Accepted Manuscript

Effect of nanoparticles on the modifications of drilling fluids properties: A review of

recent advances

Roozbeh Rafati, Sean Robert Smith, Amin Sharifi Haddad, Rizky Novara, Hossein
Hamidi

PII: S0920-4105(17)30949-X
DOI: 10.1016/j.petrol.2017.11.067
Reference: PETROL 4483

To appear in: Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering

Received Date: 13 September 2017

Revised Date: 18 November 2017
Accepted Date: 27 November 2017

Please cite this article as: Rafati, R., Smith, S.R., Sharifi Haddad, A., Novara, R., Hamidi, H., Effect of
nanoparticles on the modifications of drilling fluids properties: A review of recent advances, Journal of
Petroleum Science and Engineering (2017), doi: 10.1016/j.petrol.2017.11.067.

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 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
1 Effect of Nanoparticles on the Modifications of Drilling Fluids
2 Properties: A Review of Recent Advances
3 Roozbeh Rafati*, Sean Robert Smith, Amin Sharifi Haddad, Rizky Novara,
4 Hossein Hamidi
5 School of Engineering, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, United Kingdom

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7 Abstract
8 Production from unconventional hydrocarbon resources, such as shale gas, shale oil,

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9 deepwater and arctic reservoirs requires advanced drilling and extraction technologies.
10 Furthermore, minimizing the environmental footprints associated with oil recovery processes

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11 are critical. Nanotechnology has been shown promising solutions to overcome such issues in
12 oil and gas industry. Many studies have been conducted to analyse the enhancement of
13 drilling fluids through the use of nanotechnology. In these studies modification of
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rheological, filtration, and heat transfer properties and friction reduction associated with
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15 drilling fluids have been investigated. They also showed that nanoparticles can improve fluid
16 thermal stability, provide better lubricity, hole cleaning and wellbore stability, and mitigate
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17 hydrates formation within the fluid circulation system. This manuscript aims to analyse the
18 outcomes of these studies and improvements that were observed for the application of
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19 nanoparticles in drilling fluids. This review provides the investigators with a detailed
20 overview and comparison of the recent advancements in the field of drilling fluids and
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21 nanotechnology.

22
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23 Keywords
24 Drilling Fluids, Nanoparticles, Rheological Properties, Filtration, Friction Reduction
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25
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26 Introduction
27 Use of nanotechnology in oil and gas industry has been improved rapidly over last decades.
28 Adding nanoparticles (NPs), because of their very ultrafine size (<100 nm) and high surface
29 area to volume ratio, allow engineers to modify the drilling fluids rheology by changing the
30 composition, type, or size distribution of nanoparticles that suit desired drilling conditions
31 without using other expensive additives (Abdo and Haneef 2012). In recent years, numerous
32 studies have been reported on the application of nanoparticles as additives in drilling fluids
33 formulation (Abdo and Haneef 2012, Amanullah et al. 2011, Sharma et al. 2012, Srivatsa and

*Corresponding author: Email: roozbeh.rafati@abdn.ac.uk, Tel: +44 1224 272497

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34 Ziaja 2012, Mao et al. 2015(a), 2015(b), Taraghikhah et al. 2015, Hassani et al. 2016, Shakib
35 et al. 2016). The benefits include improvement of fluids rheological properties, reductions in
36 filtration loss and friction coefficient, increase of the rate of heat transfer, shale stability
37 improvement, and inhibition of gas hydrate formation. A summary of research studies to date
38 is presented in Table 1 to 5 of this manuscript. Detailed review of the studies with profound
39 outcomes are presented in the following section based on the modification of the drilling

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40 fluids property through addition of nanoparticles.

41

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42 Modification of Rheological Properties
43 The rheology of drilling fluids should exhibit shear thinning characteristics to have less

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44 resistance at high shear rates. At low shear rates, (for instance when mud circulation is being
45 stopped) the viscosity should be high enough to prevent transported cuttings from falling

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46 back downhole in the wellbore based on Stokes’ Law. Apparent viscosity (AV); which is
47 defined as the ratio of stress to rate of strain of liquid, plastic viscosity (PV); the resistance to
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48 flow of fluid, yield point (YP); the minimum shear stress required in order to move the fluid,
49 and gel strength at 10 seconds and 10 minutes to measure the fluid capability to act like a gel
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50 and suspend cuttings and weighting materials when circulation is ceased, are the rheological
51 properties investigated in this study. One of the common models for the rheology of drilling
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52 fluid is the Herschel-Buckley model (Eq 1),

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53 = + (1)

54 where τ is the shear stress (lb/100 ft2), τ0 is the yield point (lb/100 ft2), K is the consistency
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55 index, γ is the shear rate (s-1), and n is the flow behaviour index (dimensionless) that needs to
56 be less than 1 for shear thinning fluids.
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57 Nanoparticles can enhance the rheological properties of drilling fluids using various
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58 mechanisms which mostly depend on continuous phase of drilling fluids and nanoparticle
59 characteristics. Silica nanoparticles can typically enhance the apparent viscosity of water as
60 the continuous phase of drilling fluids (Mao et al. 2015 (a), 2015 (b), Sharma et al. 2012,
61 Taraghikhah et al. 2015) or displacing fluids in enhanced oil recovery processes
62 (Chegenizadeh et al. 2016, Rafati et al. 2016). It has been well established that the viscosity
63 of nanofluids is much higher than the viscosity of conventional dispersions at the same
64 volume concentration of dispersed particles. As viscosity is defined as internal friction
65 between two layers of a fluid under shear stress, once nanoparticles are dispersed in the fluid
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66 there is a possibility of increasing friction between layers of the fluid, which results in an
67 increase in viscosity of nanofluid (Sundar et al. 2013, Sharma et al. 2016). This enhancement
68 in viscosity of nanofluids can be estimated through homogeneous solid–fluid interaction
69 models. The available theoretical formulas for the estimation of viscosity of nanofluids have
70 been developed initially from the Einstein model (Einstein, 1906), which is based on the
71 assumption that the fluid contains suspensions of spherical shapes. However, his model was

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72 developed based on the simple assumptions and only worked at low concentrations of small
73 nanoparticles. Later, modified models by other investigators have been introduced (Batchelor

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74 1977, Brinkman 1952, Godson et al. 2010, Nguyen et al. 2007, Rea et al. 2009) that could be
75 used for larger nanoparticles at higher concentrations, pressure and temperature. In addition,

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76 it has been found that the effective viscosity of nanofluids depends not only on the
77 concentration of nanoparticles, but also on their sizes. This results have been confirmed
78 through both molecular dynamics simulations of hard-sphere potential (Rudyak et al. 2008,
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Rudyak et al. 2009) and experimental studies (Rudyak et al. 2013, Timofeeva et al. 2010). It
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80 should be noted that in designing drilling fluids, different additives can be used to increase
81 the rheological properties into an acceptable and desirable range required for hole cleaning,
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82 lubricating and cooling downhole equipment among others. However, these properties may
83 not exceed beyond specific levels, inappropriate increase of properties may have negative
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84 effects during fluid circulation in the wellbore such as excessive frictions and weight that
85 impose higher capacity pumps, and sand/cutting removal issues. Therefore, the aim of using
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86 nanoparticles is to attain desirable properties with lower cost and improved efficiencies.

87 Silica nanoparticles can also improve the rheological stability of emulsion based and invert
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88 emulsion based drilling fluids as they have a large free energy of adsorption and can attach to
89 the oil-water interface depending on their degree of hydrophobicity (Agarwal et al. 2011,
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90 Ghosn et al. 2017). Metal NPs can also improve the rheological stability of drilling fluids due
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91 to their high thermal conductivities that can dissipate heat efficiently because of Brownian
92 motion. Therefore, fluid is less affected by the temperature increase and keeps its liquid form,
93 rather than degrading into a solid form. Results from several studies demonstrated that
94 nanofluids have higher thermal conductivities compared to base fluids (Liu et al. 2005; Ding
95 et al. 2006; Aybar et al. 2015). Different investigations on thermal conductivity of nanofluids
96 showed enhancements from 12.4% to 80% can be obtained with carbon nanotubes
97 dispersions in different fluids (Smith et al., 2017). Table 1 lists most of the recent studies on
98 modification of rheological properties of drilling fluids by addition of nanoparticles.
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99 Amanullah et al. (2011) investigated the effect of nanomaterials on several WBFs. They used
100 a number of commercial nanomaterials to overcome challenges associated with conventional
101 drilling fluids. Fluids were prepared with concentration of 0.14 wt% NPs and compared with
102 a base sample. Their results showed no significant changes to the viscosity profile, however
103 superior gelling properties were observed.

104 Agarwal et al. in 2011 used clay and silica nanoparticles to stabilise invert emulsion drilling

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105 fluids at HTHP conditions. They found that nanoclay and nanosilica can individually or as a
106 mixture stabilise the invert emulsion drilling fluids. They also indicated that the rheological

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107 properties of invert emulsion drilling fluids are functions of nanoparticle’s wettability
108 (hydrophobicity). Their results showed addition of barite reduces yield stress but it can be

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109 regained by increasing the concentration of silica nanoparticles. They also found that stable
110 invert emulsion drilling fluids can be obtained using organically modified nanoclay and

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111 hydrophobic nanosilica. Their analysis of gel strength showed that relatively hydrophilic/
112 hydrophobic nanosilica particles that are dispersed in water, and nanoclay particles that are
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113 dispersed in oil phase have significant effect on gel strength capacity.

