Faculty of Engineering Sciences

University of Kragujevac

Marjan Z. Ilić
Welding
Seminar paper

Professor Student
dr Sandra Stefanović Marjan Ilić 383/2018

Kragujevac, 2018.
 Contents:

1. Introduction ................................................................................................................... 1

2. Types of welding processes ........................................................................................... 2

2.1. Fusion welding ......................................................................................................... 2

2.1.1 Arc welding ........................................................................................................ 2
2.1.2. Welding under powder ...................................................................................... 3
2.1.3. Welding in gas protection .................................................................................. 3
2.1.3.1 Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) ............................................................. 3
2.1.3.2 Metal active gas welding (MAG) ................................................................ 4
2.1.3.3. Metal inertan gas (MIG) ............................................................................. 5

2.2. Solid state welding (Pressure welding) .................................................................... 5

2.2.1. Diffusion welding .............................................................................................. 5
2.2.2. Ultrasonic Welding ............................................................................................ 5
2.2.3. Friction welding ................................................................................................. 6
2.2.4. Ultrasonic welding ............................................................................................. 7
2.2.5. Cold welding...................................................................................................... 7
2.2.6. Explosion welding ............................................................................................. 7

3. Аdvantages and disadvantages of welding ................................................................. 8

4. Quality............................................................................................................................ 8

5. Welding Defects ............................................................................................................. 8

6. Material weldability ...................................................................................................... 9

6.1. Low carbon steel ...................................................................................................... 9

6.2. Aluminium ................................................................................................................ 9

6.3. Stainless steel ......................................................................................................... 10

6.4 Other metals ............................................................................................................ 11

7. Welding safety and hazards ....................................................................................... 11

8. Conclusion ................................................................................................................... 12

9. Bibliography ................................................................................................................ 13
 1. Introduction
Welding is a general term for various processes used to join metal parts by producing
coalescence. This is usually done by applying heat and energy whilst bringing the pieces of metal
together. Welding is a fabrication or sculptural process that joins materilas, usually metals or
thermoplastics, by causing coalescence. This is often done by melting the work pieces and
adding a filler material to from a pool of molten material that cools to become a strong joint,
with pressure sometimes used in conjunction whit heat, or by itself, to produce the weld
(Jovanović, Lazić, 2015).
Modern welding processes are an outgrowth of the need to obtain a continuous joint on
large steel plates. Rivetting had been shown to have disadvantages, especially for an enclosed
container such as a boiler. The first real attempt to adopt welding processes on a wide scale was
made during World War I. By 1916 the oxyacetylene process was well developed, and the
welding techniques employed then are still used. The main improvements since then have been
in equipment and safety. Arc welding, using a consumable electrode, was also introduced in this
period, but the bare wires initially used produced brittle welds. A solution was found by
wrapping the bare wire with asbestos and an entwined aluminum wire. The modern electrode,
introduced in 1907, consists of a bare wire with a complex coating of minerals and metals
(Jovanović, Lazić, 2015).
As welding involves very high temperatures (up to 5500 ℃), there is always the risk of
fire, especially when combustible materilas are around. These fires cause millions of dollars
damage each year and the loss of life. Therefor it isimportant to recognize and understand the
risks involved when welding, and to implement safe practices to reduce these risks.

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 2. Types of welding processes
There are many ways of welding, about 50. They use various types or combinations of
energy to provide the required power. We can divide the welding processes into two major
groups (Jovanović, Lazić, 2015):
1. Fusion welding and
2. Pressure welding
In practice, these methods of welding are often combined, so the division is not strictly
conditioned.
2.1. Fusion welding
Processes use heat to melt the base metals. In many fusion welding operations, a filler
metal is added to the molten pool to facilitate the process and provide bulk and strength to the
welded joint. The fusion category includes the most widely used welding processes, which can
be organized into the following general groups (Jovanović, Lazić, 2015).
2.1.1 Arc welding
Arc welding refers to a group of welding processes in which heating of the metals is
accomplished by an electric arc, as shown in figure 1.

Figure 1. Scheme Arc welding (Groover 2010:710)

Welding begins by restore an electrical arc between the tip of the electrode and the
material. Electric arc melts edge of the material and the tip of the electrode and and creates a
liquid metal bath. In order to achieve an electric arc, the welder approaches the electrode with the
material and quickly separates it and retains at a distance the core diameter. The basic parameters
of REL welding are: diameter electrodes, strength power, voltage, lenght arc and welding speed.

