon adequate
showing of his adverse interest, unjustified reluctance to testify, or his having misled the party
into calling him to the witness stand.
The unwilling or hostile witness so declared, or the witness who is an adverse party, may be
impeached by the party presenting him in all respects as if he had been called by the adverse party,
except by evidence of his bad character. He may also be impeached and cross-examined by the
adverse party, but such cross-examination must only be on the subject matter of his examination-
in-chief.
Sec. 13 .How witness impeached by evidence of inconsistent statements. — Before a witness

can be impeached by evidence that he has made at other times statements inconsistent with his

present testimony, the statements must be related to him, with the circumstances of the times and
places and the persons present, and he must be asked whether he made such statements, and if
so, allowed to explain them. If the statements be in writing they must be shown to the witness
before any question is put to him concerning them. (This section is known as LAYING THE
PREDICATE)
1. RELATE to the witness the statement with the circumstances of time, persons and places.
2. ASK the witness if he made those statements.
3. EXPLAINATION is demanded of the witness regarding the alleged inconsistencies.
Sec. 14.Evidence of good character of witness. — Evidence of the good character of a witness
is not admissible until such character has been impeached.
Sec. 15.Exclusion and separation of witnesses. — On any trial or hearing, the judge may exclude
from the court any witness not at the time under examination, so that he may not hear the
testimony of other witnesses. The judge may also cause witnesses to be kept separate and to be
prevented from conversing with one another until all shall have been examined.
Sec. 16.When witness may refer to memorandum. — 1. A witness may be allowed to refresh
his memory respecting a fact, by anything written or recorded by himself or under his direction
at the time when the fact occurred, or immediately thereafter, or at any other time when the fact
was fresh in his memory and knew that the same was correctly written or recorded (This is known
as Present Recollection Revived); but in such case the writing or record must be produced and may
be inspected by the adverse party, who may, if he chooses, cross examine the witness upon it, and
may read it in evidence. 2. A witness may testify from such writing or record, though he retain no
recollection of the particular facts, if he is able to swear that the writing or record correctly stated
the transaction when made; but such evidence must be received with caution (This is known as
Past Recollection Recorded).
Sec. 17.When part of transaction, writing or record given in evidence, the remainder,
admissible. — When part of an act, declaration, conversation, writing or record is given in
evidence by one party, the whole of the same subject may be inquired into by the other, and when
a detached act, declaration, conversation, writing or record is given in evidence, any other act,
declaration, conversation, writing or record necessary to its understanding may also be given in
evidence. (This is known as the OPEN YOUR DOOR POLICY OR THE COMPLETENESS RULE).
Sec. 18.Right to respect writing shown to witness. — Whenever a writing is shown to a witness,
it may be inspected by the adverse party.
- do -

REFERENCES
a. Luis B. Reyes, (2017) the Revised Penal Code “Criminal Law”. Nineteenth Edition, Rex Book
Store
b. RBSI (2016) Rules of court. Rex Bookstore Incorporated., Recto Avenue Manila, Philippines
c. Camara, R.T. (2016) Questioned Document Examination: An Instructional Material for
Criminology Students with Laboratory Manual. Wisemen’s Book Trading, Inc.
d. Manlusoc, A,C (2014) Forensic Questioned Document Examination. Hunt Publishing Center.,
Manila, Philippines
e. Paredes, L. (2012) Manual on Questioned Document Examination: Laboratory and Lecture
Manual for Criminology Students. Philippines.
f. Mely S.E. (2011) Forge or Genuine: A Questioned Document Handbook, Philippines;
Wisemen’s Books Traiding, Inc.
g. Cruz, N. (2010) Handbook on Forensic Chemistry and Toxicology. Philippine College of
Criminology (PCCr) Manila, Philippines.
h. Gabao R., (2010) Criminal Evidence: a handbook for Criminology Students. Philippine
College of Criminology, Sta. Cruz Manila Philippines.
i. Kalalang Sally & Kalalang Avelino, (2009) Questioned Document Examination: an
Instruction Handbook, Philippines; Wisemen’s Books Trading, Inc.
j. Gonzales Jonas A. (2008) Forensic Questioned Document Examination. Wiseman’s Books
Traiding, Inc. Quezon City Philippines
k. Katherine Mainolfi Koppenhaver., (2007), Forensic Document Examination: Principles and
Practice. Human Pres Inc. Riverview Drive, Suit 208 Totowa, New Jersey
l. Koppenhaver KM. Evaluating Evidence. The Forensic Publishers of Joppa: Joppa, MD, 1991.
m. Dalilis P & Curugan (2003) Handbook on Forensic Questioned Documents, Philippines,
Four Art.
n. The Federal Rules of Civil Procedure, 702, 703, 30, US Government Printing Office:
Washington, DC, December 2000.
o. Ordway Hilton, (1993) Scientific Examination of Questioned Document by Revised Edition,
CRC Press, Inc.
p. Osborn, A. S.(1988) First and second edition hand book in Questioned documents
q. Rynearson J.M. (1983) Evidence and Crime Scene Reconstruction, CA: National Crime
Investigation and Training.