114 Sharma et al. (2012) was the first to test a silica based NPs with an average particles diameter
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115 of 20 nm as an additive to drilling fluids. They analysed the effects of silica on rheological
116 properties, and found that gel strength and YP were significantly decreased at concentration
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117 of 1wt%, while there was a slight decrease at concentration of 3 wt%. Srivatsa et al. (2012)
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118 also showed that the addition of silica increased the drilling fluid viscosity, with one sample
119 achieving 30% increase in viscosity compared to the base drilling fluid. This is consistent
120 with the recent work of Mao et al. 2015(b) who also concluded that addition of NPs into
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121 drilling fluids cause an increase in viscosity. Taraghikhah et al. (2015) demonstrated similar
122 results for the use of silica with concentrations up to 1 wt%, and Hassani et al. (2016) tested
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123 silica NPs, and a hybrid NPs consisting of carbon nanotubes and silica. Hassani and his co-
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124 workers showed that both types of NPs can increase the effective viscosity of the drilling
125 fluids significantly, with silica NPs showed a superior behaviour compared to the hybrid NPs.
126 Salih et al. (2016) found that the properties of WBFs containing nanosilica are comparable to
127 the higher performance and stability associated with OBFs. Needaa et al. (2016) tested
128 sepiolite NPs, which contains silica, and showed that there was an increase in PV and YP
129 when compared to a base drilling fluid sample. It can therefore be concluded that enhanced
130 drilling fluid rheologies are common trends amongst WBFs with the addition of silica NPs.
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131 Abdo et al. (2013), tested a WBF with a low concentration of Palygorskite (Pal) with particle
132 size between 10-20 nm. The samples with low concentrations of Pal displayed significant
133 improvement in rheological properties including a 200% increase in gelling characteristics.
134 And it was noted that all the fluids displayed shear thinning properties.

135 Abdou et al. (2013) tested bentonite with particle size between 4-9 nm, as an additive to
136 WBFs and compared the results with API bentonite properties and a sample with local

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137 bentonite not at nanosize. The overall rheological properties such as AV, PV and YP
138 decreased due to the addition of bentonite with nanosize diameter, as the solid content of the

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139 fluid was decreased.

140 Table 1 Summary of the recent studies evaluating the application of nanoparticles on modification of

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141 rheological properties of drilling fluids
Base Experimental
Author Types of NPs Modified Properties Summary of Results
Fluid Conditions

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5.9 gr of nano-palygorskite with 10-20 nm
- Plastic viscosity HPHT at 100-
Abdo et al diameter in WBFs showed a reduction of
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Palygorskite Water - Yield point 392°F and 100-
(2013) fluid rheological properties under HPHT
- Gel strength 16,000 psi
(100-392oF and 100-16,000 psi) conditions.

Nanocomposite of ZnO, montmorillonite and

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Nanocomposite palygorskite was used in water-based fluid

HPHT at 109-
Abdo et al (a) of ZnO, - Plastic viscosity system. 2.3wt% of the nanocomposite with
Water 370 °F and 150-
(2014) montmorillonite - Yield point 5-50 nm diameter resulted in more stable
18,500 psi
and palygorskite rheological properties under HPHT (109-
370oF and 150-18,500 psi) conditions.
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2.0 wt % of attapulgite nanoparticles with

Abdo et al (b) - Plastic viscosity
Attapulgite Water Ambient 10-25 nm diameter in WBFs increased the
(2014) - Yield point
rheological properties at ambient condition
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4.0 wt% of nano-sepiolite with 30-90 nm

- Plastic viscosity HPHT at 77-365 diameter in WBFs resulted in more stable
Abdo et al
Sepiolite Water - Yield point °F and pressure rheological properties under various HPHT
(2016)
- Gel strength up to 2,500 psi (77-365oF and pressure up to 2,500 psi)
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conditions.

- Plastic viscosity 2.0 wt% of nanoclay individually, or mixed

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Agarwal et al. - Yield stress (gel HPHT at 437 °F with 1 wt% nanosilica can improve the
Clay and silica Oil
(2011) strength) and 500 psi viscosity and gel strength of invert emulsion
drilling fluids.
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- Plastic viscosity 0.14wt% of nanoparticles in water-based

Amanullah et
Not specified Water - Yield point LPLT drilling fluids showed superior gelling
al. (2011)
- Gel strength properties under LPLT condition

2.0 vol% of nanosilica (SiO2) with 20 nm

HPHT at 77-
diameter in OBFs increased plastic viscosity
Anoop et al. 284°F and
SiO2 Oil Plastic viscosity at ambient condition and maintained stable
(2014) pressure up to
rheological profile under HPHT (77-284oF
6,000 psi
and pressure up to 6,000 psi) conditions.
0.5 wt% of silica nanoparticles (SiO2) with
Ghanbari et - Plastic viscosity 10 nm diameter in WBFs increased plastic
SiO2 Water LPLT
al. (2016) - Yield point viscosity and yield point under LPLT
condition.
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Type of NPs: SiO2, Carbon nanotubes, and
1. SiO2 - Thermal
ZnO. 2.0wt% of each nanoparticle in WBFs
Hassani et al. 2. Carbon conductivity Temperature:
Water increases rheological properties significantly,
(2016) nanotubes - Plastic viscosity 104 oF
however the highest improvement was
3. ZnO - Yield point
obtained from silica NPs.

1. Composite of
The studies evaluated the application of (1)
polyacrylamide
composite of polyacrylamide and nanoclay
and nanoclay
and (2) composite of polyacrylamide-grafted-
2. Composite of - Plastic viscosity High
Jain et al polyethylene glycol and SiO2 nanoparticles.
polyacrylamide- Water - Yield point temperature up
(2015) 0.7wt% of each composite with 20-30 nm
grafted- - Gel strength to 203°F
particle diameter improved fluid rheological
polyethylene

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properties. The drilling fluid had also showed
glycol and SiO2
a stable rheological profile at 203oF.
nanoparticles

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0.5wt% of cellulose nanoparticles with 6 nm
- Plastic viscosity Temperature
Li et al. Cellulose width and 228 nm length in WBFs increased
Water - Yield point range from 20 to
(2015) nanoparticles rheological properties at elevated
- Gel strength 176°F
temperature range from 68 to 176oF

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1. Fe2O3 Ferric oxide (Fe2O3) and silica (SiO2) NPs
2. SiO2 were used in water-based system. 0.5wt% of
ferric oxide improved fluid rheological
Mahmoud et - Plastic viscosity properties while silica at the same

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Water HPHT
al. (2016) - Yield point concentration that showed the opposite
effects on rheology. Fluid with ferric oxide
also exhibited more stable rheological
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properties under HPHT conditions.

1.0wt% of silica nanoparticles (SiO2) in

LPLT and high WBFs improved plastic viscosity and yield
Mao et al. - Plastic viscosity temperature point under LPLT condition. The formulation
SiO2 Water
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(a,b) (2015) - Yield point (392, 410, 428, also showed stable profiles at high
446oF) temperature conditions. (392, 410, 428,
446oF)

- Viscosity Nanographite with 40 nm diameter in OBFs

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Nasser (2013) Nanographite Oil LPLT

increased fluid viscosity at LPLT condition.
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LPLT and 1.4wt% of sepiolite NPs in WBFs exhibited

Needaa et al. - Plastic viscosity HPHT (122- stable rheological profiles under LPLT and
Sepiolite Water
(2016) - Yield point 356oF and 500- various HPHT (122-356oF and 500-6,000
6,000 psi) psi) conditions.
1 – 14 gr of the titanium oxide (TiO2) NPs
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- Plastic viscosity were added to the water-based fluid

Sadeghalvaad
TiO2 Water - Yield point LPLT formulation. Results indicated improvement
et al. (2015)
in plastic viscosity and yield point under
LPLT condition.
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0.3wt% of silica nanoparticles with 5.7 nm

- Plastic viscosity LPLT and
Salih et al. diameter in WBFs decreased the overall
SiO2 Water - Yield point HPHT at 199oF
(2016) rheological properties under LPLT and
- Gel strength and 1,000 psi
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HPHT (199oF and 1,000 psi) conditions.

3.5wt% of celluloses nanoparticles with 8.2

- Plastic viscosity
Song et al. Cellulose nm width and 321 nm length in WBFs
Water - Yield point LPLT
(2016) nanoparticles increased rheological properties under LPLT
- Gel strength
condition.

10wt% of silica nanoparticles (SiO2) in

Srivatsa et al.
SiO2 Water - Viscosity LPLT water-based fluids improved viscosity under
(2012)
LPLT condition
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1.0wt% of silica nanoparticles (SiO2)

- Plastic viscosity High
Taraghikhah improved the overall rheological properties
SiO2 Water - Yield point temperature at
et al. (2015) of WBFs both at LPLT and HPHT condition
- Gel strength 250oF
(250oF).

Oil-based fluids (OBFs) containing

- Plastic viscosity
High nanoparticles exhibited stable rheological
Wagle et al. - Yield point
Not specified Oil temperature at profiles under HPHT (250 and 302oF)
(2015) - Gel strength
250 and 302°F conditions and maintained barite sag to a
- Barite sag factor
lower level.