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Can be welded carbon steel, low and hight alloy steels, alloys Al, Ni, Cu (Jovanović, Adamović,
Lazić, 2011).
2.1.2. Welding under powder
In this process, the protection from the action of gases from the air is realized by the
powder. The powder that is placed in front of the electrode is fed by a funnel it melts and stands
out on the surface of the suture as a dross. It is used for making steam boilers, pipes, for different
profiles in construction industry and shipbuilding (Jovanović, Adamović, Lazić, 2011).

Figure 2. Scheme welding under powder (Jovanović, Adamović, Lazić, 2011:62)

The method is similar to normal submerged arc welding, but with the difference that in
addition to the feed, and the flux an extra filler is also added in the form of a metal powder. A
metal powder is supplied to the joint preparation between the two workpieces and used to better
take advantage of the thermal energy that occurs during welding, which leads to a more efficient
process. An alternative to this type of supplying metal powders is instead to keep the filler
material adjacent to the electrode. The powder will then be bound to it magnetically and thus
melt (Jovanović, Adamović, Lazić, 2011).
2.1.3. Welding in gas protection
Like protection gas are used argon, helium, carbon dioxide and the mixture of these
gases. Depending on the type of electrode and the type of gas, the following procedures are
distinguished: TIG, MAG and MIG welding (Jovanović, Adamović, Lazić, 2011).
2.1.3.1 Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW)
An electric arc is realized between the insoluble tungsten electrode and the material. The
feature of this procedure is a stable electric arc and high-quality welding, but requires the

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extraordinary skills of the welders and is relatively slow. Protective gas which used is argon,
helium or the mixture of these gases (Jovanović, Adamović, Lazić, 2011).

Figure 4. Scheme GTAW welding (Jovanović, Adamović, Lazić, 2011:70)

Tungsten is a good electrode material due to its high melting point of 3410 ℃. Typical
shielding gases include argon, helium, or a mixture of these gas elements. Also be used for
joining various combinations of dissimilar metals (Jovanović, Adamović, Lazić, 2011).
2.1.3.2 Metal active gas welding (MAG)
MAG (Metal Active Gas) welding, is a welding process that is now widely used for
welding a variety of materials, ferrous and non ferrous. The essential feature of the process is the
small diameter electrode wire, which is fed continuously into the arc from a coil. As a result this
process can produce quick and neat welds over a wide range of joints.

Soluble electrode

Power source
Nozzle

Figure 4. Scheme Metal active gas welding (Jovanović, Adamović, Lazić, 2011:75)

At the mag welding, the electrode wire is at the same time an additional material. Gas
CO2 breaks down on CO and O2, which means it's CO2 actic gas in the welding process. This
process used welding for low carbon and low alloyed stels. Basic characteristics MAG welding

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is possibility of welding in all positions and parametars welding (I = 40-500A; U = 16-35V;
Vz = 15-60m/h9) (Jovanović, Adamović, Lazić, 2011).
2.1.3.3. Metal inertan gas (MIG)
MIG procedure like is MAG, with the difference in the second protective gas (argon) and
different pistol. It is used for welding of alloyed steel. Can be welded stainless steel, aluminum
and their alloys (Jovanović, Adamović, Lazić, 2011).
2.2. Solid state welding (Pressure welding)
Pressure welding is the results from application of pressure alone or a combination of
heat and pressure. If heat is used, the temperature in the process is below the melting point of the
metals b eing welded. The methods of this welding are: friction welding, ultrasonic welding,
explose welding, cold welding (Groover, 2010).
2.2.1. Diffusion welding
Diffusion welding is a solid-state welding process that results from the application of heat
and pressure, usually in a controlled atmosphere, with sufficient time allowed for diffusion and
coalescence. The primary mechanism of coalescence is solidstate diffusion, which involves
migration of atoms across the interface between contacting surfaces (Groover, 2010).
2.2.2. Ultrasonic Welding
Ultrasonic welding (USW) is a solid-state welding process in which two components are
held together under modest clamping force, and oscillatory shear stresses of ultrasonic frequency
are applied to the interface to cause coalescence. The oscillatory motion between the two parts
breaks down any surface films to allow intimate contact and strong metallurgical bonding
between the surfaces. Although heating of the contacting surfaces occurs due to interfacial
rubbing and plastic deformation, the resulting temperatures are well below the melting point. No
filler metals, fluxes, or shielding gases are required in USW (Groover, 2010) .
USW operations are generally limited to lap joints on soft materials such as aluminum
and copper. Welding harder materials causes rapid wear of the sonotrode contacting the upper
workpart. Workparts should be relatively small, and welding thicknesses less than 3 mm (1/8 in)
is the typical case. Applications include wire terminations and splicing in electrical and
electronics industries (eliminates the need for soldering), assembly of aluminum sheet-metal
panels, welding of tubes to sheets in solar panels, and other tasks in small parts assembly
(Groover, 2010).

