Suspension Systems

0bjectives
After reading t h i s chapter, you should be able t o
Identify and describe the four types of suspension systems used o n today's heavy-duty trucks.
Name the components of a spring suspension system and explain h o w they work.
Describe a fiber composite spring.
Name the components of a n equalizing beam suspension system and explain h o w they work.
Name the components of a torsion bar suspension system and explain h o w they work.
Name the components o f an air spring suspension system and explain h o w they work.
Perform troubleshooting techniques t o isolate and locate defective suspension system components.
Execute replacement procedures t o repair a defective suspension system.
Explain the relationship between axle alignment and suspension system alignment.
Perform suspension system alignments.
Describe the operation of the cab air suspension system.

I<ey Terms List leaf springs

rubber cushions
air spring suspension
shock absorbers
bogie
constant rate springs torsion bar suspension
vari-rate springs

The primary purpose of the suspension system on a

heavy-duty truck is to support the weight of that truck.
Additional requirements placed upon the suspension
system include the ability to stabilize the truck when
traveling over normal as well as over rough terrain; to
cushion the chassis from road shock while simultane-
ously allowing the driver/operator to steer the truck; to
maintain the proper axle spacing and alignment; and
to function efficiently over a wide range of speed and
load conditions. Any attempts to overload or exceed
the maximum suspension load rating will damage not
only the suspension system but also the truck frame,
axles, and tires.
Four general types of suspension systems are
employed on today's heavy-duty trucks:
Spring
Equalizing beam
Torsion bar
Air spring
The systems are used not only on heavy-duty
trucks and tractors but also on the trailers they haul.
Each type of suspension will be discussed in this
chapter, including its servicing requirements.
704 Chapter Twenty-Two

Front Bracket Auxiliary Spring

2 2 . 1 , LEAF SPRING-TYPE / /
SUSPENSIONS
Three types of leaf springs are used on heavy-duty
trucks and tra~lers:constant rate, progressive or vari-
rate, and auxiliary.
Rear
~ ~

CONSTANT RATE Spring

Constant rate springs are leaf-type spring assem- FIGURE 22-2 Rear axle application-constant rate
blies that have a constant rate of deflection. For spring with auxiliary pack. (Courtesy of lnternational
example, if 500 pounds deflect the spring assembly Truclc and Engine Corp.J
1 inch, 1,000 pounds would deflect the same spring
assembly 2 inches.
Constant rate springs are mounted t o the axle
with U-bolts, nuts, and lockwashers. 'The front end of
the spring is mounted to a stationary bracket. The
rear e n d of t h e s p r i n g i s m o u n t e d t o a s p r i n g FIGURE 22-3 Taper leaf spring assembly.
shackle. The shackle allows for variations in spring (Courtesy of lnternational Truclc and Engine Corp.)
length during compression or jounce and rebound.
Spring leaves are held together by a long bolt that
passes through the spring center. The spring assem-
bly is secured to the axle housing by U-bolts. Leaf PROGRESSIVE (VARI-RATE)
alignment is maintained by spring clips that are typi- Progressive or vari-rate springs are leaf-type spring
cally located at the two ends of the spring leaves. assemblies with a variable deflection rate obtained by
This type of spring assembly is used in both front varying the effective length of the spring assembly.
and rear axle applications on heavy-duty trucks. This is accomplished by using a cam bracket. As the
Figure 22-1 and Figure 22-2 show typical constant spring assembly deflects, the point of contact on the
rate spring assemblies. bracket moves toward the center of the spring assem-
The tapered leaf spring is a spring design with bly, shortening the effective length (Figure 22-4). Vari-
leaves that are thicker in the center than at the ends
(Figure 22-3). This design results in fewer leafs, pro-
viding lighter weight. Tapered leaf springs are similar
Cam
to conventional springs in usage and installation. / Bracket

/
Torque
Leaf

A UNLOADED

Front
Bracket
B LOADED
FIGURE 22-1 Front axle application-constant
rate spring. (Courtesy of lnternational Truclc and FIGURE 22-4 Progressive spring assembly.
Engine Corp.) (Courtesy of lnternational Truclc and Engine C0rp.J

rate spring assemblies also incorporate a progressive
feature in that the lower spring leaves are separated at
the ends. As the spring assembly deflects, these
leaves come in contact, providing increased capacity
and stiffness.
AUXILIARY SPRINGS
Auxiliary springs, also called overload springs, are
leaf-type spring assemblies usually mounted on top
of the main rear spring assemblies. Auxiliary springs
factor only when the truck is under heavy load. The
auxiliary spring assumes part of the load by contact-
ing cam brackets attached to frame rail slides when
the load is sufficient t o compress the rear spring
assemblies to the point of contact. Figure 22-2 illus-
trates an auxiliary spring assembly.
APPLICATIONS
Spring-type suspensions can be found on both front
and rear suspension systems. They are specifically
designed to handle the load requirements for which
the vehicle is rated. If the specified load weights are
exceeded, the life of the suspension components will
be greatly reduced.
The primary function of the spring assemblies and
the walking beams is to support the load of the chas-
sis. In addition, springs cushion the chassis from
road shock, providing acceptable ride characteristics
from empty vehicle to full rated load. Walking beams
and some types of spring also maintain axle spacing
and alignment.
Most heavy-duty spring assemblies, front or rear,
are manufactured from special heat-treated alloy
steel. The walking beams are either fabricated steel
beam sections or cast I-beam sections.
Front Suspension
Front spring assemblies are of various types. The
more common types, including taperleaf eye and
slipper, multileaf eye and slipper, taperleaf shackle,
and multileaf shackle are shown in Figure 22-5. In all
of these front suspension arrangements, the spring
assemblies are mounted t o the axle with U-bolts,
hardened washers, and nuts. The forward end of
each spring mounts to a stationary frame bracket.
The rear of each spring mounts to a pair of spring
shackles, w h i c h are suspended f r o m a frame-
mounted bracket. The spring shackles allow for vari-
ations in spring length during spring flexing.
The leaf spring assembly serves to absorb and
store energy and then to release it. Individual leaves
are held together by a center bolt, with the center
bolt acting as a locating dowel during installation on
Suspension Systems 705
the vehicle. On the ends of the leaf spring assembly
are alignment clips. The alignment clips are used to
limit sideways spread and vertical separation of the
individual leaves.
Rear Suspension-Single Axle
The single rear axle spring assemblies generally are
one of two types: eye and slipper spring or spring-type
radius rod (Figure 22-6). Semielliptical spring assem-
blies are attached to the axles with U-bolt assemblies.
The spring ends ride in brackets that are mounted on
the frame rails. Steel wear shoes are cast into each
bracket. Radius rods attached to the axle seats and
the forward spring brackets hold the axle in alignment.
Rear Suspension-Tandem Axle
The tandem axle rear spring suspension (Figure 22-7)
uses a six-point equalizing leaf spring design, which
compensates for axle articulation, side to side and
front to rear. Four semielliptical spring assemblies are
attached to the axles with U-bolts. On both sides of
the vehicle, the forward end of the forward spring and
the rear end of the rear spring ride in brackets
mounted on the frame rails. Steel wear shoes are cast
into each bracket. At the center, between the forward
and rear springs, the springs ride on an equalizer,
which pivots on a sleeve in the equalizer bracket.
Each axle is held in alignment by a pair of torque rods
that extend forward from the axle seats to the forward
spring brackets for the forward-rear axle and to the
equalizer brackets for the rearmost axle.
Bogie Suspensions
Bogie spring assemblies include the camelback, the
taperleaf, and the walking beam. The ends of both
camelback spring assemblies and walking beams
are mounted in rubber shock insulators. The current
taperleaf spring bogie has springs with eyes at both
ends to accommodate pin type connections at the
axle housings. Metal-backed rubber insulators are
installed in the spring ends to minimize road shock.
Spring Suspension with Shoclc Absorbers
Most front spring suspension systems use shock
absorbers (Figure 22-8). Shock absorbers dampen
spring oscillation. They control body sway, eliminate
excessive tire wear, front wheel shimmy, and spring
breakage. They also improve the riding qualities of
the truck and are especially useful when the truck is
empty or only partially loaded.
Spring Suspension with Torque Rods
The spring suspension system with torque rods is one
of the less complicated suspensions available.
706 Chapter Twenty-Two
Front
FIGURE 22-5 Front suspension (spring) arrangement on a heavy-duty truck. (Courtesy of Freightliner
Consequently, it is less difficult to service. Con-
struction is simple, consisting of only two major com-
ponents: leaf spring assemblies and torque rods. The
leaf springs are mounted to the axles. On a 6 x 4
chassis, the leaf spring assemblies mount at three dif-
ferent locations on each frame rail, distributing the
load over a large area of the frame (Figure 22-9). On a
4 X 2 chassis, the leaf spring assemblies mount at
two locations. The leaf spring assembly brackets and
frame cross members are fastened to the frame rail
with the same hardware, resulting in the suspension
being an integral part of the chassis.
Torque rods provide stability by minimizing axle
windup caused by driveline torque and load transfer
during braking. Suspension alignment is accorn-
plished by inserting shims at the torque rod end
mounting.
Some four-spring suspension systems use six
torque rods instead of four (Figure 22-9). This sys-
tem design uses two additional torque rods that
extend from the center of each axle housing to a
frame cross member on the truck. The installation of
the center torque rods provides added stability. Only
four of the six torque rods are adjustable to allow for
 Suspension Systems 707

FIGURE 22-6 Single axle spring suspension. (Courtesy of Freightliner Truclts)

Torque Rod
w U-Bolt

FIGURE 22-7 Tandem axle spring suspension. (Courtesy of Hendrickson International, Truck Suspension
Systems)
708 Chapter Twenty-Two

){[(T&''
u
\ \
~ p p plate
y
-a/
M
/ Swinging Shackle \=&'\

ud Front Axle I-Beam

FIGURE 22-8 Spring suspension with shock absorbers

Equalizer Bracket The equalizing beam suspension system is

designed to lower the center of gravity of the axle
load. This is accomplished by placing the beam on
or below the axle centerline. This design provides
additional leverage to work with the torque rods in
absorbing axle torque and road shock.