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142
143 Kosynkin et al. (2011) were the first who tested carbon-based NPs (graphene oxide) as a
144 filtration additive in water-based drilling fluids at concentrations as low as 0.2 wt% with

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145 xanthan gum. Their experimental results showed that a combination of large-flake and
146 powdered graphene oxide in a ratio of 3:1 can provide the best filtration results, having an

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147 average fluid loss of 6.1 mL over 30 min and leaving a filter cake of about 20 µm thick. This
148 was promising compared to a standard suspension of clays and polymers that are used in the

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149 oil industry which showed an average fluid loss of 7.2 mL and a filter cake of 280 µm thick.
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150 Later in 2013, Nasser et al. also tested the rheological properties of carbon-based NPs
151 (graphite) in WBFs. They showed for NPs with the size of 40 nm, the drilling fluid viscosity
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152 was increased, and as temperature and shear rate increase, the viscosity decreases. In 2014,
153 Ismail et al. examined the use of multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNT) in drilling fluids.
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154 They found that adding low concentrations of MWCNT with the size of 30 nm, at normal
155 temperature made no significant difference in the rheological properties compared to the base
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156 sample. However, in ester-based drilling fluids, gel strength and emulsion stability slightly
157 were increased with addition of MWCNT. Later, Taha et al. (2015) examined the use of
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158 carbon-based NPs graphene in WBFs, and similarly their observations showed improved
159 rheological properties of drilling fluids.
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160 Madkour et al. (2016) tested the use of MWCNT based biodegradable composites in oil
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161 based drilling fluids, and showed a significant increase (in some cases up to double) in AV,
162 PV and YP as well as gel strengths over the commercial viscosifier that is used as a
163 comparison, and found that the fluid followed the Herschel-Buckley model. Overall, carbon
164 based NPs have been demonstrated to be effective rheological modifiers at HPHT (High
165 Pressure, High Temperature) conditions, and provide stable drilling fluids (Liu et al. 2005,
166 Ding et al. 2006, Farbod et al. 2015). Mahto et al. (2013) is, so far, the only study have tested
167 the rheological properties of WBFs with the addition of fly ash NPs. Fly ash is small dark
168 flecks and is composed of silica, alumina, magnetite and other components, and is produced
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169 from the burning of powdered coal. Fly ash is currently the world’s fifth largest raw material
170 resource, with India producing up to 130 Mt of fly ash per year. Fly ash NPs with the size
171 between 1-100 nm, were added in concentrations of 1, 2 and 3 wt% and resulted in a stable
172 rheology without any major changes in AV, PV, YP or gel strengths.

173 Sadeghalvaad et al. (2015) tested a mixture of TiO2/polyacrylamide NPs with size between
174 10-15 nm and observed increases in rheological properties. Jain et al. (2015) used

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175 polyacrylamide-grafted-polyethylene glycol/silica nanocomposites, and their results showed
176 an increase in rheological properties for NPs with the size between 20-30 nm, with increasing

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177 concentration from 0.3 to 1.1 wt% as shown in Figure 1.

24 50

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Yield Point (lbf/100ft2)
YP and Gel strengths (lbf/100ft2)

Gel Strength 10s (lbf/100ft2) 45

Gel Strength 10mins (lbf/100ft2)
Plastic Viscosity (cP) 40
Apparent Viscosity (cP)

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PV and AV (cP)
16
30
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25
20
8
15
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5
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0 0
0.3 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.1
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178 wt% of NPs

179 Figure 1: Improved rheological characteristics of WBF with increasing concentration of NPs, Jain et al. (2015)
180 (adopted)
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181 Transition metal NPs have been tested extensively in WBFs by several investigators (William
182 et al. 2014and Barry et al. 2015). William et al. (2014) explored the effects of CuO and ZnO
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183 nanoparticles as additives with the size less than 50 nm, on the rheological properties of
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184 drilling fluids at different concentrations (0.1, 0.3, 0.5 and 1.0 wt%). The results showed that
185 shear rates become thinner and more stable as the concentration increases, and fluid
186 behaviour fits the Herschel-Buckley model well with viscosity only being a function of shear
187 rate rather than pressure and temperature. Barry et al. (2015) tested iron based NPs (size of 3
188 and 30 nm) which their results showed all the samples with NPs concentration of 0.5 wt%
189 exhibit shear thinning characteristic that follow Herschel-Buckley model.

190 Gerogiorgis et al. (2015) also used iron NPs (less than 50 nm in diameter) with
191 concentrations up to 3 wt%. Their results showed that the fluid followed the enhanced
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192 multivariate Herschel-Buckley model which outperformed the bi-parametric Bingham plastic,
193 power law and Casson models demonstrating the rheological properties are temperature and
194 concentration dependant.

195 Reilly et al. (2016) used iron oxide (Fe3O4) NPs with concentrations up to 3.0 wt% to develop
196 the first principle model to describe the rheology of fluid as a function of shear rate, NP
197 volume fraction, and temperature. The study proposed a bivariate and trivariate model for

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198 shear stress and apparent viscosity which is a more in-depth model than the Herschel-
199 Buckley model. Hassani et al. (2016) used zinc to improve rheological properties of drilling

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200 fluids. One of the samples displayed 150% increase in PV and around 100% increase in AV
201 and YP compared to the base mud and displayed shear thinning characteristic that follows the

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202 Herschel-Buckley model. Aftab et al. (2016) also tested a zinc based nano-composites which
203 showed that, at high temperatures, rheological properties had a slight increase which is the

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204 common trend with the addition of transition metal based NPs to WBFs.
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205 Cellulose, a natural biodegradable substance was first introduced by Li et al. (2015). They
206 found that varying cellulose nanocrystals (CNC) concentration from 0-6.0 wt% made a large
207 difference in viscosity and shear rate as shown in Figure 2. Song et al. (2016), stated that
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208 cellulose NPs (CNP) including CNC and cellulose nanofibers (CNF), can be used as eco-
209 friendly additives for WBFs. The concentration range used in their study was from 0.05 wt%
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210 to 0.4 wt% for both CNC and CNF, while bentonite concentration reduced to 0.0 wt% at CNP
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211 concentration of 0.4 wt%. At concentration of 0.05 wt%, the rheological properties showed
212 slight increases compared to the base sample, however, they were decreased as the
213 concentration of CNP was increased while the concentration of bentonite was decreased.
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214 Analysis of the rheological properties showed that the Herschel-Buckley model provides a
215 good characterisation of the samples. At 0.0 wt% bentonite AV, PV and YP were reduced by
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216 85%, 82% and 92%, respectively for CNC.

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1,000
0.0 wt%
1.0 wt%

Effective viscosity (cP)

100
3.0 wt%
10 4.5 wt%
6.0 wt%
1

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0

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0 1 10 100 1,000
217 Shear rate (sec-1)

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218 Figure 2 Viscosity versus shear rate for varying concentrations of CNC, Li et al. (2016) (adopted)

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220 Reduction of Filtration Loss
221
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There have been many studies on the effect of nanoparticles on filtration control during
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222 drilling operations. Amanullah et al. (2011) showed that the addition of commercial NPs into
223 their sample resulted in no spurt loss, indicating a non-damaging fluid system that protects
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224 the nearby formations. The drilling fluid produced a very thin, well dispersed and tight mud
225 cake. One of the first studies on the effect of silica based NPs on filtration control was
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226 conducted by Javeri et al. (2011). They reported reductions in filtrate volume up to 34%
227 using silica NPs with the size ranging from 40 to 130 nm at the concentration of 3 wt%.
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228 Similarly, Cai et al. (2012) used silica NPs to decrease water invasion, at the concentration of
229 10 wt%, which returned reductions of 58-99% in the shale permeability to water for bentonite
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230 muds, and 46-88% for low solid content muds. They also proposed the ideal size of particles
231 can be in the range of 7-15 nm. Table 2 lists some of the recent studies on the reduction of
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232 filtration loss by nanoparticles.

233
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Table 2 Summary of the recent studies indicating reduction of filtration loss of drilling fluids by nanoparticles

Base Modified Experimental

Author Types of NPs Summary of Results
Fluid Properties Conditions

- API fluid loss Nanoparticles called ATR were used in water-

Abdo et al. Material called Material
Water - Filter cake based fluid system. The results show a decrease
(2012) ATR called ATR
thickness API fluid loss and filter cake thickness.
HPHT at 100- The study observed palygorskite NPs in WBFs
- API fluid loss
Abdo et al. 392°F and and showed a decreased in spurt loss and fluid
Palygorskite Water - Filter cake
(2013) 100-16,000 loss by 30% at 30 minutes under API
thickness
psi conditions.
- API fluid loss HPHT at 77- 4.0wt% of nano-sepiolite with 30-90 nm
Abdo et al. - Filter cake 365°F and diameter in WBFs showed reduction of
Sepiolite Water
(2016) thickness pressure up to filtration loss under HPHT (77-365oF and
- HPHT fluid loss 2,500 psi pressure up to 2,500 psi) conditions.
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- API fluid loss
LPLT and 1.0 gr of zinc oxide (ZnO) NPs in WBFs
Aftab et al. - HPHT fluid loss
ZnO Water HPHT (150 reduced filtrate loss under HPHT (150 and
(2016) - Filter cake
and 250°F) 250oF) conditions.
thickness

30wt% of silica nanoparticles with 35 nm

Akhtarmanesh - Fluid Loss
SiO2 Water - diameter in WBfs showed a reduction of fluid
et al. (2013) -Shale inhibition
filtrate observed through the pore plugging test.
The results showed an increase in fluid loss
Barry et al. - API fluid loss LPLT and
Fe2O3 Water with the addition of ferric oxide (Fe2O3) NPs at
(2015) - HPHT fluid loss HPHT
LTLP conditions.
10wt% of silica (SiO2) NPs in WBFs reduced
Cai et al. - API fluid loss filtrate invasion and improved the ability of

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SiO2 Water LPLT
(2012) - Shale inhibition plugging and sealing micro-pores and micro-
fracks of the shale formations.
The study tested iron and calcium NPs at
concentrations 0.0, 0.5, 1.0 and 2.5 wt% along
with lost circulation material (LCM), graphite

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- API fluid loss
at 0.5 and 2.0 wt% in OBF. At LPLT, samples
Contreras et 1. Iron - HPHT fluid loss LPLT and
Oil with iron based NPs showed higher reduction
al. (2014) 2. Calcium - Filter cake HPHT
of filtration loss than samples with calcium
thickness
based NPs. It also concluded that LCM works

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better with iron based NPs but not with calcium
at HPHT conditions.
LPLT and
- API fluid loss 0.8wt% of carbon nanotubes in WBFs reduced
Halali et al. Carbon HPHT (248,
Water - HPHT fluid loss filtration loss under HPHT (248, 302, 347,
(2016) nanotubes 302, 347,
- Shale inhibition 392°F) conditions.