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 2.2.3. Friction welding
Friction welding is a solid state welding process in which coalescence is achieved by
frictional heat combined with pressure. The friction is induced by mechanical rubbing between
the two surfaces, usually by rotation of one part relative to the other, to raise the temperature at
the joint interface to the hot working range for the metals involved. Then the parts are driven
toward each other with sufficient force to form a metallurgical bond (Groover, 2010).

Figure 5. Friction welding: (1) rotating part, no contact; (2) parts brought into contact to
generate friction heat; (3) rotation stopped and axial pressure applied; and (4) weld created
(Groover, 2010:736)

Machines used for friction welding have the appearance of an engine lathe. They require
a powered spindle to turn one part at high speed, and a means of applying an axial force between
the rotating part and the nonrotating part. A more recent version of the process is linear friction
welding, in which a linear reciprocating motion is used to generate friction heat between the
parts (Groover, 2010).

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 2.2.4. Ultrasonic welding
Moderate pressure is applied between the two parts and an oscillating motion at
ultrasonic frequencies is used in a direction parallel to the contacting surfaces. The combination
of normal and vibratory forces results in shear stresses that remove surface films and achieve
atomic bonding of the surfaces (Grover, 2010).
2.2.5. Cold welding
Cold welding is a solid-state welding process accomplished by applying high pressure
between clean contacting surfaces at roomtemperature. Surfaces must be exceptionally clean for
to work, and cleaning is usually done by degreasing and wire brushing immediately before
joining. Also, at least one of the metals to be welded, and preferably both, must be very ductile
and free of work hardening. Metals such as soft aluminum and copper can be readily cold welded
(Groover, 2010).
2.2.6. Explosion welding
Explosion welding is a solid-state welding process in which rapid coalescence of two
metallic surfaces is caused by the energy of a detonated explosive. Also, no diffusion occurs
during the process (the time is too short). The nature of the bond is metallurgical, in many cases
combined with a mechanical interlocking that results from a rippled or wavy interface between
the metals (Groover, 2010).

Figure 6. Explosive welding: (1) setup in the parallel configuration, and (2) during detonation of

the explosive charge (Groover, 2010:735)

The high-speed collision, occurring in a progressive and angular fashion , causes the
surfaces at the point of contact to become fluid, and any surface films are expelled forward from
the apex of the angle. This kind of interface strengthens the bond because it increases the contact
area and tends to mechanically interlock the two surfaces (Groover, 2010).

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 3. Аdvantages and disadvantages of welding
Welding has wide application in mechanical engineering and other industrial branches.
Welding allows the production of metal components and structures cheap and simple. welding
technology is part of the mechanical technology, where they enter: casting, metal processing by
plastic deformation, sintering and soldering (Jovanović, Lazić, 2015).
Тhe advantages of welding: simplified construction, the possibility of applying new
materials; the weight of the construction is reduced, possibility of process automation, lower
production costs, faster implementation of project documentation (Jovanović, Lazić, 2015).
Disadvantages welding: strong heat sources are needed; change the structure of the basic
material, possibility of internal voltage occurrence, danger of electric current and electric arc,
expensive professional staff, expensive thermal treatment (Jovanović, Lazić, 2015)
4. Quality
Most often, the major metric used for judging the quality of a weld is its strength and the
strength of the material around it. Many distinct factors influence this, including the welding
method, the amount and concentration of heat input, the base material, the filler material, the flux
material, the design of the joint, and the interactions between all these factors. To test the quality
of a weld, either destructive or nondestructive testing methods are commonly used to verify that
welds are defect-free, have acceptable levels of residual stresses and distortion, and have
acceptable heat-affected zone (HAZ) properties. Welding codes and specifications exist to guide
welders in proper welding technique and in how to judge the quality of welds (Groover, 2010).

5. Welding Defects
In addition to residual stresses and distortion in the final assembly, other defects can
occur in welding. Following is a brief description of each of the major categories
according to Groover, 2010:
 Cracks. Cracks are fracture-type interruptions either in the weld itself or in the base metal
adjacent to the weld. This is perhaps the most serious welding defect because it
constitutes a discontinuity in the metal that significant reduces weld strength.
 Cavities. These include various porosity and shrinkage voids. Porosity consists of small
voids in the weld metal formed by gases entrapped during solidification.
 Solid inclusions. These are nonmetallic solid materials trapped inside the weld metal.