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FORENSIC 4

COMPILED By: GELBERT A. LLANTO, Ph.D.

Evolution of the Written World

Fig. 1.1. Petroglyphs are

COMPILED BY: GELBERT A. LLANTO, PH.D. 1

COMPILED BY: GELBERT A. LLANTO, PH.D. 3

COMPILED BY: GELBERT A. LLANTO, PH.D. 4

Significant Writing Habits

Wrong Handed Writing

Copy book form

COMPILED BY: GELBERT A. LLANTO, PH.D. 6

ACCIDENTAL MARKINGS AND IMPRESSIONS ON A DOCUMENT

QDE Division Capabilities

COMPILED BY: GELBERT A. LLANTO, PH.D. 7

Documents and Exemplars (its classification)

Document / LEGAL TERM

Document / TECHNICAL MEANING

Writings which do not constitute a document

TWO CATEGORIES OF DOCUMENT

COMPILED BY: GELBERT A. LLANTO, PH.D. 8

B. Document containing alleged fraudulent alterations.

Photo of sample alleged fraudulent alteration

D. Document questioned as to their age or date.

E. Document questioned as to the material used in their production

H. Genuine documents erroneously or fraudulently altered or disputed.

TWO TYPES OF STANDARD DOCUMENTS

BASIC POINTS THAT SHOULD BE CONSIDERED IN OBTAINING STANDARDS

COMPILED BY: GELBERT A. LLANTO, PH.D. 10

 Relative Dates of the Questioned and standard Document

 Writing Instrument and paper used

CONSIDERATION FOR TAKING REQUESTED WRITING/SIGNATURE

COMPILED BY: GELBERT A. LLANTO, PH.D. 11

STEPS FOR DICTATED STANDARD

COMPILED BY: GELBERT A. LLANTO, PH.D. 12

POST LITEM MOTAM

DO’S AND DON’TS FOR COLLECTING STANDARDS

Legal Classification of Documents:

COMPILED BY: GELBERT A. LLANTO, PH.D. 13

COMPILED BY: GELBERT A. LLANTO, PH.D. 14

HANDWRITING AND HANDPRINTING

Scientific truth About Handwriting

STEPS IN DEVELOPMENT OF HANDWRITING

 Children learn HANDPRINTING in the primary grades.

Handwriting of a young children

COMPILED BY: GELBERT A. LLANTO, PH.D. 15

PHYSIOLOGICAL BASIS OF HANDWRITING

Muscle being used the act of writing:

COMPILED BY: GELBERT A. LLANTO, PH.D. 17

Examples of Class Characteristics

COMPILED BY: GELBERT A. LLANTO, PH.D. 18

RANGE OF WRITING / MASTER PATTERN

Fig. 12.4. Circle letters displaying various characteristics. (letter groupings)

COMPILED BY: GELBERT A. LLANTO, PH.D. 19

COMPILED BY: GELBERT A. LLANTO, PH.D. 20

COMPILED BY: GELBERT A. LLANTO, PH.D. 21

Classification of Handwriting According to form:

Handwriting may also be classified according to their degree of proficiency in execution.

COMPILED BY: GELBERT A. LLANTO, PH.D. 22

Recommendation Trait of QD Examiner

General principles of QDE

Cases involving Questioned Document

 Forgery  Art crimes

Table 2.1 Principles That Assist in the Identification of Handwriting

No two people write exactly alike.