LEAF SPRING-TYPE SUSPENSION

FIGURE 22-9 Four-spring suspension system with
torque rods. (Courtesy of Dayton-Walther
Corporation)
alignment of the suspension system. The extra
torque rods also permit the truck axles to accept all
of the driveline torque by minimizing axle windup and
braking load transfer.
The leaf spring-type suspension (Figure 22-10) uses
semielliptic leaf springs to cushion load and road
shock. The springs are mounted on saddle assem-
blies above the equalizer beams and pivot at the
front on spring pins and brackets. The rear of the
springs have no rigid attachment to the spring brack-
ets but are free to move forward and backward to
compensate for spring deflection.
Equalizing beams use a lever principle to distrib-
ute the load equally between axles and to reduce the
effect of road irregularities. The torque rods permit

1
' 2 2 . 2 EQUALIZING BEAM
SUSPENSIONS
absorption of wind-up torque, which is the tendency
of the axles to turn backward or forward on their axis
due to starting or stopping forces. The cross tube
connecting the equalizing beams ensures correct
alignment of the tandem and prevents damaging
Tandem drive axles require a special suspension that
load transfer.
permits flexibility between the axles but still with-
stands rugged use with long service life. Equalizing
beam type suspensions provide these characteris-
Fiber Composite Leaf Springs
tics. The types of equalizing beam suspensions used Used for a few years in autos, fiber composite leaf
on heavy-duty trucks are the leaf spring-type and the springs have found their way into heavy-duty trucks.
rubber cushion-type. They are made of fiberglass which is laminated and

Rubber Torque
Bushed Rod
Torque Rod
Spring and
Assembly
Saddle Ass
Center Bushlng
Equalizing Beam
FIGURE 22-1 0 Equalizing beam suspension system-leaf
Truck Suspension Systems)
bonded together by tough polyester resins. The long
strands of fiberglass are saturated with resin and
bundled together by wrapping (a process called fila-
ment winding) or squeezed together under pressure
(compression molding).
Fiber composite leaf springs are lightweight and
possess some unique ride control characteristics.
Springs are dead weight. Reducing the weight of the
suspension not only reduces the overall weight of the
vehicle, but also reduces the unsprung mass of the
suspension itself. This reduces the spring effort and
amount of shock control required to keep the wheels
in contact with the road. The result is a smoother-
riding, better-dampening, and faster-responding sus-
pension.
Other advantages of using fiber composite springs
include the following:
Quieter ride. A fiber composite spring does
not resonate or transmit sound like a steel
spring. In fact, it actually dampens noise.
= No spring sag. All steel springs sag with age,
whether they are leaves or coils. Spring sag
affects ride height, which in turn alters wheel
alignment, handling, steering, and braking. A
weak spring can load the suspension unevenly,
Suspension Systems 709
Rear
Spring
Additional
Sprlng
Hanger
d Leaf Springs
spring-type. [Courtesy of Hendrickson International,
allowing the wheel under the weak spring to
lose traction when accelerating or braking.
However, according to the manufacturers of
fiber composite springs, there is no sag with
age.
Less body roll. In applications where the leaf
springs are mounted transversely, the spring
also acts like a sway bar to limit body sway and
roll when cornering. This load transfer charac-
teristic also permits softer than normal spring
rates to be used for a smoother ride.
With fiber composite leaf springs, there is little or
no danger of the spring suddenly snapping. The lam-
inated layers create a built-in fail-safe mechanism for
keeping the spring intact should a problem arise.
RUBBER CUSHION-TYPE
SUSPENSION
This type of suspension system (Figure 22-11) uses
rubber cushions in place of leaf springs to absorb
load and road shock. On these units, rubber cush-
ions are mounted on a saddle assembly at eacli side.
Mounted between frame brackets and the suspen-
sion, each rubber block unit i s secured by four
710 Chapter Twenty-Two

Hanger

Rubber Load,
Cushion

Saddle Assem bly Beam

FIGURE 22-1 1 Equalizing beam suspension system- -rubber cushion-type. (Courtesy of Hendricl<son
International, Truclc Suspension Systems)
Frame Hanger
, rubber-bushed drive pins, each of which passes
through the rubber cushion. All driving, braking, and
cornering forces are transmitted through these pins.
Without load, the spring rides on the outer edge of
the spring load cushions. As the load increases, the
crossbars of the cushions are progressively brought
into contact to absorb the additional load. Cushioning
and alignment are accomplished by the four drive pins
encased in rubber bushings. The bushings permit the
drive pins to move up and down in direct relation to
movement of the load cushions (Figure 22-12).

N O LOAD FULL LOAD 1

FIGURE 22-1 2 Sectional view of the rubber cushion-
type equaljzing beam suspension. (Courtesy of Hen-
driclcson International, Truck Suspension Systems]
2 2 . 3 TORSION BAR
SUSPENSIONS
This type of suspension system uses torsion bars
instead of steel leaf spring arrangements. The typical
torsion bar suspension consists of a torsion bar,
front crank, and rear crank with associated brackets,
a shackle pin, and assorted bushings and seals. Axle
torque and loads are supported by hardened steel
bushings located at the end of each crank assembly.
End thrusts are normally absorbed by a center-
threaded bushing and a center-threaded area
shackle pin. When the central area of the shackle pin
is located within the mating threaded bushing, the
axles can be aligned correctly. Seals are used at the
bushing ends and at the shackle links to inhibit water
seepage and highway debris.

Typical torsion bar suspensions use prestressed
bars that acquire a permanent right-hand or left-
hand twist. Normal manufacturing practice is t o
stamp the bars with an R or L to indicate on which
side of the truck the bars are to be installed.
~
22.4 AIR SPRING
SUSPENSIONS
Many heavy-duty trucks and trailers are equipped
with air spring suspension systems (Figure 22-13).
The air bag or air spring suspension system provides
a smooth, shock- and vibration-free ride with a pre-
set constant frame height. The air springs on the
suspension system take the place of mechanical
leaf-type springs. This design helps to minimize road
shock transfer to the truck frame, the cargo, and the
driverloperator. The air spring suspension system
adjusts to load conditions automatically, providing a
low rate suspension with light or no loads and a high
rate suspension with heavier loads.
Advantages of the air spring suspension include
the following:
Front pivotal bushing controls truck roll and
axle alignment, yet allows easy up and down
travel.
Structural frame brackets attach by welding or
bolting.
Trailing arms are steel box beams.
FIGURE 22-1 3 Combination leaf and air spring suspension system. [Courtesy of Freightliner Trucks)
Suspension Systems 71 1
The axle connection is a seat assembly, which
is welded as part of the beam and U-bolted for
double safe operation.
The air spring usually incorporates a preset
check valve to prevent any leaks in the suspen-
sion system from affecting the truck's air brake
system.
Many current suspensions combine steel leaf
springs and air springs as shown in Figure 22-13
and Figure 22-14.
The major components of an air spring suspen-
sion system are as follows: a height control valve, air
lines, tapered leaf springs, shock absorbers, torque
rods, and wear pads. Air suspensions are currently
more often used than any other type of suspension
in heavy-duty trucks.
COMPONENTS
The brain of the air spring suspension system is the
height control valve (Figure 22-15). The valve will
automatically maintain truck ride height. The height
control valve is usually mounted at the rear of the
truck frame (Figure 22-16). The valve has a lever
connected to the rear axle assembly by means of a
linkage rod. This height control lever is sensitive to
frame height and will automatically fill or exhaust the
air springs to maintain the truck ride height.
Figure 22-17 illustrates the height control valve in
the neutral position. At this point, the lever is parallel
t o the ground, and the air suspension has been
properly inflated to level the vehicle. No air can pass
through the valve at this time.
7 12 Chapter Twenty-Two

Spring Bracket

Shock Absorber

FIGURE 22-1 4 Typical air spring suspension installation. (Courtesy of International Truck and Engine Corp.)

Arm /

FIGURE 22-1 5 Height control valve. (Courtesy of

International Truck and Engine C0rp.J

During tractor operation, a hydraulic delay feature

dampens random input from typical road shock
(bumps and potholes) to keep the valve from rapid
cycling between opening and closing.
Crossmember
When a load is applied, such as coupling a trailer
to the tractor, the frame lowers. The lever is moved FIGURE 22-1 6 Location of the height control
through an angle above horizontal, and the valve valve and components. (Courtesy of International
opens after t h e t i m e delay is surpassed. As air Truck and Engine C0rp.J
 Suspension Systems 7 13

Lateral and longitudinal torque rods are used to

minimize axle windup, caused by driveline torque
and load transfer during braking.
Low-friction wear pads (see Figure 22-14A) are
located in the spring brackets, allowing the tapered
leaf spring to move forward and rearward with a min-
imum amount of friction, reducing ride harshness.

AIR SPRING MECHANICS

The air springs used in air suspension systems are of
either the reversible sleeve type or the convoluted
type (Figure 22-18). The most popular style of air
spring in use today on heavy-duty trucks is the
reversible sleeve version. The convoluted air spring
is also available in three styles: single, double, and
triple convolutions. The style shown in Figure 22-18
is classified as a double convoluted-type air spring.
The major components of an air spring are listed and
described here:

1 To Air Bags
2 From Pressure Protection
3 45' Below Horizontal
4 Exhaust Tube
5 Lever
6 Horizontal Position
7 Exhaust
8 4"-6' Dead Travel
9 Delivery
10 45" Above Horizontal
11 Adjusting Nut
12 Height Control Valve
13 Centering Pin

FIGURE 22-1 7 Height control valve operation.

(Courtesy of International Truck and Engine Corp.)

passes through the valve and the air suspension is

inflated, the frame resumes its set ride height.
The frame rises when the trailer is uncoupled. The
lever moves through an angle below horizontal and A REVERSIBLE SLEEVE
after a time delay, the valve exhausts air until the Air Fitting Bllnd Nut
frame once again resumes its set ride height.
Air lines, located between the front and rear axle
air springs, transfer air pressure between the axles.
The air pressure is used to maintain a constant frame
rail height and an equal load distribution between the
axles.
The tapered leaf spring (see Figure 22-14) acts as
a lightweight one-piece beam t o transfer loads
directly to the axle. The spring is also used to absorb
road shock, tractive, and braking forces.
Axle oscillation is dampened by hydraulic shock
absorbers (see Figure 22-14), which are mounted
J Bead
where shock travel is greatest. The shock absorbers Plate
B DOUBLE CONVOLUTED
are designed so that in combination with the air
springs, the best possible ride and stability will be FIGURE 22-1 8 Components of air springs.
obtained. (Courtesy of Firestone Industrial Products Co.)
7 14 Chapter Twenty-Two
Stud. Used to attach the spring to the suspen-
sion; usually manufactured as a part of the
bead assembly.
Combo Stud. Serves the dual purpose of
mounting the spring to the suspension and pro-
viding an air port.
Bead Plate. Crimped onto the bellows at the
factory, it allows complete testing before the
spring leaves the factory.
Bellows. The heart of the air spring, manufac-
tured of rubber. Includes at least four plies, or
layers, of materials: an inner layer, two or four
plies of cord-reinforced fabric, and an outer
cover. The rubber construction withstands tem-
peratures down to minus 65°F.
Bumper. Also known as a jounce block, this
item is a solid rubber fail-safe device used on
many truck suspension systems. It is used to
prevent damage to the suspension in the event
of sudden air pressure loss or jounce.
Piston. Only found on the reversible sleeve-
type spring; usually made from aluminum, steel,
fiberglass, or hard rubber. The piston provides
a lower mounting arrangement for the air spring
in the form of tapped holes or studs. Also
called a pedestal.
Piston Bolt. Attaches the piston to the bellows
assembly. In some cases. it may be extended
to serve as a means of attaching the spring to
the suspension.
Blind Nut. A permanent part of the bead plate
assembly; it provides an alternate mounting
system to the stud.
Air Fitting. Provides an air port for the spring.
Girdle Hoop. A ring between the convolutions
of the convoluted type spring; used to provide
lateral stability.
~
122.5 SPRING SUSPENSION
SYSTEM SERVICING
Servicing a spring suspension system consists of
periodic checks and inspections, troubleshooting to
identify defective components, and component
replacement. System alignment is discussed sepa-
rately at the end of this chapter.
SERVICE CHECI<S
On spring suspension systems, U-bolts must be
tightened at periodic intervals. This applies to both
new trucksltrailers and to trucks or trailers on which
spring service has been performed. Maintenance is
limited to periodic inspections to ensure the torque
values on U-bolts are maintained, spring pin bush-
ings are lubricated, and proper spring end clearance
exists.
The U-bolt nuts must be retightened after the
truck or trailer has operated under load for 1,000
miles or six m o n t h s , whichever o c c u r s f i r s t .
Thereafter, the spring U-bolt nuts should be retight-
ened every 36,000 miles.
Also inspect sprirlg ends to ensure that they are
not in contact with the sides of the equalizer or
hanger brackets (see Figure 22-19). Spring end con-
tact indicates that the spring assemblies are not
seated on the axle housing or there is a need for sus-
pension alignment. Check U-bolt seats, U-bolts, and
spring assemblies for proper installation.
CAUTION: When checking U-bolts always
tighten to original specifications. Rusty joints must
be disassembled, cleaned, and lubricated to ensure
a like-new condition prior to tightening.
Use a wire brush and solvent or pressure wash
equipment t o clean the suspension system and
remove dirt, grease, and scale. When using solvents,
follow the safety precautions recommended by the
solvent manufacturer.
lnspect the shackle bracket and the spring shack-
les for cracks, wear, and other damage. Replace any
damaged parts. lnspect the spring for cracks and
corrosion. If any cracked or broken leaves are dis-
Equalizer
Bracket
Equalizer
I V \
FIGURE 22-1 9 Spring end clearance. (Courtesy of
International Truck and Engine Corp.)
 Suspension Systems 715