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392°F)
0.5wt% of cellulose nanoparticles with 6 nm
- API fluid loss Temperature
Cellulose width and 228 nm length in WBFs reduced
Li et al. (2015) Water - Filter cake range from 20
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nanoparticles fluid loss under elevated temperature
thickness to 176°F
conditions, range from 20 to 80oC.
The study tested spherical latex particles with
1. Latex
- Shale inhibition size distribution 80-345 nm with aluminium
Liu et al. particles LPLT and
Water - API fluid loss complexes in WBfs and concluded they had
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(2015) 2. Aluminium HPHT

- HPHT fluid loss excellent plugging abilities with API filtrate
complexes
reducing by 44%

- API fluid loss Low 2.0wt% of silica (SiO2) NPs in WBFs reduced
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Liu et al.
SiO2 Water - Shale inhibition temperature filtration loss at low temperature (21 to 43oF)
(2016)
- Hydrate inhibition 21 to 43°F) conditions.
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The study tested graphene and multi-walled

1. Graphene carbon nanotube (MWCNT) NPs at
Madkour et al HPHT (59-
2. Carbon Oil - HPHT fluid loss concentration of 0.5 wt% in an OBFs and
(2016) 199°F)
nanotubes showed reduction in filtration loss under HPHT
at 302°F and 500 psi.
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0.5wt% of ferric oxide (Fe2O3) NPs in WBFs

- HPHT fluid loss
showed minor fluid loss under HPHT
- Filter cake
Mahmoud et 1. Fe2O3 conditions compared to silica (SiO2) NPs which
Water thickness HPHT
al. (2016) 2. SiO2 showed an increase of fluid loss as due to an
- Filter cake
increase in porosity and permeability of the
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permeability
filter cake.
Experiments using fly ash NPs in WBFs
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achieved a 30% reduction in filtration loss and

- API fluid loss
Mahto et al. about a similar proportion amount again in
Fly ash Water - Filter cake LPLT
(2013) filter cake thickness. Increasing the
thickness
concentration of the NPs and the size of the fly
ash also decreases filtrate significantly
LPLT and
1.0wt% of silica (SiO2) NPs in WBFs
high
Mao et al. considerably reduced API fluid loss over 80%
SiO2 Water - API fluid loss temperature
(a,b) (2015) improved plastic viscosity and yield point
(392, 410,
while considerably reduced fluid loss.
428, 446°F)
The study tested 40 nm graphite NPs and
Nasser et al.
Nanographite Oil - API fluid loss LPLT showed mud filtrate reduction by 50% under
(2013)
LPLT condition.
- API fluid loss The experiment tested on titanium oxide (TiO2)
Sadeghalvaad
TiO2 Water - Filter cake LPLT NPs in WBFs and resulted in the reduction of
et al. (2015)
thickness filtration loss and filter cake thickness by 64%.
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LPLT and Silica (SiO2) NPs at 0.7 wt% in WBFs gave the
- API fluid loss
Salih et al. HPHT at lowest mud cake thickness (1 mm) and found
SiO2 Water - Filter cake
(2016) 199oF and that filtration reduced as the concentration
thickness
1,000 psi increased.

- API fluid loss 3.5wt% of celluloses NPs with 8.2 nm width

Song et al. Cellulose
Water - Filter cake LPLT and 321 nm length in WBFs reduced filtration
(2016) nanoparticles
thickness loss at LPLT condition.

LPLT and
- API fluid loss
high The study tested 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 wt% of
Taha et al. - Coefficient of
Graphene Water temperature graphene NPs in a 10 ppg WBF and resulted in
(2015) friction

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(120 and reduced API fluid loss of up to 30%.
- Shale inhibition
351°F)
CuO and ZnO NPs were used in the
LPLT and experiments. Both WBF samples have NPs less
- API fluid loss than 50 nm at concentration of 0.1, 0.3 and 0.5

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William et al. 1. CuO - Filter cake HPHT (T: wt%. The results showed that fluid loss and
Water thickness
(2014) 2. ZnO 158, 194, filter cake thickness decreased significantly
230°F; P: under LPLT and HPHT (T: 158, 194, 230 oF; P:
1,450 psi) 1,450 psi) conditions. Overall, at the same
concentration ZnO NPs showed a better result

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40wt% of silica (SiO2) NPs with 10-20 nm
- HPHT fluid loss diameter in synthetic-based fluids (SBFs)
Yusof et al. HPHT (275,
SiO2 Synthetic - Filter cake showed significant reduction of fluid loss and
(2015) 351, 450°F)
thickness filter cake thickness under HPHT (275, 351,
450oF) conditions.

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- API fluid loss 0.74wt% of NPs with 20-40 nm diameter in
Zakaria et al.
Not specified Oil - Filter cake LPLT OBFs reduced filtration loss up to70% under
(2012)
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thickness LPLT condition.

- Shale inhibition
- API fluid loss LPLT and 2.0wt% of NPs in OBFs effectively
Zhang et al.
Not specified Oil - HPHT fluid loss HPHT significantly reduced fluid loss and filter cake
(2015)
- Filter cake (194°F) thickness under HPHT condition at 194oF.
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thickness

234
235 Srivatsa et al. (2012) also reported up to 50% reduction in filtration loss by using silica NPs
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236 in a surfactant based mud. Sharma et al. (2012) observed that invasion into shale is reduced
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237 by 10 to 100 times when using silica NPs with the size of 20 nm. Mao et al. (2015(b)) also
238 tested a silica based nanocomposite with 12 nm silica NPs and achieved an API fluid loss
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239 reduction of over 80%. Meanwhile, Needaa et al. (2016) found using sepiolite NPs can give
240 15% reduction in filtrate volume. Research by Salih et al. (2016) showed that using silica
241 NPs at concentration of 0.7 wt% gave the lowest mud cake thickness (1 mm) and found that
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242 filtration was reduced as the concentration was increased.

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243 Mahmoud et al. (2016), however, showed that as the concentration of silica NPs increases, an
244 increase in porosity and permeability of the filter cake can be observed due to an increase in
245 agglomeration. Thus, the general trend for using silica based NPs is that it can reduce
246 filtration loss efficiently. Mahto et al. (2013) used fly ash NPs in their experiments and
247 achieved 30% reduction in filtration loss and about a similar proportion amount again in filter
248 cake thickness.
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249 Bentonite and barite are typically used as a viscosifier and weighting agent respectively in
250 drilling fluids. Abdou et al. (2013), reported that the use of bentonite with particle size
251 between 4-9 nm increases filtration loss compared to the micro-sized bentonite particles. This
252 could be due to using NPs at a high concentration where the drilling fluid does not have a
253 large particle size distribution, which could affect its plugging abilities or the particles being
254 so small that they just flow through filter cake. Akhtarmanesh et al. (2016) used mechanically

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255 and chemically prepared barite NPs with average size of 1205 nm and 744 nm, respectively.
256 The sample with chemically prepared NPs had 60% greater maximum sealing pressure during

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257 the particle plugging test than the base mud, and mechanically prepared sample had 90%
258 greater maximum sealing pressure than the chemically prepared sample. The mechanically

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259 prepared NPs had a much larger particle size distribution which causes fluid to form a better,
260 more compact filter cake, hence much higher maximum sealing pressure is tolerable. Cedola
261 et al. (2016), while testing the use of barite, determined there is also an increase in fracture
262
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sealing capabilities with mechanically over chemically prepared NPs, where mechanically
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263 prepared NPs increased the fracture reopening pressure by 13%.