covered, replace the entire spring as a unit or rebuild
the spring assembly. Never paint leaf springs. This
will lower inter-leaf friction and reduce its dampening
capability. If rusting or corrosion is severe, replace
the spring.
Using a micrometer, check the spring pins and the
shackle pin for wear. Replace a pin if the diameter at
any point on the pin is less than the specified mini-
mum. Inspect the spring and bracket bushings.
Replace the bushings if gouged, cracked, or other-
wise damaged. If the bushings are not damaged,
inspect them for wear. Using a micrometer, check
the inside diameter of each bushing. The inside
diameter of any bushing should not exceed the
diameter of its pin by more than 0.020 inch. Replace
any bushing that exceeds this limit.
SYSTEM DIAGNOSIS
The troubleshooting chart in Table 22-1 covers the
most frequent causes of problems that might occur in
a leaf spring suspension system. However, different
symptoms can produce similar complaints relating to
axle and wheel alignment problems. Be sure that
these related areas are in proper working order before
attempting to troubleshoot the suspension system.
Rough Ride Diagnosis
There are two ways of describing rough ride condi-
tions: harmonic and harsh. Harmonic ride problems
are those in which the once-per-revolution energy
input from such things as bent or imbalanced wheels
match the natural frequency of the frame flexing.
This produces rhythmic vibration, which continues as
long as t h e critical road speed is maintained.
Harmonic ride problems can occur on smooth roads.
'The main sources of harmonic ride problems are typ-
ically wheels, rims, and brake drums or hubs.
Harsh ride problems are those in which the sus-
pension transfers, rather than absorbs, momentary
energy inputs produced when the tires hit bumps or
holes in the road. Wavy asphalt, or a series of
bumps, might cause repetition of the harsh, jarring
motion in the cab, but the motion stops after the tires
pass over the bumps. Harsh ride problems occur on
rough roads.
This section contains general information on cor-
recting rough ride problems. It is not intended as a
replacement for the component manufacturer's ser-
vice manuals.
Visually check the vehicle for signs of damaged or
missing suspension components. Repair or replace

TABLE 22-1: LEAF SPRING SUSPENSION TROUBLESHOOTING GUIDE

Symptom
Vehicle leans to one side
Vehicle wanders
Vehicle bottoms out
Frequent spring breakage
Probable Cause
1. One or more broken spring leaves
2. Weak or fatigued spring assembly
3. Unmatched spring design/load
capacity spring assemblies
4. Bent or twisted frame rail
1. One or more broken spring leaves
2. Wheels out of alignment
3. Caster incorrect
4. Steering gear not centered
5. Drive axles out of alignment.
1. Excessive weight on the vehicle
causing an overload
2. One or more broken spring leaves
3. Weak or fatigued spring assembly
1. Vehicle overloaded or operated under
severe conditions
2, Insufficient torque on the U-bolt nuts
3. Loose center bolt allowing the spring
leaves to slip
4. Worn or damaged spring pin
bushings allowing spring end-play
Remedy
Replace the spring assembly.
Replace the spring assembly.
Install the correct spring assemblies as
originally specified for the vehicle.
4. Check the frame rails for bends and
twists. Correct as needed.
1. Replace the spring assembly.
2. Adjust the wheel alignment.
3. Install correct caster shims.
4. Adjust steering.
5. Align the drive axles.
1. Reduce the loaded vehicle weight to the
maximum spring capacities.
2. Replace the spring assembly.
3. Replace the spring assembly.
1. Reduce the loaded vehicle weight to the
maximum spring capacities. Caution the
driver on improper vehicle handling.
2. Torque the U-bolt nuts to the
manufacturer's value.
3. Check the spring leaves for damage. If
damaged, replace the spring assembly. If
not, tighten the center bolt nut to the
manufacturer's value.
4. Replace the spring pin and bushing.
7 16 Chapter Twenty-Two pp

TABLE 22-1: LEAF SPRING SUSPENSION TROUBLESHOOTING GUIDE (CONTINUED)

Symptom Probable Cause
IUoisy spring 1. Loose U-bolt nut or center bolt
allowing spring leaf slippage
2. A loose, bent, or broken spring
shackle or front spring bracket
impairing the spring flex
3. Worn or damaged spring pins
allowing spring end-play
Rough ride Refer to applicable subject in text.
Remedv
1. Inspect the components for damage.
Replace damaged components as
necessary.
Torque all fasteners to the manufacturer's
values.
2. Inspect the shackle and bracket
for damage. Replace damaged
components as necessary.
Torque the fasteners to the
manufacturer's values.
3. Replace any worn or damaged spring
pins.

TABLE 22-2: ROUGH RIDE DIAGNOSIS

Symptom
Harsh ride, tires off the ground
Harsh ride, tires on the ground
Probable Cause
Seized front spring shackle pins not
allowing the springs to flex
1. Tires improperly inflated
2. The frame is bottoming out against
the suspension.
3. The vehicle normal loaded weight is
markedly below the spring load
capacity.
4. When the vehicle is loaded, the
front axle spring shackle angle is not
within the rearward 3 to 18 degree
angle.
5. The weight on the tractor fifth wheel is 5. If possible, move the fifth wheel toward
causing overloading on the front
axle springs.
6. There is a loaded weight differential
between the rear axles greater than
800 pounds.
7. Forces from the trailer suspension
are pushing on the tractor fifth wheel,
causing a rough ride condition.
Remedy
Replace seized shackle pins.
1. Adjust the tire pressure.
2. Check the suspension for weak or
damaged springs or components. Inspect
the springs for "gull-winging" when the
vehicle is loaded.
Replace the spring assembly as necessary.
Reduce the overall loaded weight on each
axle to conform with the maximum spring
load capacities on the vehicle specifica-
tion sheet. Do not exceed the maximum
spring load capacities.
3. Contact the manufacturer for the correct
application of a lower rated spring.
Replace the spring assembly.
4. Contact the manufacturer for
shackle angle corrective measures.
the rear of the vehicle; otherwise, change
the loading pattern on the trailer.
6. Contact the manufacturer for corrective
measures.
7. Review the ride problems in this subject
that might apply to the trailer suspension.
Perform the corrections, as necessary.

the components as required. Then test-drive the truck.
When test-driving the truck, be sure to duplicate as
closely as possible those conditions under which the
problem occurs. IVote the area(s) of the truck where
the problem(s) seems to be coming from.
Raise the truck until the tires are off the ground
and all of t h e weight is removed f r o m t h e leaf
springs. Be sure to block the axle and frame with
safety stands. Then perform the corrections given in
Table 22-2.

WARNING: Safety stands must securely sup-
port all of the wheel and frame weight during sus-
pension repairs. Unsecured components might
drop when the fasteners are loosened or removed,
causing component damage and serious personal
injury.
When troubleshooting and/or repair procedures
have been completed, remove the safety stands
from under the frame and axle and lower the truck.
LEAF SPRING REPLACEMENT
Although the exact replacement procedures are dif-
ferent for each type of leaf spring assembly, the
basic procedures are similar. The following is a gen-
eral outline leaf spring replacement.
To remove a spring assembly,
1. Chock the tires, place a floor jack under the
truck frame, and raise the truck sufficiently to
relieve the weight from the spring t o be
removed. Then place safety stands under the
frame.
2. Remove shock absorbers where used.
3. Remove U - b o l t s , s p r i n g b u m p e r , a n d
retainer or U-bolt seat.
4. Remove the lubricators (not used on springs
equipped with rubber bushings).
5. Remove the nuts from the spring shackle
pins or bracket pins.
6. Slide the spring off the bracket pin and
shackle pin.
Although the actual installation procedures will
vary with each spring type, the pivot end of the
spring is usually fastened to the frame bracket first.
The shackle end then can be fastened by aligning
the shackle t o the other frame bracket. When
installing the U-bolts or spring clips to secure the
axles, do not final tighten until springs have been
placed under normal load. Spring failures may occur
at the center bolt hole if U-bolts become loosened.
These bolts must be retightened at specified inter-
vals or during periodic maintenance checks.
Tightening of the front and rear axle U-bolt nuts at
proper intervals on new vehicles and on vehicles with
replaced springs is important to prevent spring shift-
ing, breaking of leaves, and center bolt shearing.
Loose spring clips or U-bolts will also cause axle
misalignment, which could adversely affect tire wear.
When tightening U-bolt nuts, follow the recom-
mended tightening sequence after lubricating the
spring clip threads with the recommended lubricant.
Suspension Systems 717
The lubricant will ensure adequate clamping of the
spring pack with the nuts tightened to the specified
torque.
To correctly torque U-bolt nuts, first tighten all the
nuts until they are snug. Next, tighten the nuts until
approximately one-third of the recommended torque
is achieved. Repeat tightening of the nuts, using the
same sequence, gradually increasing the torque
through a second, third, and fourth stage, until the
recommended final torque is attained.
SHOCI< ABSORBER INSPECTION
Shock absorbers should be checked every 12,000
miles. To check shock absorbers on the vehicle,
1. To check for noise, make certain that the
noise is not coming from some other part of
the vehicle. Then check shock absorber
brackets and mounting stud nuts to make
sure that they are tight and that the shock
absorber is not striking or rubbing on the
frame or some other part of the chassis.
2. Check the rubber mounting bushings and
replace if worn.
3. Disconnect the lower end and work the
shock absorber by hand to see that the outer
tube is not striking or rubbing against the
fluid reservoir tube.
4. Wh~lethe shock absorber is disconnected,
check the piston movement by pulling and
pushing the absorber down and up slowly to
make sure that the piston does not bind in
the pressure tube. There should be consider-
able resistance when extending the
absorber, but only slight resistance when
collapsing the unit. Also note the rate of
effort for distance of travel. This rate should
not vary.
5. If it is determined that the shock absorber is
defective, replace it.
CAUTION: Do not operate a vehicle with a
shock absorber removed or defective because this
places undue stress on the rear springs.
SHOCI< ABSORBER REPLACEMENT
1. Remove the nuts from the top and bottom
bolts from the eyes of the shock absorber.
2. Remove the shock absorber from the vehi-
cle.
3. Place rubber bushings into the eyes of the
new shock absorber.
7 18 Chapter Twenty-Two
4. lnstall the top bolt through the top mounthg
bracket on the frame rail.
5. Place a flat washer over the bolt and thread
the bolt into the upper rubber bushings of
the new shock absorber.
6. Place a second flat washer over the bolt and
then screw on the nut finger tight.
7. Extend the lower part of the shock absorber
until the mounting holes line up in the lower
bracket and shock absorber eye.
8. lnstall the bottom bolt through the lower
mounting bracket on the axle.
9. Place a flat washer over the bolt and thread
the bolt into the lower rubber bushing of the
new shock absorber.
10. Place a second flat washer over the bolt and
screw on the nut finger tight.
11. Check to make sure that the rubber bush-
ings are seated properly and tighten the nut
to the specified torque.
Shop Tall<
Some shock absorber mount brackets have a stud
welded to the bracket, rather than a nut and bolt.
RADIUS R O D REPLACEMENT
Before replacing a radius rod on a leaf spring sus-
pension system, secure the truck's parking brakes
and chock the tires. Be sure the replacement radius
rod is the correct length because they come in many
different sizes. Then replace the radius rod by per-
forming the following:
1. Note the number of axle alignment washers
(refer to Figure 22-20, item IVo. 4) at the for-
ward end of the radius rod that is being
removed.
2 . Remove the fasteners that attach the radius
rod to the forward spring bracket and to the
axle s'eat.
3. Remove the radius rod and any axle align-
ment washers. Retain the axle alignment
washers for use when installing the new
radius rod.
4. At all points where steel components (includ-
ing bolts, washers, and nuts) contact an alu-
minum forward spring bracket, apply
AlumilasticTMcompound, or an equivalent, on
the mating surfaces. Failure t o apply
AlumilasticTMcompound, or an equivalent, to
areas where aluminum and steel parts contact
each other could lead to corrosion of the met-
als, resulting in damage to the suspension.
- Forward
Righl-Side
Radius Rod
Left-Side
Radius R o d
1 H e x Locknut
2 Hardened Washer
3 Forward Spring Bracket
4 Alignment Washers
(install only o n one side;
right-side installation shown)
5 Radius Rod Front Pin
6 Hexhead Bolt
7 Radius R o d Rear Pin
8 Axle Seat
FIGURE 22-20 Radius rod attachment (top vlew).
[Courtesy of Freightliner Trucl<s)
5. Position the replacement radius rod so that
the radius rod pins are between the rear side
of the forward spring bracket and the front
side of the axle seat.
6. lnstall the hexhead bolts, hardened washers,
and locknuts in the axle seat and the radius
rod rear pin.
7. Install any previously removed axle align-
ment washers between the radius rod front
pin and the forward spring bracket. Install
the hexhead bolts, hardened washers, and
locknuts in the radius rod front pin and the
forward spring bracket.
8. Tighten the radius locknuts to the torque
value specified by the manufacturer.
9. Check the axle alignment. If necessary,
adjust the rear axle alignment.
SPRING BRACI<ET REPLACEMENT
Failure t o replace a worn, cracked, or damaged
spring bracket c o u l d result in breakage of the
bracket itself, which in turn could cause a loss of
vehicle control, resulting in personal injury or prop-
erty damage.
Prior to replacing the spring bracket, chock the
front tires. Then raise the rear of the truck and block
 Suspension Systems 7 19

the front or rear axle with safety stands. Raise the
truck frame so that all the weight is removed from
the leaf springs. Then, block the frame with safety
stands. M a k e sure t h a t t h e safety s t a n d s will
securely support the weight of the axle and the
frame. Then do the following:
1. If removing the forward spring, note the
number of axle alignment washers, if any,
between the bracket and the radius rod front
pin. Remove the fasteners that attach the
radius rod to the bracket and remove any
axle alignment washers.
2 . Remove the fasteners that attach the spring
bracket t o the frame rail and remove the
spring bracket.
3. Place the new spring bracket on the frame
rail. Align the mounting holes and install the
spring bracket bolts, hardened washers, and
locknuts.
4. If replacing the forward spring bracket, install
the nuts for the top two bolts on the out-
board side of the frame rail and install the
nuts for the bottom four bolts on the inboard
side of the frame rail (see Figure 22-21A).
5. If replacing the rear spring bracket, install the
nuts for the top two bolts on the outboard
side of the frame rail and install the nuts for
the bottom two bolts on the inboard side of
the frame rail (see Figure 22-21 B).
6. Tighten the locknuts to the torque value
specified by the manufacturer.
CAUTION: Failure to properly torque the sus-
pension fasteners can result in abnormal tire wear
and damage to the springs, spring brackets, and
frame rail.
7. Check the axle alignment. If necessary,
adjust the rear axle alignment.
EQUALIZER REPLACEMENT
Before attempting to replace the equalizer assembly,
make sure that the truck's front tires are chocked.
Then raise the rear of the truck and block the axles
with safety stands. Raise the truck frame so that all
the weight is removed from the leaf springs; then
block the frame with safety stands. Make sure that
the stands will securely support the weight of the
axles and frame. To allow access to the equalizer,
remove the wheel assemblies on that side of the
vehicle. Then refer to Figure 22-22 and replace the
equalizer as follows:

Nut
Outboard

Bolt Heads
Outboard

FORWARD SPRING BRACKET

Nut
Outboard
A VEHICLE WlTH
TWO DRIVE AXLES

Bolt H e a d
Outboard
Side Restraint

B VEHICLES WlTH TAG

B REAR S P R I N G B R A C K E T OR PUSHER AXLE

FIGURE 22-2 1 Spring frame brackets. (Courtesy FIGURE 22-22 Equalizer assembly replacement.
of Freightliner Trucl<s) [Courtesy of Freightliner Trucl<sJ
720 Chapter Twenty-Two __
If r~movingan equa1i:er from a truck with
two drive axles, remove the cotter pin from
the outboard end of each spring retainer pin;
then remove the retainer pins.
Remove the equalizer cap and tube assem-
bly locknut, inboard bearing washer, bolt,
and outboard bearing washer.
Insert a bar between the b o t t o m of the
equalizer and the equalizer bracket. Gently
lever the weight of the equalizer off the
equalizer cap and tube assembly. Insert a
piece of bar stock t h r o u g h t h e inboard
equalizer cap and tube assembly bolt hole
and lightly tap the cap and tube assembly
out of the equalizer.
'Thoroughly clean the equalizer bushings and
inspect them for damage or defects. Replace
the bushings if necessary.
Apply multipurpose chassis grease t o the
inside of the equalizer bushings; then install
the bushings in the equalizer.
Install the replacement equalizer in the
equalizer bracket.
Apply multipurpose chassis grease to the
equalizer cap and tube assembly. Start the
cap and tube assembly into the equalizer,
through the equalizer bracket.
Push the equalizer cap and tube assembly
partway through the equalize and then place
the inboard wear washer(s) between the
inboard equalizer bush~ngand the equalizer
bracket. Push the cap and tube assembly
t h e rest of t h e way i n t o t h e equalizer
bracket.
Place the outboard bearing washer on the
equalizer cap and tube assembly bolt and
install the bolt in the cap and tube assembly.
Install the inboard bearing washer and lock-
nut on the c a p and tube assembly bolt.
Tighten the locknut to the torque value spec-
ified by the manufacturer.
CAUTION: Failure to apply AlumilasticTMcom-
pound, or an equivalent, to areas where aluminum
and steel contact each other could lead to corro-
sion of the metals, resulting in suspension damage.
11. Install the wheel assemblies. Remove the
safety stands from under the frame and axle
and lower the truck.
12. If the radius rods have been loosened or the
equalizer bracket has been removed, check
the rear axle alignment. If necessary, adjust
the axle alignment.
22." EQUALIZER BEAM
SUSPENSION SYSTEM
SERVICING
Clean all dirt from suspension parts and inspect all
parts carefully for cracks or damage. Inspect rubber
bushings for damage or deterioration. If the truck has
been in service for a long time, replace all bushings.
Most repairs to the suspension system consist of
replacing worn or damaged parts. The major item
that will concern the technician is removal and
replacement of the rubber bushings.
Although the bushings have long life and replace-
ment will be limited, they can be replaced if dam-
aged or deteriorated. Special service tools for
performing this task are available but, though recom-
mended, are not absolutely necessary. If press
equipment is available, standard steel tubing having
diameters t o match the bushing sleeves (metal
bands surrounding rubber bushings) can be used as
adapters for removing and installing the bushings.
Press pressures required to remove the bushing and
sleeve assemblies will generally be between 35 and
50 tons.
Special tool equipment is available from some
manufacturers that can be used to replace the equal-
izer beam bushings without completely removing the
equalizer beam from the chassis. The special equip-
ment can also be used to replace the bushings with
the equalizer beams removed.
SPRING SHOCI< INSUMTORS
The purpose of the spring shock insulator (some-
times called spring load cushions) is to secure the
spring to the chassis and to reduce the transmission
of road shock to the vehicle. To do this, the insulator
must be in good condition and firmly bonded to the
metal insert of the cushion.
The spring shock insulators are generally made of
butyl and rubber and are not resistant to petroleum
products. If the cushions become saturated with
these products, they will split and disintegrate. In an
operation where these products are used, an 011-
resistant compound load cushion is available.
Visual inspection of the shock insulators will
determine the necessity for replacement. Check
them for cracks, deterioration, and abnormal wear by
removing the insulator cap (if so equipped). Also
check the height of cushion against the recom-
mended height given in the service manual. A per-
manent set of not more than ' 1 4 inch would still make
the insulator acceptable for use. Remember that the
purpose of this inspection is to determine whether