264 Nasser et al. (2013) was the first to test a carbon-based NPs for their filtration properties.
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265 They tested 40 nm graphite NPs which the reported mud filtrate volume has been reduced by
266 50%. Ismail et al. (2014) concluded that the addition of MWCNT NPs into commercially
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267 available fluid loss additives gives a good mixture for preventing fluid loss. Taha et al. (2015)
268 investigated graphene NPs for its application to improve drilling fluids performance.
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269 Graphene was tested at concentrations of 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 wt% for a mud with density of 10
270 lb/gal, and returned an API fluid loss decrease up to 30%. Similar observation was reported
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271 by Abdo et al. (2013), when testing the mineral Pal NPs in WBFs, and found a spurt loss and
272 fluid loss decrease by 30% at 30 minutes under API conditions.
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273 The transitional metal NPs feature commonly in testing for API fluid loss. Ponmani et al.
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274 (2016) conducted the some tests on the use of copper and zinc based NPs in drilling fluids.
275 Both samples had NPs less than 50 nm at concentration of 0.1, 0.3 and 0.5 wt% and the
276 results were compared with micro sized particles. The results are shown in Figure 3, where it
277 shows a significant decrease in filtration with any addition of NPs. Mahmoud et al. (2016)
278 also showed an iron based NPs can have a significant reduction in filtrate volume by 43% for
279 the sample with NPs concentration of 0.5 wt%.
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16
(a) CuO 0.0 wt%
14 0.1 wt% NP, 0.4 wt% XG
0.5 wt% NP, 0.4 wt% XG
12 0.1 wt% NP, 5 wt% PVP
0.5 wt% NP, 5 wt% PVP
10
Filtrate (ml)
8
6
4

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2
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35

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Time (minutes)
16 0.0 wt%
(b) ZnO 0.1 wt% NP, 0.4 wt% XG
14 0.5 wt% NP, 0.4 wt% XG

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0.1 wt% NP, 5 wt% PVP
12 0.5 wt% NP, 5 wt% PVP
0.1 wt% NP in PEG 600
Filtrate (ml)

10 0.5 wt% NP in PEG 600

8
6

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4
2
0
M

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Time (minutes)

280 Figure 3 Fluid loss durig a period of 30 minutes for WBF and nano-enhanced WBF. (a) CuO; (b) ZnO,
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281 Ponmani et al. (2016) (adopted)

282 Polymer NPs have also been tested as fluid loss control additives to WBFs. Sadeghalvaad et
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283 al. (2015) performed tests on polyacrylamide/TiO2 NPs and showed that filtrate volume and
284 filter cake thickness both reduced by 64%. Jain et al. (2015) also investigated a
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285 polyacrylamide/silica NPs drilling fluid and achived API fluid loss reduction of 14% at
286 particle concentration of 1.1 wt%. Liu et al. (2015) tested spherical latex particles with size
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287 distribution between 80-345 nm with aluminium complexes, and concluded they had
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288 excellent plugging capabilities with a reduction in API filtrate volume by 44%.

289 Li et al. (2015), used CNC NPs, and observed that changing the concentration have minimal
290 change in filtration properties, however, Song et al. (2016) observed that filtrate volume
291 increased at higher concentrations of NPs. Zoveidavianpoor et al. (2016) discussed the use of
292 tapioca starch as NPs additive in WBFs. The NPs were tested with concentrations up to 2.5
293 wt% and three different sizes of 7 µm, 64 µm and 920 nm. 920 nm sample achieved a fluid
294 loss reduction between 61% - 67.5% over the tested concentration range, and similar values
295 for mud cake thickness indicated the improved filtration properties.
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296 Zakaria et al. (2012) examined the use of NPs in OBFs and the focus was on reducing fluid
297 loss at LPLT conditions. NPs were prepared ex-situ and in-situ with the size between 1-30
298 nm, and they were compared with commercial NPs with particle size between 20-40 nm.
299 Commercial NPs reduced fluid loss by 66.7%, however, the in-house prepared ex-situ and in-
300 situ decreased it by 68% and 77%, respectively at 30 mins, with the in-situ having zero spurt
301 loss. Thickness of the filter cake however, did increase by 23% and 13% for ex-situ and in-

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302 situ prepared NPs, respectively.

303 Contreras et al. (2014) tested iron (NP1) and calcium (NP2) based NPs at concentrations of

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304 0.0, 0.5, 1.0 and 2.5 wt% along with lost circulation material (LCM), graphite at 0.5 and 2.0
305 wt% in OBFs. The rheology of the samples did not change significantly with the addition of

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306 NPs and LCM up to 120 °F. At NPNT (Normal Pressure, Normal Temperature; 14.7 psi and
307 73° F), filtration reduced 100% for the sample with 2.0 wt% graphite and 1.0 wt% iron based

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308 NPs. The maximum reduction in filtrate volume for calcium based NPs was 45% with 2.0
309 wt% graphite and 0.5 wt% NPs. In summary NP1 showed a better performance at higher
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310 concentrations of graphite at HPHT conditions, whereas NP2 performed better at lower
311 concentrations. Figure 4 shows that LCM works better with iron based NPs but not with
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312 calcium at HPHT conditions. Iron based NPs with LCM could achieve filtration reduction
313 over 75%.
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100 100
(a) (b)
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0 wt% G
80 80
0.5 wt% G
% Filtrate reduction

% Filtrate reduction

2.0 wt% G
60 60
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40 40
0 wt% G
20 0.5 wt% G 20
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2.0 wt% G
0 0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
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NP1 (wt%) NP2 (wt%)

314 Figure 4 Percentage of reduction in mud filtrate at 30min under HPHT for (a) NP1 (the single square
315 represents the blend only containing NP1 at 0.5wt%) and (b) NP2 (the single square represents the blend only
316 containing NP2 at 2.5wt%), Contreras et al. (2014) (adopted)

317 Madkour et al. (2016), tested graphene and MWCNT NPs at the concentration of 0.5 wt% in
318 an OBF for HPHT conditions of 300°F and 500 psi. The rheological properties and HPHT
319 filtration loss are shown in Figure 5. All rheological properties were increased with the
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320 addition of MWCNT and graphene NPs. All samples showed stable rheology at elevated
321 temperatures and followed the Herschel-Buckley model.

322
323 Improvement of the Rate of Heat Transfer
324 Drilling fluid characteristics under HPHT conditions are important as fluids need to be stable
325 at elevated temperatures and provide the rheological and filtration properties as required for

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326 the well. The rate of heat transfer of the drilling fluid is also critical in maintaining a stable
327 fluid to prevent the overheating of drill string components. Ideally the drilling fluid should

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328 display low deterioration, high stability, consistent rheology and filtration loss, and a high
329 rate of heat transfer. Table 3 presents recent studies reporting the improvements in heat

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330 transfer properties of drilling fluids.

12 100

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HPHT Fluid Loss (ml) Plastic Viscosity (cP)
11 90
Yield Point (lbf/100ft2)

Plastic Viscosity and Yield Point

10
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80
9
70
HPHT Fluid Loss

8
7 60
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6 50
5 40
4
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30
3
20
2
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1 10
0 0
Base MWCNT Graphene
331
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332 Figure 5 Rheological properties and HPHT filter loss for the base sample, sample with MWCNT and sample
333 with graphene NPs, Madkour et al. (2016) (adopted)
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334 Table 3 Summary of the recent studies evaluating the application of nanoparticles to improve heat transfer
335 properties of drilling fluids
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Types of Base Experimental

Author Summary of Results
NPs Fluid Conditions
Silica based NPs were mixed with surfactant in WBF system. The
Srivatsa et al. results showed that, at 392°F and 1000 psi, surfactant stability
SiO2 Water LPLT
(2012) was better when mixed with silica NPs compared to samples
without NPs.
HPHT at 100- The results on palygorskite NPs showed that the WBF had perfect
Abdo et al
Palygorskite Water 392°F and 100- stability at temperatures up to 392°F and pressure up to 16,000
(2013)
16,000 psi psi

WBF samples of copper and zinc based NPs showed an increase

LPLT and
of up to 53% and 23% in thermal conductivity respectively, with
William et al. 1. CuO HPHT (T: 158,
Water copper having a larger increase in thermal conductivity. The
(2014) 2. ZnO 194, 230°F; P:
results also showed that using particles at nano level provides
1,450 psi)
superior thermal conductivity than using the particles at micro
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The study tested the filtration and filter cakes at HPHT
Barry et al. conditions, 1015 psi and 392 °F, of WBFs. Iron based NPs
Fe2O3 Water LPLT and HPHT
(2015) performed better at HPHT than they did at ambient condition and
decreased the filtration.
Water
Fazelabdolabadi Carbon 1.0 vol% of carbon nanotubes with 15 nm diameter and 20 nm
based and LPLT
(2015) nanotubes length in WBFs increased thermal conductivity of drilling fluids
oil based
Some WBF samples were prepared, each containing silica (SiO2),
carbon nanotubes (CNT), and zinc oxide (ZnO) NPs. The results
1. SiO2
showed a 16.9% improvement in thermal conductivity at 2 wt%
Hassani et al. 2. Carbon Temperature:
Water of sample containing silica NPs. CNT additive on WBF had a
(2016) nanotubes 40oC
12% increase in thermal conductivity at 2 wt% which is less than
3. ZnO

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the results of silica and zinc at the same concentration, 16.9% and
22%, respectively
LPLT and HPHT The study reported WBF samples containing 1.4 wt% of sepiolite
Needaa et al.
Sepiolite Water (122-356oF and NPs which successfully stabilised the rheological properties up to
(2016)
500-6,000 psi) pressures as high as 6000 psi and temperatures up to 356 °F

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The results showed that aging silica (SiO2)-containing WBF to
350 °F and 500 psi had a negative effect and gave a severe gel
strength loss of the fluid. When testing iron oxide (Fe2O3) NPs the

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results displayed that fluid viscosity and yield stress stabilised
Mahmoud et al. 1. Fe2O3
Water HPHT with the addition of iron NPs at high temperatures up to 200 °F
(2016) 2. SiO2
and minor changes to the fluids rheological properties when aged
at 350°F for 16 hours. Improvement in filtration properties were
also obtained at HPHT condition. The optimum concentration

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was 0.5 wt%.

LPLT and HPHT CNT NPs were used in WBFs in concentrations up to 0.8 wt% at
Halali et al. Carbon
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Water (248, 302, 347, temperatures 248, 302, 347, and 392°F. The results indicated that
(2016) nanotubes
392°F) thermal conductivity was enhance by up to 12 %.)

Zinc oxide (ZnO) NPs were used in WBF at HPHT (65 and
121oC) conditions for the fluids filtration properties. Filtration
Aftab et al. LPLT and HPHT
ZnO Water reduced slightly at 121 °C, 500 psi, as the concentration of zinc
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(2016) (149 and 250°F)

increased from 0 g up to 1 g in a sample of 350 cc of drilling fluid
from about 13.5 ml to around 10.5 ml.

The study tested boron NPs in WBFs and showed that, at HPHT
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(302 °F and 500 psi) condition, the samples could withstand

Krishnan et al. higher temperatures and prevent early breakdown of the polymers
Boron Water HPHT
(2016) in the WBF. A field trial indicated that 2 wt% concentration could
go up to 349 °F with no noticeable degradation of the fluid
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system
336
337 Silica based NPs were tested at HPHT conditions by Srivatsa et al. (2012). Silica has a
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338 thermal stability up to 250°F which makes it an ideal additive for drilling fluids. Srivatsa and
339 his co-workers presented their results at HPHT conditions with and without silica NPs, and
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340 showed that the surfactant that was used for surfactant/polymer based drilling fluids was not
341 stable at 392 °F and 1,000 psi, however, it was stable when blended with NPs. Mao et al.
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342 (2015(b)) used silica based nanocomposite and observed the reduced HPHT filtration loss by
343 69% after aging at 802 °F for 16 hours, which showed that the fluid is stable with little or no
344 degradation. Hassani et al. (2016) also reported 16.9% improvement in thermal conductivity
345 of WBFS through addition of silica NPs with the concentration of 2 wt%. Results obtained by
346 Mahmoud et al. (2016), however, indicated that aging silica at 350°F and 500 psi had a
347 negative effect and resulted in a severe gel strength loss of the fluid. Needaa et al. (2016)
348 reported using sepiolite NPs can stabilise the rheology of the WBFs up to pressures as high as
349 6000 psi and temperatures up to 356 °F.
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350 One of the first studies to test transition metal based NPs at HPHT conditions in WBFs was
351 conducted by William et al. (2014). They tested samples of copper and zinc based NPs and
352 showed up to 53% and 23% increase in thermal conductivities of the muds respectively.
353 Ponmani et al. (2016) reported similar observations for both copper and zinc NPs. Their
354 experiments also showed how using particles at nanometre level provides superior thermal
355 conductivity than using particles at micrometre level as shown by the Figure 6.

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356 Barry et al. (2015) tested the filtration loss and filter cake at HPHT conditions; 1015 psi and
357 392 °F. Iron based NPs performed better at HPHT conditions compared to ambient

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358 conditions with a decrease in filtration volume. Aftab et al. (2016) also tested zinc based NPs
359 in WBFs at HPHT conditions for the fluid filtration properties. Filtration loss slightly reduced

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360 from about 13.5 ml to 10.5 ml at 250 °F and 500 psi as the concentration of zinc was
361 increased from 0 to 1 g in a sample of 350 cm3 of drilling fluid. Mahmoud et al. (2016)

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362 displayed that the fluid viscosity and yield stress were stabilised with the addition of iron NPs
363 at high temperatures up to 200 °F and minor changes in rheological properties when aged at
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364 350 °F for 16 hours. They also found that filtration loss was improved at HPHT conditions
365 with the addition of iron NPs where the optimum concentration (the lowest filtrate volume)
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366 was 0.5 wt% as shown in Figure 7.

367 Ismail et al. (2016) examined the addition of carbon based NPs into a WBF at HPHT
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368 conditions. They monitored the rheology and fluid loss behaviour of MWCNT at elevated
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369 temperatures up to 250 °F, and found that the increase in temperature reduced PV and gel
370 strength of the sample. However, the conditions did not show a significant difference to
371 filteration loss. Taha et al. (2015) observed an enhancement at the lower end rheology (in the
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372 range of 200%) without affecting PV and YP by using graphene NPs in WBFs with
373 concentrations up to 5 wt% and temperatures up to 350 °F. Halali et al. (2016) performed
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374 experiments on CNT NPs with concentrations up to 0.8 wt% at temperatures of 248, 302,
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375 347, and 392 °F. They found that viscosity could be increased especially at low shear rates,
376 similar to Taha et al.’s (2015) observations. Fluid loss reduction occurred by over 93.3% and
377 thermal conductivity was also enhanced by 12 %. Another study by Hassani et al. (2016) on
378 CNT additive in WBFs showed 12% increase in thermal conductivity at the concentration of
379 2 wt%, which is less than the reported values for silica and zinc at the same concentration,
380 16.9% and 22%, respectively.
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0.70
(a)
0.65

Thermal conductivity (W/mK)

0.60

0.55

0.50
CuO + 0.4 wt% XG

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CuO + 0.4 wt% XG
0.45 CuO + 5 wt% PVP in PEG
CuO + 5 wt% PVP in PEG
0.40

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0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
CuO (wt%)
0.70

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(b)
0.65
Thermal conductivity (W/mK)

0.60

0.55
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0.50 ZnO + 5 wt% PVP
ZnO + 5 wt% PVP
ZnO + 0.4 wt% XG
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0.45 ZnO + 0.4 wt% XG

ZnO + PEG
ZnO + PEG
0.40
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0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5

ZnO (wt%)
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381 Figure 6 Variation of thermal conductivity of nano-enhanced WBF (unfilled symbols) and micro-enhanced WBF
382 (filled symbols) (a) CuO-based; (b) Zn0-based, Ponmani et al. (2016) (adopted)

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12

10
Filtrate Volume (ml)

8
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6
0 wt%
4 0.5 wt%
0.3 wt%
2 1.5 wt%
2.5 wt%
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
383 Time (minutes)

384 Figure 7 Filtrate volume plotted against square root of time for drilling fluids having different concentration of
385 ferric oxide NPs at 300 psi and 250 °F, Mahmoud et al. (2016) (adopted)
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386 Other NPs tested at HPHT conditions are Pal, cellulose and boron. Abdo et al. (2013) used
387 Pal NPs and found that WBFs showed perfect stability at temperatures up to 392 °F. Song et
388 al. (2016), tested the use of cellulose NPs in drilling fluids, and noticed there was a decrease
389 in filtrate volume with increasing concentrations of NPs at HPHT conditions; 199°F and 1000
390 psi, and CNF produced the least fluid loss. Meanwhile, Krishnan et al. (2016) focused on
391 boron NPs, and analysed fluid loss and stability at temperatures up to 302 °F and the pressure

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392 of 500 psi. They found that the drilling fluid properties at HPHT conditions could withstand
393 higher temperatures and prevent early breakdown of the polymers in the WBFs. In a field

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394 trial at Myanmar, the boron NPs were used with the concentration of 2 wt% in downhole
395 temperature conditions as high as 349 °F, and there was no noticeable degradation of the

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396 fluid system. A recent study by Chai et al. (2016) also confirmed that the use of MWCNT
397 NPs in OBFs could increase the thermal conductivity of the fluid at higher concentrations.

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398
399 Friction Reduction
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400 Friction reduction becomes increasingly important during drilling of long deviated wells.
401 WBFs tend to have a coefficient of friction (COF) greater than 0.1 and OBFs tend to be less
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402 than 0.1. The drilling fluid ideally should have the lowest possible COF to reduce wear on the
403 drilling string. This might also reduce wear on the previous casing, which is important as if it
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404 wears, the tri-axial burst / bi-axial collapse limit changes. Wears on casing are dangerous as it
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405 can lead to a failure to withstand high circulating pressure especially when a kick occurs.
406 Table 4 summarises recent studies on friction reduction in drilling operations through
407 addition of nanoparticles in drilling fluids.
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408 Table 4 Summary of the recent studies evaluating the application of nanoparticles to reduce friction during
409 drilling operations
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Types of Based Experimental

Author Summary of Results
NPs Fluid Conditions
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LPLT and 1.0 gr of zinc oxide (ZnO) NPs in WBFs slightly increased fluid rheological
Aftab et al.
ZnO Water HPHT (149 and properties and reduced filtrate loss and friction coefficient under HPHT
(2016)
250°F) conditions.
LPLT and high
Javeri et al. 3.0wt% of silica NPs in WBFs successfully reduced loss circulation and
Graphene Water temperature
(2011) differential sticking problems resulted from friction reduction LPLT
(120 and 351°F)
LPLT and high
Mao et al. temperature 0.5 wt% of silica (SiO2) NPs in WBFs reduced the friction coefficient as high as
SiO2 Water
(a,b) (2015) (392, 410, 428, 93.4%.
446oF)
The study concluded that silica (SiO2) NPs in a surfactant based fluid benefits
Srivatsa et horizontal and directional drilling resulted from the low solid content and the
SiO2 Water LPLT
al. (2012) ability to form a thin, impermeable filter cake that can reduced friction between
the drilstring and the borehole surface.
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LPLT and high 5.0wt% of nano-graphene containing lubricant improved lubricity of the drilling
Taha et al.
Graphene Water temperature fluids. It also showed a torque reduction of 80% at 199oC conditions and as high
(2015)
(120 and 351°F) as 50% at 351oF.