PHOTO SEQUENCE 8
TRAILER HEIGHT CONTROL VALVE ADJUSTMENT
P8-1 Ensure that the trailer is
unloaded. The trailer must be
connected to a tractor or sup-
ported o n a trailer Icingpin stand.
Be sure the trailer parking brakes
are applied and the trailer wheels
are blocl<ed. The trailer air system
pressure should be at 70 psi
(482.65 I<pa) or greater through-
out the adjustment procedure.
P8-4 Move each control valve
arm 45 degrees downward for 10
to 15 seconds, and then return
the control valve arms to the cen-
ter position.
P8-2 Disconnect each height
control valve linkage at the lower
bracl<et. Move each height con-
trol valve arm t o the upward posi-
tion to raise the trailer frame.
Install steel spacer blocl<s of the
specified thickness between the
rigid beams and the trailer frame.
A n alternate method is to install
safety stands under the trailer
frame t o obtain the specified
blocl< thicl<ness at the proper loca-
tion between the rigid beam and
the trailer frame.
P8-5 Install the w o o d locating
pins in each height control valve
adjusting block and bracket.
Suspension Systems 72 1
P8-3 Move each height control
valve arm t o the downward posi-
tion until all the air is exhausted
from the air springs and the trailer
frame is supported o n the spacer
blocl<s. Be sure the spacer blocl<s
or safety stands are supplying the
specified ride height between the
center of the trailer axle and the
bottom of the trailer frame.
P8-6 Loosen the ' / 4 in. (6.35
mm) adjusting nut o n the adjust-
ing block o n each height control
valve.
722 Chapter Twenty-Two
PHOTO SEQUENCE 8 [CONTINUEDJ
TRAILER HEIGHT CONTROL VALVE ADJUSTMENT
P8-7 Reconnect the height
control valve linkage to the lower
bracket and tighten the retaining
nut to 24 or 48 in.=lb (2.68-5.37
N*m).
P8-9 Use a floorjaclc to raise
the trailer frame and remove the
spacer blocl<s or safety stands. An
alternate method of raising the
trailer frame is to disconnect the
height control valve linl<age at the
lower bracket and move the
height control arm upward to
raise the tra~lerframe. Be sure the
linkage to the lower bracket
retainer is tightened to the speci-
fled torque.
the insulator is suitable for further use, or whether it
should be replaced. Arbitrary replacement of useable
insulators is wasteful, and reuse of worn insulators
can result in unnecessary downtime.
A vehicle equipped with spring shock insulators
must not be operated with worn or defective shock
insulators. Faulty insulators can cause axle misalign-
ment or floating, which adversely affects tire life.
Continued operation with damaged or worn insula-
tors will result in damage t o the "T" slot area of the
P8-8 Tighten the ' / 4 in. (6.35
mm) adjusting nut t o 24 to 48 in.
Ib (2.68 to 5.37 N*m) o n each
height control valve and remove
the w o o d locating pins.
P8-10 With the air pressure in
the trailer air brake reservoirs
greater than 70 psi (482.65 I<paJ,
be sure the alr sprlngs are inflated
to supply the specified ride height
between the center of the axles
and the lower side of the frame
shock insulator cap and eventual cap failure. Spring
damage is also possible.
To remove and replace spring shock insulators or
load cushions, follow the procedure given in the ser-
vice or chassis manual.
SYSTEM OVERHAUL
The f o l l o w i n g p r o c e d u r e s h o u l d b e undertaken
before performing repairs o n an equalizing beam
suspension system.
 Suspension Systems 723

Preparation for Overhaul Repair Standard Type Adapter

I
1 . Block the wheels on both axles of the truck. Sleeve /
2. Remove the axle shafts from both rear axles.
3. Remove the four saddle caps that lock the
center bushing of the equalizer beams to the
saddle assemblies. Adapter
4. Disconnect the torque rods from the axle
housing by loosening the locknuts and dri-
Split Ring
ving the shaft from the bushing and the axle Type Adapter
housing bracket.
Beam
5. Using an overhead crane, raise the truck
frame sufficiently so that the lower part of the
FIGURE 22-23 Three-piece adapter bolt-type
saddle clears the top of the axle housings.
beam end mounting. (Courtesy of International
Block the frame securely. Block the axles to
Truck and Engine Corp.)
prevent them from pivoting on the wheels.
6 . Roll axles, with the beams attached, out
from under the truck.

Overhaul
There are three main types of equalizer beam mount-
ing configurations:

Bolt type beam end mounting (Figure 22-23)

Tube type beam end mounting (Figure 22-24) Beam
Ball and socket beam end mounting (Figure
22-25) FIGURE 22-24 Tube-type beam end mounting.
(Courtesy of International Truck and Engine Corp.)
The replacement procedure given here will cover
the bolt type beam end.

1. Disconnect the equalizer beam from the axle

housing, referencing Figure 22-23.
a. Remove the equalizer beam end bolt.
b. Drive the bushing adapters and sleeve (if
so equipped) out of the bushing and axle
housing brackets. Adapters are notched
to help keep the chisel in place between
the axle bracket and adapter. Driving the
chisel first on one side and then on the
other side of the adapter will wedge out
the adapter.
c. After the first adapter is removed, the
opposite adapter can be driven out with an
impact hammer or heavy bar and hammer.
2. Separate the equalizer beams from the cross
tube.
1 Beam Hanger 8 Felt Ball Socket Seal
3. After both equalizer beams have been sepa-
2 Beam/Axle Shaft 9 Ball Socket Retainer
rated from the axles, separate the beams 3 Beam Shaft Torque Nut 10 Spring
from the cross tube by pulling them apart by 4 Cotter Pin 11 Bolt
hand. The cross tube floats in the inner 5 Beam End Ball 12 Nut
6 Beam Bushing 13 Lock Washer
sleeve of the center bushings. The slide float 7 Equalizer Beam 14 Flat Washer
is 3 inches plus, which will polish the cross
tube where it enters the center bushing on FIGURE 22-25 Ball and soclcet beam end mount-
each side. This visible polished area on the ing. (Courtesy of International Truck and Engine
cross tube is normal. Corp.J
724 Chapter Twenty-Two --

3. R61'116u;ifh6 saddk a6ssrnbI;ss, springs, or
cushions. See the leaf spring type (Figure
22-26).
a. Support the spring and saddle assembly
on a floor jack and safety stand. Loosen
the spring-aligning setscrew. Remove the
spring top pad saddle bolts and nuts.
Remove the top pad. Lower the floor jack
and remove the saddle.
b. Remove the spring assembly by reposi-
tioning the floor jack under the spring.
Loosen the locknut on the spring pin
draw key (item 3).
c. Back off the nut sufficiently to protect the
draw key threads and then strike the nut
with a soft hammer to loosen the draw
key. Remove the draw key and drive the
spring pin out of the spring and spring
bracket. Lower the spring assembly from
the frame and remove it from the jack.
See the rubber cushion or shock insulator
type (Figure 22-27).

1 Spring Bracket 15 Saddle Cap

2 Spring Pin 16 Stud 1 Frame Hanger 17 Cross Shaft
2aZerk Fitting 17 Washer 2 Frame Hanger 18 Center Bushing Bronze
3 Draw Key 18 Nut 3 Rubber Cushion 19 Sleeve
4 Bushing 19 Nut 4 Saddle Assembly 20 Seal
5 Spring Bracket 20 Equalizer Beam 5 Drive Pin Bushing 21 Thrust Washer
6 Rebound Bolt 21 Center Bushing 6 Bushing Retainer Cap 22 Zerk Fitting
with Spacer 22 Cross Tube 7 Rebound Washer 23 Rebound B u m p e r *
7 Spring Bracket 23 Center Bushing 8 Drive Pin N u t 24 Stop N u t *
(extended leaf only) Bronze 9 Stud 25 Plate
8 T o p Pad 24 Sleeve 10 Nut (optional w i t h RS 380)
9 T o p Pad Bolt 25 Seals 11 Saddle Cap 26 Rubber Cushion
10 Washer 26 Washer 12 Stud (optional with RS 380)
11 Setscrew 27 Zerk Fitting 13 Washer 27 Frame Hanger
12 Leaf Spring Assembly 28 E n d Bushing 14 Nut (optional w i t h RS 380)
13 Center Bolt 29 Part Number 15 Equalizer Beam 28 E n d Bushing
14 Saddle Assembly 16 Center Bushing

FIGURE 22-26 Leaf spring-type suspension sys- FIGURE 22-27 Rubber cushion-type suspension
tem. (Courtesy of International Truck and Engine system. (Courtesy of International Truck and Engine
Corp.J Corp.)

a. Remove the four vertical drive pin bushing
retainer caps (item 6).
b. R e m o v e t h e drive p i n n u t s ( i t e m 8).
Separate the saddle (item 4) and load
cushions from the vertical drive pins. In
extreme cases, it might be necessary to
cut the drive pin nuts to remove them.
c. Replace the drive pin bushings if required.
5. Remove the torque rods from the cross
member frame bracket.
6. Assemble or install new spring, cushion, or
insulator and saddle assemblies. See the
leaf spring type (Figure 22-26).
a. Seat the spring in the spring saddle with
the head of the spring center bolt posi-
tioned in the hole provided in the saddle.
b. Position the spring t o p p a d over the
"cup" on the main spring leaf.
c. lnstall the saddle-to-top pad bolts and
nuts. Run the nuts up snug but do not
tighten completely at this time.
d. To properly position the spring in the sad-
dle, tighten the spring aligning setscrews
to the manufacturer's specified torque.
Tighten the aligning screw locknuts.
e. Tighten saddle-to-top pad bolt nuts to the
manufacturer's specified torque.
f. Using a roller jack, position the spring
(with saddle) in the front and rear spring
mounting brackets.
g. Align the spring eye with the spring pin
bore in the front bracket, lnstall the spring
pin, aligning the draw key slot in the pin
with the draw key bore in the bracket.
h. lnstall the draw key, lock washer, and nut.
Tighten the nut t o the manufacturer's
specified torque.
i. lnstall the lubricator fitting in the spring
pin and lubricate. See the rubber cushion-
type mounting (Figure 22-27).
a. With the drive pin bushings assembled to
the saddle and the bearing caps installed,
assemble or install the rubber load cush-
ion on the saddle.
b. Apply a light coat of multipurpose grease
to the drive pins on the frame brackets.
c. Assemble the frame brackets to the sad-
dle by inserting the drive pins through the
load cushions and the drive pin bushings.
d. l n s t a l l d r i v e p i n n u t s and washers.
Washers are installed with the flange
down. Tighten the nuts snug. If the frame
hangers were removed, tighten the nuts
to the specified torque after the hangers
have been assembled t o the chassis
frame.
Suspension Systems 725
e. Assemble the preassembled saddles,
load cushions, and frame hangers to the
chassis frame. lnstall the mounting bolts,
lockwashers, and nuts.
f. Tighten mounting bolt nuts to the speci-
fied torque.
g. Tighten drive pin nuts to the specified
torque.
7. Assemble or install new cross tube and
equalizer beams t o the axle assemblies
(Figure 22-26 and Figure 22-27). When
assembling the suspension, the equalizer
beam, mounting nuts, and the equalizer
beam saddle cap, mounting nuts should
have final torque applied with the wheels of
the vehicle on the ground.
a. Align the beam end bushings with the
hanger b r a c k e t s and insert bushing
adapters. Lubricate the adapters with a
light coat of multipurpose grease. The flat
surface on adapters must be in the verti-
cal position.
b. Tap the adapters into the bushing until
the adapter flanges contact the outer
faces of the hanger brackets.
c. lnstall the bolt and locknut. Do not tighten
the nut at this time.
CAUTION: When reinstalling the "rubber-
bushed" equalizing beams to the axles and sad-
dles, do not tighten the nuts until the torque rods
are installed and the equalizing beams are level
with the frame. (This is to ensure that the rubber is
in a neutral position, eliminating the possibility of
torsional windup, which might affect ride quality.)
Then tighten all nuts to recommended torque.
8. Place one end of the cross tube into the cen-
ter sleeve of the installed equalizer beam. Be
sure that the tube seats into the sleeve.
9. Assemble the other equalizer beam to the
cross tube and position the beam in the
spring saddle.
10. Roll the axle assemblies with the equalizer
beams under the center of the saddle. Make
sure that the outer bushings are lined up with
the center of the saddle legs.
11. Lower the vehicle frame centering saddles
on the beam end bushings.
12. lnstall the saddle cap and nuts. Do not
tighten until the torque rods are installed and
the equalizer beams are level with the .frame.
Torque the nuts to the recommended torque.
726 Chapter Twenty-Two
13. The C ~ O C Ccenter tube is free to rotate or float
in the bushing assemblies at each side. The
function of the tube is to ensure alignment
between the left and right equalizer beams.
14. The saddle caps serve to secure the sleeve
with the bushing. The clamping effect of the
caps against the sleeve and bushing has no
effect upon the movement of the cross cen-
ter tube.
15. Install the torque rods to the axle brackets
and the frame brackets. When tightening,
rap the bracket with the hammer to drive the
taper of the torque rod stud into the bracket.
I f the ends of torque rods have straddle
mount ends (2 holes) as shown in Figure
22-28, use spacers between the bracket and
cross member for proper axle setting. Do not
exceed '/2 inch to obtain major adjustment.
Tighten the shaft nuts to specified torque.
16. Tighten the equalizer beam end fittings to
17.
the specified torque.
Install the axle shafts. Connect the propeller
shafts, brake lines, interaxle lock control link-
age, or piping.
18. On vehicles equipped with air brakes, check
the brake piping for air leaks.
a Shop Tall<
Three types of equalizer beams might be used in
the manufacturing of trucks equipped with equalizer
beam suspensions. Although the appearance of the
equalizer beams is similar, a substantial difference
exists in the material of which they are manufac-
tured.
7Bracket
Shaft a n d
Bushing -
./Shaft
Bushing
FIGURE 22-28 Torque rod disassembly. (Courtesy
of International Truck and Engine Corp.)
The materials of the equalizer beams involved are
aluminum, cast steel, and nodular iron. Aluminum and
cast steel equalizer beams are manufactured in such a
way that they can be stressed in either direction.
Nodular iron equalizer beams are manufactured in
such a way that they can be stressed in one direction
only. Thus it is imperative that nodular iron equalizer
beams are installed with the correct side up.
To aid in identification and to facilitate installation
of nodular iron beams, an arrow and the word LIP
should be molded on the side of the nodular iron
beams. Also, reinforcing gate pads are usually
designed into each end and middle of the top side of
nodular iron beams.
Nodular iron equalizer beams must be installed
with the gate pads on the top side of the beams and
the arrow molded on the beam side pointing upward.
1
~
22.7 AIR SUSPENSION
I SYSTEM SERVICING
Proper service and repair is important to the safe and
reliable operation of an air suspension system. The
servicing procedures recommended and described
in this section are effective methods of performing air
suspension maintenance. Basically, this maintenance
consists of routine checks and services, component
replacement, and height control valve adjustment.
SERVICE CHECKS
A N D TECHNIQUES
A daily quick look to verify that the truck or trailer is
level and riding at the correct height will help the
truck technician find any obvious problems. A closer
inspection can detect broken or loose parts before
any serious problems arise.
There should be monthly inspections of clear-
ances around the air springs, tires, shock absorbers,
and all other moving parts in the suspension system.
Any part interferences should be tended to immedi-
ately. Bolts should be secure, axle connections tight,
and signs of wear should be noted. All U-bolt lock-
nuts should be retightened every 100,000 miles.
Every quarter, or 90 days, inspect all welded con-
nections for signs of deterioration. Inspect frame
attachment joints, cross member structures, and all
pivoting and clamping connections.
Air springs will last almost indefinitely in most
applications. However, they fail quickly if rubbed,
scuffed, or punctured. If an air spring fails, the truck
will settle down on the internal rubber bumpers,
-- Suspension Systems 727