High 1.0wt% of silica (SiO2) NPs in WBFs reduced friction coefficient significantly
Taraghikhah
SiO2 Water temperature at from 0.37 to 0.11, and showed mud cake friction factor reduction as the
et al. (2015)
250oF concentration of silica NPs increase

410
411 A study performed by Javeri et al. (2010) on the application of silica NPs in drilling fluids,
412 suggests the use of NPs would be promising to mitigate loss circulation and differential

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413 sticking problems due to a decrease in friction. Later, Sharma et al. (2012) tested silica NPs,
414 and determined that the fluid is ideal for drilling long lateral sections due to reduced friction

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415 of the fluid. Srivatsa et al. (2012) concluded that silica NPs in a surfactant based fluid
416 benefits horizontal and directional drilling operations due to the formation of a thin,

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417 impermeable filter cake, reduced friction and low solid content. Mao et al. (2015(b))
418 conducted experiments on drilling fluids with addition of 0.5 wt% silica NPs, and concluded
419 it is possible to successfully reduce the lubricating coefficient as high as 93.4% as shown in
420
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Figure 8. Similarly, Taraghikhah et al. (2015) indicated that mud cake friction factor reduces
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421 as the concentration of silica NPs increases.

0.45 100
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0.40 90
0.35 80
Lubricating Coefficient

70 % Reduction rate of lubricating

0.30
60
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0.25 friction coefficient

Lubricating coefficient
50
0.20
%Reduction
reduction rate of
of friction 40
0.15 lubricating coefficient
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30
0.10 20
coefficient

0.05 10
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0.00 0
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0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5

422 NP (wt%)
423 Figure 8 The effects of extreme pressure lubricating coefficient of water based drilling fluid by silica based NP
424 concentration Mao et al. (2015(b)) (adopted)

425 Other NPs tested to help lubricity and, reduce torque and drag are Pal, graphene and boron.
426 Abdo et al. (2013) reported a 34% reduction in torque with one sample of drilling fluid
427 containing 7.4 wt% Pal NPs. Taha and Lee (2015) used a sample with 5 wt% of graphene
428 NPs, and they achieved 80% reduction in torque at 200 oF condition, and as high as 50%
429 reduction in torque at 350 oF. At a field trial, the mud with graphene NPs with the
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430 concentration of 3 wt%, increased the rate of penetration (ROP) by 3 times and was stable at
431 high temperatures up to 349 °F. In this field trial, COF was reduced from 0.21 to 0.08 which
432 is in the similar range as synthetic based muds, and torque was reduced by 44% and the
433 equivalent circulating density (ECD) was noted to be stable. Photos of the drill bits used at
434 field trial (shown in Figure 9) indicates the use of NPs can increase the life of the drill bit by
435 75%. Krishnan et al. (2016) reported very similar results to Taha & Lee. (2015), while using

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436 boron NPs instead of graphene NPs at the field trial in Myanmar. It can be justified that the
437 high surface to volume ratio along with good lubricating properties of the nano-sized

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438 particles compared to that of the bulk materials, and the interaction between the particles with
439 hydrophobic/hydrophilic properties with the drilling tools is the main factor for reducing the

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440 friction factor at the drilling bit.

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441
442 Figure 9 Drill bit conditions after being pulled out of hole: (a) without the graphene enhanced lubricant the bit
443 was worn out with lots of solids sticking to it, and (b) with the graphene enhanced lubricant the bit was in good
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444 condition and cleared from any solids, Taha & Lee. (2015) (adopted)

445
446 Shale Inhibition and Wellbore Stability Improvement
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447 The complex chemical and physical variations in shale formations can cause many
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448 challenging conditions such as sloughing, swelling and abnormally pressured formations. To
449 counteract these issues, it is important that the drilling fluid acts as a shale inhibitor which in
450 turn provides wellbore stability due to lower fluid invasion into the shale formation with less
451 reactive fluid filtrate. Table 5 lists recent studies reporting increase of wellbore stability in
452 shale formations with the use of nanoparticles in drilling fluids. In most of these studies, due
453 to the formation of a very low permeable mud cake on the wellbore, which acts as a barrier
454 between drilling fluids and shale formation, there would be no serious reaction between
455 drilling fluid and shale rocks, and therefore no wellbore stability issues.
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456 Table 5 Summary of the recent studies evaluating the application of nanoparticles to improve heat transfer rate
457 properties of drilling fluids

Base Experimental
Author Types of NPs Summary of Results
Fluid Conditions
1.0 gr of zinc oxide (ZnO) NPs in WBF slightly increased fluid
LPLT and
Aftab et al. rheological properties and reduced filtrate loss under HPHT
ZnO Water HPHT (149
(2016) conditions. The fluid formulation was also able to prevent
and 250°F)
swelling of shale minerals.
30wt% of silica NPs with 35 nm diameter in WBFs showed an
Akhtarmanesh
SiO2 Water Not specified inhibitive behaviour towards shale minerals indicated from the
et al. (2013)
reduction of mud filtrate observed through the pore plugging test.

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10wt% of silica NPs in WBFs reduced filtrate invasion and
Cai et al.
SiO2 Water LPLT improve the ability of plugging and sealing micro-pores and
(2012)
micro-fracks of the shale formations.
1. Composite of
The study tested composite of polyacrylamide-grafted-

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polyacrylamide and
polyethylene glycol and silica nanoparticles. 0.7wt% of the
nanoclay High
Jain et al composite with 20-30 nm diameter in WBF showed a stable
2. Composite of Water temperature
(2015) rheological profile at 203oF and exhibit a high inhibition towards
polyacrylamide-grafted- up to 203°F
clay minerals which can prevent swelling of shale formations
polyethylene glycol and

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during drilling process.
SiO2 nanoparticles
The study suggested that novel latex and aluminium complexes
1.Latex particles with 80 – 345 nm diameter for WBFs is a potential shale
Liu et al. LPLT and
2.Aluminium Water stabilizers that can reduce pressure transmission and improved
(2015) HPHT
complexes membrane efficiency to have superior shale stability due to

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bridging and sealing micro and nano scale pore throats.
The study used water based drilling fluid enhanced by silica NPs
to improve inhibition of shale materials as compared to a
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synthetic based mud which is commonly used for when wellbore
Østergaard et
SiO2 Water Not specified stability is of importance. Testing 3.0 wt% of silica produced a
al. (2000)
permeability reduction greater than the water based mud without
silica of 20.1% showing its ability at plugging and sealing micro-
pores and micro-fracks.
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High Study on silica NPs in WBFs to improve shale inhibition found

Taraghikhah et
SiO2 Water temperature at that the optimum concentration is 1.0 wt% compared with other
al. (2015)
121oC shale inhibitors by preventing the shale from swelling.
2.0wt% of NPs in OBFs effectively improved shale stability by
LPLT and
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Zhang et al. Not plugging and sealing micro-pores and micro-fracks. Significant
Oil HPHT
(2015) specified reduction was also obtained on fluid loss and filter cake thickness
(194°F)
under HPHT condition.
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458
459 Riley et al. (2012) evaluated the use of silica nanomaterials in a WBF to improve inhibition
460 of shale materials and compared it with a synthetic based mud which is commonly used for
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461 wellbore stability concerns in shale formations. Sample with 3.0 wt% of silica produced a
462 permeability reduction of 20.1% greater than the base sample without silica, showing its
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463 ability at plugging and sealing micro-pores and micro-fractures.

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464 Akhtarmanesh et al. (2013) found that to reduce permeability and fluid invasion the minimum
465 colloidal silica NPs concentration needs to be 10 wt%, and a better plugging performance
466 was noted with the 35 nm sized NPs as compared to the 50 nm NPs. Similarly, Taraghikhah
467 et al. (2015) tested silica NPs in WBFs to improve shale inhibition with the concentration of
468 1.0 wt% and compared the results with a WBF containing shale inhibitors. Figure 10 shows
469 that even with the shale inhibitor in the advanced polymer drilling fluid, swelling still can
470 occur whereas the nano-drilling fluid prevents the shale formation from swelling and
471 successfully acts as a shale inhibitor.
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472 Liu et al. (2015) conducted a test using novel latex and aluminium complexes with 80–345
473 nm diameter, as a potential shale stabilizers. They found that superior shale stability was due
474 to the reduced pressure transmission and improved membrane efficiency which come from
475 bridging and sealing micro and nano scale pore throats.

476 Zhang et al. (2015) reported that testing nanoparticles in an oil based mud had a similar effect
477 as testing in a water based mud and helped to improve shale stability by plugging micro-

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478 pores and micro-fracks. A field test was also conducted using the NP-based OBF and it was
479 found that while being run for 30 days, the mud still showed good comprehensive

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480 performance and the borehole instability was improved significantly with problems such as
481 hole collapse and stuck pipe not being encountered.