allowing the driver to proceed to the closest service Ride Height Adjustment
facility. Always determine what caused the air spring
Some versions of height control valves have a cen-
to fail. Shock absorbers absorb energy to prevent
tering pin and bosses. The pin is positioned in the
suspension oscillations. Shock absorbers are also
bosses after setting the height. To adjust the height
used as rebound stops in some air suspension sys-
control valve, do the following:
tems. Air springs can be pulled apart if their stroke is
not limited. ~ e b l a c eshock absorbers only if opera-
1.Remove t h e plastic center pin from the
tional problems are detected. When replacing a
bosses (Figure 22-29).
shock absorber, do not lift the vehicle without the
2. Ensure that approximately 100 psi air pres-
shock absorbers in place. Air spring damage can
sure is available in the reservoir (check cab
occur if the air springs are overextended.
gauges).
Many types of air controls are available with air
3. Disconnect the vertical link from the height
suspension systems. The most common system
control valve lever.
automatically regulates frame height by controlling
4. The height adjustment is checked at the
air supplied to the air springs. When used in con-
rearmost axle.
junction with other types of suspensions, such as
Place a straightedge on the centerline of the
leaf spring suspension, an operator-controlled pres-
top metal plate on the air spring (Figure
sure regulator is often used. It is important to period-
22-30). Do not position the straightedge on
ically drain or purge the air suspension system to
the buildup of moisture and contaminants.
Often a height control valve is improperly diag-
nosed as defective and unnecessarily replaced. Adjusting Nut
Centering (Hidden)
There are basic steps to determine whether the valve
is defective or whether proper adjustment has not
been performed. To determine the status of a height
control valve, perform the following service checks:

1. Remove the bolt that attaches the height

control link to the height control valve lever.
2. Ensure that air reservoir pressure is above
100 psi.
3. Raise t h e height c o n t r o l valve lever 45
degrees above horizontal. Air pressure at the
air springs should begin to increase within 15
seconds, which will cause the truck frame to
rise.
4. Lower the height control valve lever 45
degrees below horizontal. Air pressure at the FIGURE 22-29 Height control valve centering pin.
air springs should begin to decrease within (Courtesy of International Truck and Eng~neCorp.)
15 seconds. Let air escape until air spring
height is approximately 10 inches.
5. Raise the valve lever to 45 degrees above hori- Straightedge
I Frame
zontal again, until air spring height is approxi- Rails
mately 12.5 inches. Release valve lever. /
PT
6. Check the valve body, all tubing connections,
and air springs for leaks with soapy water. Metal
7. Check air spring height 15 minutes after per- Plate

forming Step 5.
8. If no leaks are found, the valve functions as
just described, and air spring height has not
changed in 15 minutes, the valve is function- - - - -

ing properly. C O O
9. Install the bolt that attaches the height con-
trol lever to the height control link. Torque FIGURE 22-30 Ride height adjustment. (Courtesy
nut to specification. of International Truck and Engine C0rp.J
728 Chapter Twenty-Two

IIle l r a r i ~fails.
~ Measure the dktance from Air Spring Frame Hanger
the bottom edge of the straightedge to the I
top edge of the transverse cross member.
Refer to the manufacturer's service manual
for the correct specification distance.
5. If the distance is less than specified, raise
the valve control lever and hold it up until the
d i s t a n c e is c o r r e c t . Release t h e lever.
Loosen the lever adjusting nut, which is
located 1 ' / 8 inch from the lever pivot point,
so that the steel portion of the lever moves
but the plastic portion does not. Position the
lever so that the link-to-lever bolt can be
inserted through the lever and link.
6. If the distance is more than specified, lower
the valve lever and hold it down until the dis-
tance is correct. Release the lever. Loosen
the lever adjusting nut. Position the lever and
link so that the lever bolt can be inserted
through the lever and link.
7. Install the lever link bolt nut. Tighten the nut
115 to 130 inch-pounds. FIGURE 22-3 1 Air spring. (Courtesy of
8. Center the plastic portion of the valve lever Hendrickson International, Truck Suspension
and insert the alignment pin through the Systems]
boss on the valve body and plastic arm.
9. Tighten the lever adjusting nut t o lock the
steel a n d p l a s t i c p o r t i o n s of t h e lever
Locknut
together; then tighten to specification.
10. Remove the centering pin (if equipped) and
discard.

AIR SPRING REPLACEMENT

The following procedure is recommended for the
replacement of an air spring (Figure 22-31):

1. Chock the wheels and dump the air pressure

from the air spring.
2. Raise the truck frame t o remove the load
from the suspension. Block the frame with
safety stands.
3. Remove the locknuts and washers that con-
nect the air spring to the air spring mounting
bracket (Figure 22-32).
4. Remove the air lines connected t o the air
spring. Air Spring
5. Remove the brass air fittings from the air
spring. FIGURE 22-32 Air spring replacement. (Courtesy
6. Remove the locknuts and washers that con- of Hendricl<sonInternational, Truck Suspension
nect the air spring to the frame hanger. Then SystemsJ
remove the air spring.
7. Install the replacement air spring t o the
frame hanger by inserting the studs on the 8. Install the air spring to the spring mounting
air spring into the appropriate holes on the bracket by inserting the air spring studs into
hanger. the holes in the bracket.
 Suspension Systems 729

9. lnstall the locknuts and washers to secure LEVELING VALVE REPLACEMENT

the air spring t o the bracket. Tighten and
torque the locknuts.
10. lnstall washers and locknuts to secure the air
spring t o the frame hanger. Tighten and
torque the locknuts.
11. lnstall the brass air fitting to the air spring
using a thread sealant.
12. lnstall the air lines to the brass fitting.
13. Supply air pressure to the air spring. Adjust the
height of the truck or trailer to specification.
SHOCI< ABSORBER REPLACEMENT
To replace a defective shock absorber, refer t o
Figure 22-33 and do the following:
1. Remove the locknut and washer that con-
n e c t t h e s h o c k absorber t o t h e s h o c k
absorber frame hanger.
2. Remove the washer and locknut that con-
nect the shock absorber to the air spring
mounting bracket.
3. Remove the shock absorber from the mount-
ing studs.
4. lnstall the replacement shock absorber to
the studs on the hanger and the bracket.
5. lnstall washers and locknuts t o the studs.
Tighten and torque all locknuts.
Refer t o Figure 22-34 and do the following t o
replace a defective leveling valve:
1.Purge the air pressure from the suspension
system and the truck's brake system. Then
remove the air lines from the leveling valve.
2. Remove the leveling valve link from the valve
by removing a nut and lock washer.
3. Remove locknuts, washers, and bolts that
connect the leveling valve to the truck frame.
4. Remove the brass air fittings from the defec-
tive leveling valve.
5. lnstall the brass air fittings to the replace-
ment leveling valve.
6. lnstall bolts, washers, and locknuts to secure
the valve to the truck frame.
7. Reinstall the air lines to the leveling valve.
8. lnstall the threaded extension r o d (see
Figure 22-34) to the leveling valve using a
lock washer and nut.
9. Apply air pressure to the truck's braking sys-
tem and then to the suspension system.
10. Adjust the leveling for valve proper ride
height.

Shock Absorber Locknut

Frame Hanger
I / Washer

Air Spring Mounting Bracket

FIGURE 22-33 Shocl<absorber replacement. FIGURE 22-34 Leveling valve replacement

(Courtesy of Hendricl<son International, Truck (Courtesy of Hendricl<son International, Truck
Suspension Systems) Suspension Systems)
730 Chapter Twenty-Two

Air Supply
Pressure 112" Air Line SAE,
Protection

Valve Located in
Cab

Arm Extension Rod

FIGURE 22-35 Air plumbing diagram. (Courtesy of Hendriclcson International, Truclc Suspension Systems]

AIR LINE MAINTENANCE
Air lines provide the necessary air pressure to the air
sprirlgs. Repairs consist basically of replacing defec-
tive lines and/or fittings. Figure 22-35 illustrates a
typical air plumbing installation for an air suspension
system.
2 2 . 8 SUSPENSION
1- ALIGNMENT
- -
Alignment of a truck's suspension system is closely
allied to axle alignment. Proper operation of the sus-
pension system relies on correct axle alignments.
This section describes methods of aligning truck
axles to ensure correct suspension alignment.
AXLE ALIGNWIENT
Several different types of equipment and methods
can be used to check axle alignment. These meth-
ods include light beam alignment equipment and
computer-controlled sensor systems. Basic proce-
dures for checking axle alignment using these sys-
tems are included in Chapter 21.
Another accurate method of checking axle align-
ment is by using laser alignment equipment. A
straightedge and trammel also can be used to check
axle alignment. This last method is the most difficult
and inaccurate method of checking axle alignment
and should be used only when no other alignment
equipment is available.
Before performing axle alignment checks or mak-
ing torque rod adjustments, remove road debris from
the suspension system and perform these prelimi-
nary procedures:
1. Park the vehicle on a level surface.
2. Release the parking brake.
3. Check the rear wheels for runout and correct
if necessary.
4. Turn the wheels in a straight-ahead position.
5. Move the vehicle forward and rearward sev-
eral times to relieve suspension stress.
 Suspension Systems 73 1

Laser Rear Frame

Projector Gauge Target

FIGURE 22-36 Typical laser aligner setup. (Courtesy of International Truck and Engine Corp.)

Laser Alignment Front Rear Axle Rear Rear Axle

Alignment equipment using laser technology can be

used to check rear axle alignment on a tractor or
trailer. Figure 22-36 shows a typical laser aligner
connected to a tandem axle tractor. Always refer to
the manufacturer's service manual for the recom-
mended operating procedures.
Laser aligners use a "soft" laser light that is pro-
jected from the center of the rear frame gauge target
to the front frame gauge target. The self-centering
frame gauge targets are used to find the centerline of
the chassis. The rear axle is in precise alignment when
the beam of light is centered between the front and
rear frame gauge targets. If the beam of light is not
centered, the rear axle must be adjusted. When the
rear axle is properly aligned, the position of the for-
ward rear axle is found with a tram bar (Figure 22-37).
The forward rear axle is then adjusted until it is parallel
with the rear axle. The alignment procedures are the
same for a trailer, except that an extender target is
clamped to the kingpin. The extender target ensures
that the rear axle is aligned with the center of the king- FIGURE 22-37 Tram bar installation and use,
pin. (Courtesy of International Truck and Engine Corp.)
732 Chapter Twenty-Two

Str~ightedgeand Trammel Method Suspend plumb bob at this location.

The following alignment check (measuring of the

suspension) applies to all tandem suspensions cov-
ered in this chapter, all 4 x 2 vehicles having spring
suspensions with torque rods, and air suspensions
with tapered leaf springs. In the event axle adjust-
ment is necessary, refer to the axle adjustment sec-
tion in Chapter 21 and the appropriate procedure for
the suspension being serviced.

1.Clamp a straightedge to the top of the frame

rail ahead of the forward rear axle on 6 x 4
vehicles and ahead of the rear axle on 4 x 2
vehicles. Use a framing square against the /'
straightedge and o u t s i d e surface of the Suspend plumb bob at this location
frame side member to ensure the straight-
edge is perpendicular to the frame (Figure FIGURE 22-39 Installation and location of plumb
22-38). bob. (Courtesy of lnternational Truck and Engine
2. Suspend a plumb bob from each end of the Corp.]
straightedge in front of the tire and on the
outboard side of the forward rear axle on 6 x
4 vehicles or the rear axle on 4 x 2 vehicles.
(Figure 22-39).
3. Position a slotted bar so that the pointers are
engaged in the center hole of (both) rear
axle(s).
4, IWeasure the distance between the cord of
the plumb b o b and the pointer on the for-
ward rear axle of 6 x 4 vehicles or the rear
axle on 4 x 2 vehicles. Record this dimen-
sion as dimension "A" (Figure 22-40).
5. Position the slotted bar with pointers on the
opposite
. . side of the vehicle in the same
manner and measure corresponding dis-
tance as in step 4. Record this dimension as
dimension "A" also.
22-a0 dimension -,I,-
axle
alignment. (Courtesy of International Truck and
Engine C0rp.J

Straight Edge
6. Any difference in dimensions from side to
I
side in excess of 0.125 inch must be equal-
Framing Square
ized.
7. Position the slotted bar on one side of the
vehicle so that the pointers are engaged in
the center hole of both rear axles.
8. Measure the distance between the plumb
b o b and the pointer on the rear axle and
r e c o r d t h i s dimension as dimension "B"
(Figure 22-41).
9. Position the slotted bar on the opposite side
of the vehicle with the same pointer being
FIGURE 22-38 Straightedge location o n the used on the rear axle for b o t h sides and
frame, [Courtesy of International Truclc and Engine measure the distance between the cord of
Corp.) the plumb bob and the pointer on the rear
 Suspension Systems 733

Front Hanger
Straight Edge

FIGURE 22-4 1 Measuring dimension "B" axle

alignment. (Courtesy of lnternational Truck and
Engine Corp.)

axle. Record this dimension as dimension FIGURE 22-42 ldentifying eccentric bushing
"B" also. movement for dimension "A," (Courtesy of
10. Any difference in dimensions from side to International Truck and Engine Corp.)
side must be equalized if in excess of 0.125
inch.
11. It is recommended that the vehicle be driven
a short d i s t a n c e a n d the alignment Equal~zer
rechecked. Front

Axle Adjustments. Adjustment of the axle loca-

tion for alignment purposes on certain suspension
systems is accomplished b y means of eccentric
bushings located at the torque leaf mounting eyes.

1. To equalize dimension "A" (Figure 22-40)

obtained from the straightedge and trammel
alignment procedure, loosen the torque leaf
bolt nuts enough to free the rubber bushings
in the castings. Mark the adjusting bolt,
washer, and front hanger with chalk or paint
(Figure 22-42). This provides a means of
visually identifying the eccentric bushing
movement. FIGURE 22-43 ldentifying eccentric bush~ng
2. To adjust the axle, place a wrench on the movement for dimension "B." (Courtesy of
torque leaf bolt and turn the bolt in the oppo- lnternat~onalTruck and Engine Corp.j
site direction of the desired axle movement.
3. After adjustment is made, tighten the torque
leaf bolt nuts to the manufacturer's specified
torque and recheck alignment dimensions on vides a means of visually identifying the
the forward rear axle. eccentric bushing movement.
4. To equalize dimension "B" (Figure 22-43) 5. To adjust the axle, place a wrench on the
obtained from the straightedge and trammel torque leaf bolt and turn the bolt in the oppo-
alignment procedure, loosen the torque leaf site direction of the desired axle movement.
bolt nut at the equalizer bracket enough to 6. After the adjustment is made, tighten the
free the rubber bushings in the castings. torque leaf bolt nuts t o the manufacturer's
Mark the adjusting bolt, washer, and equal- specified torque and recheck the alignment
izer bracket with chalk or paint. This pro- dimension on the rear axle.
 734 Chapter Twenty-Two

1 22.91 CAB AIR SUSPENSIONS

Adjustme
Shim Cab air suspension systems have become the com-
mon method of mounting a cab. A typical system
has two air springs, two shock absorbers, and a lev-
Torque eling valve to maintain ride height (Figure 22-45). In
Rod
w some cases a panhard (transverse) rod is fitted for
lateral stability. Suspension travel is not great, usu-
FIGURE 22-44 Use and location of alignment ally with~nthe range of 1 to 3 inches.
shims. (Courtesy of International Truck and Engine Because no two truck cabs are alike, there are
Corp.) many variations in size and mounting bracketry. A
leading independent cab air suspension manufac-
turer has 40 models in its brochure, covering 10 dif-
ferent makes of truck. Some are single-point mounts,
Axle Adjustment for Spring Suspensions with
featuring a single air bag and shock absorber, and
Torque Rods and Air Suspensions with Tapered
some are dual-point (Figure 22-46). Depending on
Leaf Springs. Adjustment of the axle location for
their design and the weight of the mounts they
alignment purposes is accomplished by means of
replace, they add anywhere from 7 to 96 pounds to
shims installed at the torque rod end mounting.
the vehicle.
1. Equalize dimension "A" in the straightedge
and trammel alignment procedure (Figure RETROFITTING
22-40) by installing or removing shims at the
When retrofitting a cab air suspension to a used
forward rear axle torque rod end mounting
truck, follow the manufacturer's installation instruc-
(Figure 22-44). Installation of shims at the
torque rod forward end mounting moves the
axle forward. Installation of shims at the
torque rod axle end mounting moves the axle
rearward. Tighten the torque rod mounting
nuts to the specified torque and check align-
ment dimensions on the forward rear axle.
2. Equalize dimension "B" (6 x 4 vehicles only)
in the straightedge and trammel alignment
procedure (Figure 22-41) by installing or
removing shims at the rear axle torque rod
end mounting (Figure 22-44). lnstallation of
shims at the forward end mounting moves
the axle forward. lnstallation of shims at the
torque rod axle end mounting moves the
axle rearward. Tighten torque rod mounting
nuts to specified torque and check alignment
dimensions on the rear axle.
3. Following the installation of the alignment
shims, inspect the torque rod mounting nuts.
A minimum of two threads of the mounting
bolt must extend through the nut to allow the
mounting nut locking feature t o function
properly.
4. When performing axle alignment, it is pre-
ferred to have alignment shims installed at
the torque rod forward mounting. However, if
axle alignment cannot b e o b t a i n e d b y
installing shims at the forward mounting, it is FIGURE 22-45 Exploded view of typlcal two-pornt
permissible to install additional shims at the cab air suspension.
axle end mounting.
 Suspension Systems 735

-
FIGURE 22-46 Cab air suspension system with a transverse rod, two air springs, one shocl<absorber and a
leveling valve. (Courtesy of APA Engineered Solutions [Power-Pacl<er])

tions. Here are some points to keep in mind when

making the installation:

Cabovers are a natural for air suspension,

because they already have front pivots, and
their height tends to produce more pitching
motion than a conven1:ional.
Conventionals may need to have the hood
adjusted forward away from the cowl of the
cab, to provide clearance from cab motion. The
sleeper boot could restrict niotion somewhat
but should have enough flexibility not to tear.
If the exhaust mounts to the back of the cab,
check whether flexible exhaust piping needs to
be added underneath to prevent damage to the
system. One solution is to switch to a frame-
mounted tower bracket and eliminate cab con-
tact.
SUSPENDED SEATS
Driver comfort is to a large extent dependent on having
a comfortable seat. There are three types: mechani-
cally suspended, pneumatically (air) suspended, and
solid mounted. Mechanical suspension seats use a
mechanical free-moving support system to isolate the
driver from jolts transferred froni the chassis to the
cab. Air suspension seats do the same thing with an air
baglcushion and shock absorber assembly, using
compressed air from the vehicle's air system (Figure
22-47). Mechanical suspension types are the