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482
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483 Figure 10 (a) Shale recovery after subjected to advanced polymer and (b) after exposed to the nano-drilling
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484 fluid Taraghikhah et al. (2015) (adopted)

485
486 Hydrates Inhibition
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487 One of the main challenges in deepwater drilling operations is the formation of gas hydrate in
488 the drilling fluid circulation system. Hydrates are formed by water molecules that are
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489 stabilised by the presence of other molecules, commonly gas molecules, and create complex,
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490 three-dimensional crystal structures. Formation of hydrates, especially in water-based drilling

491 fluids, eliminate water from the fluids and eventually alter the fluid properties. Hydrates
492 depositions can cause an increase in fluid weight that can be dangerous in narrow pressure
493 window margin during deepwater drilling operations. Furthermore, combination of cold
494 seabed conditions and high hydrostatic pressure is a favourable environment for hydrates to
495 precipitate in the fluid circulation system, and become accumulated near the conductor pipe,
496 blowout preventers, and even inside the choke and kill lines. Common method to tackle
497 hydrate formation during drilling operations is by adding chemicals, such as methanol,
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498 glycols, salts, polymers, and often combinations of those chemicals to suppress hydrate
499 formation temperature to a lower level.

500 Very little research has been conducted into hydrate inhibition. Liu et al. (2016) studied the
501 effect of nanoparticles in drilling fluid to mitigate hydrates formation during drilling
502 operation. They used silica nanoparticles with the concentration of 2 wt% in a seawater-based
503 drilling fluid. They measured rheological and filtration properties along with the potential of

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504 hydrate formation in water based drilling fluids at 2611 psi and 39 °F. They compared a nano
505 based drilling fluid with sea water and customised water based drilling fluid called Aqua-

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506 ColTMS.

507 Their results showed that their proposed nanosilica based drilling fluid had an optimal

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508 density, good low-temperature rheology, and an acceptable filtrate volume.

509 Their results also indicated that no crystal hydrate was formed during the experiment at

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510 temperatures as low as 39oF and pressures up to 2611 psi, simulating the seabed conditions of
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511 the South China Sea regardless of whether the drilling fluid was circulated or not during 20
512 hours-long experiment. However there is no clear conclusion why the addition of silica NPs
513 prevented hydrate forming. It might be due to high heat capacity of silica nanoparticles which
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514 can change the conditions of hydrate formation. They also suggested that the use of silica
515 NPs can reduce the cost by 15-20% compared to the use of conventional drilling fluids for
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516 drilling operations in the region. To date, this is the only study reported the application of
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517 nanoparticles to mitigate hydrate formation in drilling fluids and more investigations need to
518 be performed in order to draw a clear conclusion about the effectiveness of nanoparticles on
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519 hydrate formation.

520 On the other hand, the effect of nanoparticles on hydrate formation has been well studied in
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521 the gas storage and transportation area (Liu et al. 2017, Najibi et al. 2015, Pahlavanzadeh et
522 al. 2016, Yu et al. 2017), Zhou et al. 2014). However, most of previous studies confirmed
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523 that combination of metal nanoparticles with anionic surfactants such as SDS (sodium
524 dodecyl sulfate) can promote hydrate formation. Najibi et al. (2015) investigated the
525 application of surfactant and copper oxide nanoparticles on promotion of hydrate formation
526 for gas storage and transportation at temperatures of 34.7 and 38.3 °F and pressures of 725
527 and 870 psi. Their results showed that adding copper oxide (CuO) nanoparticles enhances the
528 rate and amount of gas consumption, and the mole percent of water to hydrate conversion.
529 They also found that gas hydrate improvement is proportional to the concentration of
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530 nanoparticle. Their results also showed that adding CuO nanoparticles decreases the
531 induction time with no considerable effect on the final gas storage capacity. In another study,
532 Pahlavanzadeh et al. (2016) studied the kinetic of methane hydrate formation in the presence
533 of copper nanoparticles dispersed in the cetyl trimethyl ammonium bromide (CTAB) and
534 SDS surfactant solutions at temperature and pressure of 35.6 °F and 798 psi, respectively.
535 Their experimental results showed that copper nanoparticles and CTAB solutions reduce the

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536 induction time of methane hydrate formation, but CTAB seems to be more effective in this
537 regard. They concluded that the most effective solution to promote hydrate formation is

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538 water-based copper nanoparticles with high concentrations of 0.0157 M and 0.157 M.

539

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540 Recently, Liu et al. (2017) investigated the effect of iron oxide nanoparticles dispersed in
541 sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) solution, on natural gas hydrate formation. They found that

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542 SDS coated iron oxide nanoparticles with a size of 20 nm can also promote methane hydrate
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543 formation up to two times more than the case with no nanoparticles. They also found that
544 smaller particles result in a faster hydrate formation rate. In general it can be concluded that
545 metal nanoparticles boost the formation of gas hydrates during gas storage and transportation,
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546 while opposite behaviour was observed for their mixtures in drilling fluids as hydrate
547 inhibitors (Liu et al. 2016).
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548 Conclusions
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549 Reports of the most recent studies on the application of nanoparticles in drilling fluids have
550 been covered in this manuscript. The application of nanoparticles in drilling fluids, induces
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551 exceptional performance by having the potential to mitigate and reduce the problems might
552 encounter during drilling operations. Conclusions on the roles of nanoparticles in modifying
553 the drilling fluids characteristics may be drawn as follows:
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554 - Overall, studies on the addition of NPs showed a general improvement in rheological
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555 properties while fluids can retain shear thinning characteristic that follow the
556 Herschel-Buckley model. However, NPs should not be used as a substitute for
557 bentonite/barite as they may reduce the rheological properties of the mud
558 significantly.
559 - The filtration loss and filter cake properties generally show improvements through
560 using NPs. It has been observed that there would be a reduction in filtrate volume for
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561 API tests by over 60%. Filter cakes have also been noted to be thinner and much more
562 compact, leading to a reduction in porosity and permeability.
563 - Heat transfer properties have been improved significantly through addition of NPs.
564 With the use of NPs, thermal conductivity increases over 50% for some cases, and
565 filtration loss decreases with increasing NPs concentration for nearly all studies.
566 Rheology and thermal stability remaining consistent at HPHT conditions which make

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567 the use of drilling fluids feasible at HPHT and ultra-deep formations.
568 - The addition of NPs has shown to improve friction reduction in drilling fluids making

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569 even WBFs to have nearly as low COF as OBFs. This is due to the decrease in solid
570 content of mud as the NPs are so small they can act like fluid.

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571 - Nanoparticles have also been able to improve wellbore stability especially when
572 drilling through shale formations. The very small particles contained in the drilling
573 fluids are able to plug and seal micro, and nano scale pores and fractures, avoiding
574
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excessive filtrates to penetrate into the formations.
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575 - Until today there have been very limited studies on application of nanoparticles to
576 mitigate gas hydrates formation in drilling operations. It was shown that the presence
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577 of silica nanoparticles promotes the dissolution of gas in the drilling fluid preventing
578 crystal hydrates to form. However, mechanisms on how the nanoparticles supress
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579 hydrates formation have not been discussed further.

580
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581 Recommendations
582 Most of the studies have touched almost all the main parts of the technical aspects in drilling
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583 operation. However, more extensive analysis and observations are required for further
584 research include:
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585 1. Key mechanisms of particles interactions to understand physical interaction or

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586 chemical reaction between nanoparticles and the common additives present in drilling
587 fluids.
588 2. Use of a more complex, optimised fluid formulation including oil based fluids with
589 added NPs and evaluate the properties, as most of the previous studies focused on
590 water based drilling fluids.
591 3. Evaluate the effect of extreme pressure and temperature conditions to the performance
592 of drilling fluids, for example under ultra HPHT environment or in extreme cold
593 seabed condition during deepwater drilling.
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594 4. Further investigation particularly to mitigate gas hydrates formation in the circulation
595 system.

596
597 Acknowledgements
598 The authors would like to thank the School of Engineering at the University of Aberdeen for
599 providing required facilities to support this study.

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600
601 Abbreviations

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API = American Petroleum Institute
AV = Apparent viscosity, centipoise (cP) or mPa.s
CNC = Cellulose nanocrystals

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CNF = Cellulose nanofibers
CNP = Cellulose nanoparticles
COF = Coefficient of friction, dimensionless
ECD = Equivalent circulating density

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EOR = Enhance oil recovery
HPHT = High pressure and high temperature
LCM = Lost circulation material
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LPLT = Low pressure and low temperature, means that a measurement performed at
ambient temperature and under 100 psi differential pressure which also, refers
to API Filter Press standard condition
MWCNT = Multi-walled carbon nanotubes
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NPs = Nanoparticles
OBFs, OBDFs, OBMs = Oil-based fluids, oil-based drilling fluids or oil-based muds are drilling fluids
whose liquid phase is mixture of oil and water
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Pal = Palygorskite, or attapulgite, is a type of clay mineral

PV = Plastic viscosity, centipoise (cP) or mPa.s
ROP = Rate of penetration
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WBFs, WBDFs, WBMs = Water-based fluids, water-based drilling fluids or water-based muds are drilling
fluids in which water is the external or continuous phase
YP = Yield point, lbf/100ft2 or Pa
602
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603 References
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Highlights

• A critical review of application of nanoparticles in drilling fluids is presented

• NPs showed an improvement in rheological properties of drilling fluids
• Mud filtrate and filter cake thickness can be reduced by addition of NPs
• Mud Heat transfer properties can be improved by addition of NPs
• Wellbore stability and friction coefficient can be changed favourably using NPs

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