MAINTENANCE
Keeping moving parts lubricated and the air system
clean are about all the maintenance a cab air sus-
pension system should require, except for periodic
shock absorber replacement. Realistic mileage fig-
ures for shock life range from 90,000 t o 350,000
miles.
Electronic cab suspensions that read vibrations
and activate solenoids to cancel them are now being
introduced by cab suspension manufacturers. It is
also possible to use electronically controlled air valv-
ing on a more conventional system. The cab suspen-
sion ECU could even "talk" to the axle suspension
over the truck data bus and coordinate cab ride FIGURE 22-47 Typical air-suspended driver's seat.
improvement. (Courtesy of Bostrom Seating, Inc.)
 736 Chapter Twenty-Two
Test Drive
FIGURE 22-48 Solid mounting seat. (Courtesy of
Bostrom Seating, Inc.)
best choice if the truck does not have an air system,
although at least one manufacturer offers a completely
self-contained air type that requires no air supply.
Solid-mounted seats are the cheapest, and, as the
name implies, provide the least amount of isolation
.from the road (Figure 2248).
1 22.1 1 RIDE ANALYSIS
The following suspension ride analysis should be
undertaken to ensure the best ride possible. It is
based on material given in this chapter.
Quiclc Vehicle Checlts
1. Look for corroded or damaged threads on
the cab mounting bolts, which may be con-
tributing to fore-and-aft pitching.
2. Check the condition of the cab mounting
insulators for evidence of collapsing or
checking d u e t o weather deterioration.
Always replace insulators when necessary.
Then replace corroded mounting bolts and
bolts with daniaged threads. Torque them to
specification.
3. Where applicable, c h e c k t h e c a b l a t c h
mechanism for sufficient tension. Any loose
play in the latch mechanism can result or
Check List for Wheel Hop
contribute to chassis resonance. Also check
and Vibration Problems
for elongated latches or a badly fretted latch
bar.
4. Check the condition of the seat. If it is in
poor condition, recommend an air suspen-
sion seat replacement with vertical as well as
f o r e - a n d - a f t i s o l a t i o n . I f a new seat is
required, it should be installed after ride
analysis procedures are completed.
5. Check for proper tire inflation, including both
tractor and trailer tires. Under- or overinfla-
tion could be contributing t o a bad ride.
When tires have been properly inflated, fol-
low the recommended procedure for check-
ing lateral runout.
1. U s e a chase c a r with a driver a n d an
observer to determine whether bogie hop is
occurring, Ideally, the test drive should be
made with the loaded trailer that is normally
used. A second test drive should be done
with a differently loaded trailer. If the fifth
wheel is adjustable, put it in the optimum
position with relation to the load during the
road test and then continue the test drive.
This will determine whether the fifth wheel
position was causing or influencing the ride
complaint.
2. If throttle sensitivity is a suspected cause, try
t h e hand t h r o t t l e during t h e test drive.
Inspect for relative motion between cab,
engine, and throttle linkage. Also check for
loose rod pins and brackets and for corro-
sion at pivot points that would create a bind-
ing condition. Always make sure that the
geometry of the entire linkage meets specifi-
cations.
3. The observer in the chase car should look for
front axle shimmy, as well as bogie hop.
Bogie hop can be determined even though
tires do not leave the road surface. There
may be a very noticeable tire deflection that
indicates that bogie hop is present and con-
tributing to chassis resonance and rough
ride. If a front axle shimmy is detected, align
and balance the wheels on the front axle. If
bogie hop is noticed, check for tire balance
and remember to inspect the brake drum.
Because a rough ride may be the r e s ~ ~of lt
more than one circumstance, test drive the
vehicle after each repair or alteration has
been made t o make certain all problems
have been corrected.
1. Check first for any loose, worn, or damaged
components.
2. Check wheel balance.
 Suspension Systems 737

Check the shock absorbers in both the front ings is the mounting of the saddles to the
and back. frame, especially if the frame has been rein-
Check wheel and tire runout-laterally and forced. The movement of the saddles out
radially. This also includes hub and drum another 3/8 or ' 1 2 inch on each side can
runout. cause a binding in the center pivots, thereby
Be sure that the rear spring shackle or mov- causing oscillation of the rear suspension
able shackle has a rearward slant to it and is (Figure 22-49).
not vertical. If it is vertical, this can cause a 16. The frame can cause a problem by having
hop problem due to the fact that the spring inadequate crossmembers or strength (Figure
does not know whether it should move for- 22-50). If a frame has too much flexibility, it
ward or backward.
If the springs are inadequate, this can cause
the vehicle to bounce. This can cause axle
roll, giving a steering problem. A tolerance of
1,000 pounds in a highway application and
1,500 pounds for off-highway should be
allowed over maximum load. Axles are quite
often spec'd out a little higher than expected
load, and so should the suspension system.
Check for unmatched tires, especially on the
duals. Also check for proper ,tire pressure.
Be sure that the front suspension is in align-
ment.
Check all crossmembers and spring shack-
les that support or hold the suspension sys-
tem to the frame. Looseness in these can
cause vibrations and hops.
Check the driveline angle, U-joint phasing,
and any looseness in hanger bearings or
U-joints. Check the drive shaft between
housings. Also, check t o see whether the
short shaft is bottoming in the slip yoke. This FIGURE 22-49 A great deal of pressure (load) is
can cause a hop when the housing goes placed on the suspension system when the dump
over a bump. Also, check for worn or twisted trailer is in a raised position. (Courtesy of American
splines on the shaft or slip yoke. Trailer Industries Inc.)
Check all torque arms on the upper part of
the housing. Make sure that they are tight
and not worn out. Also, check the angle of
these torque arms. If they are at a fairly
sharp angle, they can cause the housing to
rotate forward and backward as the tandem
oscillates, which, in turn, causes the U-joints
to bind and results in a hop problem.
On the rear housings, check the mounting of
the wheels and matching of the tire, brake
drum, and hub balance.
Check all rear suspension bushings. They
should be in good shape.
Be sure t h e housings are in alignment.
Check camber and toe. Also, be sure that
the housings are tracking properly.
On any walking beam tandeni assemblies,
check the center shaft that goes froni one
beam to the other to see whether it is bent. If FIGURE 22-50 C-channel cross-members and full-
it is, it can cause the rear suspension t o length gussets stabilize the web of the trailer frame.
bind. Another point to check on these hous- (Courtesy of American Trailer Industries Inc.]
738 Chapter Twenty-Two
Can flex, Causing a rhythmic vibration, which
can resonate throughout the frame. This can
cause a vibration that seems like it is coming
from the front wheels. The reason it feels
more severe in the front is because it is the
most flexible part of the suspension, as the
rear is being held down by a greater load.
Other items to check are downward flexing
from overload and rolling of the rails in and
out due to the fuel tanks that are hung on the
side of the rail (especially where there are not
adequate crossmembers). Check these possi-
bilities by installing a false crossmember and
then road test. Also, clamp a reinforcement
underneath the frame to check for a down-
ward flex problem. If the frame has been
extended and sleeved to accommodate a
long dump body, (grain type or gravel type)
the frame itself might have enough strength
with the added channel to hold the load, but
because of the added distance hop problems
are caused. Another problem that can be
encountered when stretching out the frame
and moving rear axles to the end of the frame
is overloading the front axle.
17. Fifth wheel position can be too far forward or
too far back and can cause hops and vibra-
tions.
18. Do not overlook the trailer, especially if the
complaint is that the hop occurs only when
the trailer is hooked up. A trailer with the rear
axle badly out of line, mismatched tires, out-
of-round tires, worn-out suspension sys-
tems, or broken springs can carry vibration
on hop problems.
19. Frame misalignment also can cause a bind-
ing in the whole drivetrain and contribute to
hop problems.
20. If cast spoke wheel front axles are heavily
loaded, flex of the rim between the spokes
can cause an out-of-round effect.
SUMMARY
The main purpose of the suspension system is
to support the weight of the vehicle.
Constant rate, progressive or vari-rate, and
auxiliary are three types of leaf spring suspen-
sions.
Shock absorbers are used in spring suspension
systems to eliminate excessive tire wear, front
wheel shimmy, and spring breakage.
Leaf spring and rubber cushion are both equal-
izing beam types of suspension used on heavy-
duty trucks.
Many heavy-duty trucks are equipped with air
spring suspension systems. The springs are
either the reversible sleeve type or the double
convoluted type.
Harmonic and harsh are both terms used to
describe rough ride conditions.
Bolt-type, tube-type, and ball and socket-type
are all types of equalizer beam mounting con-
figurations.
Proper operation of the suspension system
relies heavily on correct axle alignment.
The air suspension cab system is the most
popular method of mounting a cab.
Keeping moving parts lubricated and the air
system clean are practically all the maintenance
a cab air suspension system should need.
Mechanically suspended, pneumatically (air)
suspended, and solid mounted are three types
of driver seat suspensions used to isolate the
driver from chassis vibration.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. A truck is using a progressive spring suspension
system. Technician A says that as the load
increases, the inner rear hangers will come in
contact with the springs and increase the spring
rate. Technician B says that the inner rear hang-
ers support the full load of the truck when the
truck is empty. Who is correct?
a. Technician A
b. Technician B
c. both A and B
d. neither A nor B
2. The driver of a truck equipped with a rear air
suspension system complains that the truck
rides too high. Technician A says that this could
be caused by overpressurized air springs.
Technician B says that the leveling valve is out of
adjustment. Who is correct?
a. Technician A
b. Technician B
c. both A and B
d. neither A nor B
3. A tractor with an air suspension system leans to
the left. Technician A says that the left leveling
valve could be the cause. Technician B says that
the right leveling valve could be the cause. Who
is correct?
a. Technician A
b. Technician B
c. both A and B
d. neither A nor B
 Suspension Systems 739

4. Axle alignment on a tandem rear leaf spring sus- 11. What device is used to absorb energy and
pension is adjusted by dampen suspension oscillation?
a. changing the length of the torque rods a, equalizer bracket
b. rotating the eccentric bolts on the forward b. torque rod
drive axle c. springs
c. both a and b d. shock absorber
d. neither a nor b
12. The "brain" of the air spring suspension system
5. A truck recently had its front springs and hang- is the
ers replaced. The driver of the truck complains a. leveling valve
that it is difficult to keep the truck going straight b. air spring
ahead. Technician A says that this could be c. hydraulic shock absorber
caused by installing the caster shims backward. d. quick release valve
Technician B says that this could be caused by
13. A saddle and cap assembly is being installed on
installing the wrong size hangers. Who is cor-
a truck's equalizing beam suspension system.
rect?
Technician A says that if the assembly uses self-
a. Technician A
locking nuts they should never be reused.
b. Technician B
Technician B says that the weight of the truck
c. both A and B must be on its wheels when torquing the saddle
d. neither A nor B
and cap assembly. Who is correct?
6. Loose U-bolts on a suspension system can a. Technician A
cause b. Technician B
a. hard steering c, both A and B
b. leaf spring breakage d. neither A nor B
c. abnormal tire wear
14. An equalizing beam suspension
d. all of the above
a. distributes the load equally between the axles
7. Torque arms are used on a suspension system b. reduces wheel hop
to c. uses lever principle
a. retain axle alignment d. all of the above
b. control axle torque
15. A truck is equipped with an air suspension sys-
c. both a and b
tem. After unloading the truck the driver notices
d. neither a nor b
that one side rises. Technician A says that this
8. A device that is used to reduce road shock and could be caused by a plugged quick release
support loads on a vehicle is a valve. Technician B says that a defective leveling
a. equalizer bracket valve could cause this problem. Who is correct?
b. torque rod a. Technician A
c. spring b. Technician B
d. frame hanger c. both A and B
d. neither A nor B
9. A leaf-type spring suspension that has a variable
deflection rate obtained by varying the effective
length of the spring assembly is known as a(n)
a. progressive spring suspension
b. constant spring suspension
c. auxiliary spring suspension
d. none of the above
10. What type of spring is usually mounted on top of
the truck rear spring assemblies and is used only
when a truck is under a heavy load?
a. progressive spring
b. constant spring
c. auxiliary spring
d. air spring