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  Incomplete fusion. Also known as lack of fusion, it is simply a weld bead in which fusion
has not occurred throughout the entire cross section of the joint.
 Imperfect shape or unacceptable contour. The weld should have a certain desired profile
for maximum strength.
 Miscellaneous defects. This category includes arc strikes, in which the welder
accidentally allows the electrode to touch the base metal next to the joint, leaving a scar
on the surface and excessive spatter, in which drops of molten weld metal splash onto the
surface of the base parts.
6. Material weldability
The quality of a weld is also dependent on the combination of materials used for the base
material and the filler material. Not all metals are suitable for welding, and not all filler metals
work well with acceptable base materials (Jovanović, Lazić, Arsić, 2017).
6.1. Low carbon steel
Low carbon steel is one of the most, if not the most weldable metal. This is due to several
different factors. One reason for its excellent weldability is the fact that it has historically been
very commonly used in numerous applications. The historic abundance and demand for low
carbon steel has led to scientists and engineers developing ways to weld it. Developments
include patented electrical arc waveforms, special filler material chemical compositions, and top-
of-the-line welding power sources to weld low carbon steel. All of this enables welders to make
satisfactory carbon steel welds with relative ease (Jovanović, Lazić, Arsić, 2017).
Another reason that low carbon steel is so weldable is because it is more ductile than
other types of steel. This is because it has very low amounts of carbon and only trace amounts of
other alloying elements. This prevents the formation of brittle microstructures such as martensite.
All of this eliminates the risks of certain types of weld failures, such as hydrogen cracking. As
the amount of carbon increases, so does the difficulty of making a satisfactory weld (Jovanović,
Lazić, Arsić, 2017).
6.2. Aluminium
Aluminum can be welded without much difficulty as long as you have the proper
knowledge and techniques. One problem when welding aluminum is making sure that the proper
grade is selected. Grades in the “1 series” can be welded without much extra effort needed.
Grades in the “6 series” can be welded, but proper filler material and welding operation must be

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used to aid in crack prevention. Aluminum in the “2 series” is typically not weldable at all,
although a few grades in this series can be welded with proper filler material and technique
(Jovanović, Lazić, Arsić, 2017).
One other consideration when welding aluminum is material strength. Some aluminum
alloys, such as those with a T6 designation, have been artificially aged to increase the strength.
This means that they have been heated to a certain temperature for a specific amount of time so
that intermetallic precipitates are the proper size and shape to increase the strength of the
aluminum. When these grades of aluminum are welded, the intermetallic precipitates change
their form, and it is common for the strength of the aluminum to be reduced greatly. To return
these welded aluminum alloys back to their original strength, they must be artificially aged again
by means of a heat treatment process (Jovanović, Lazić, Arsić, 2017).
6.3. Stainless steel
Stainless steel is a metal that can also be welded readily when proper technique is used
and adequate knowledge is applied. Many stainless steels, known for their corrosion resistance,
can be welded despite their complex chemical composition. The most important consideration
when welding a stainless steel is to know what grade is being welded. There are three major
types of stainless steel: austenitic, ferritic, and martensitic. Many ferritic stainless steels are very
weldable. Austenitic stainless steels can be weldable as well. Martensitic stainless steels are
generally more difficult due to their high hardness and their propensity to crack (Jovanović,
Lazić, Arsić, 2017).
A major consideration when welding stainless steels is intergranular corrosion. When
stainless steels are subjected high temperature environments, like those that occur during
welding, the chromium can be susceptible to joining with the carbon within the steel. This
formation of chromium carbide prevents the ability of the chromium to combine with oxygen.
Therefore no chromium oxide layer is formed, and the oxygen is free to combine with the iron in
stainless steel, contributing to corrosion. There are a couple of methods available that can
prevent this. Using a grade stabilized with titanium or niobium such as Grade 321 can prevent
intergranular corrosion as the titanium is more likely to form with the carbon atoms before the
chromium. Another way to prevent intergranular corrosion is through the use of low carbon
stainless steels. These simply do not offer enough carbon to stop the formation of a protective
chromium oxide layer (Jovanović, Lazić, Arsić, 2017).

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 6.4 Other metals
While there are exceptions, welding tends to get more complicated with other types of
metals. The welding of titanium will typically require extra equipment or shielding to prevent it
from being oxidized. High carbon steels will generally require preheat and post-weld heat
treatment to avoid cracking. Some super alloys can only be welded in a vacuum. Every metal
that is going to be welded should be researched on an individual basis to ensure that welding
methods exist to make a successful weld (Jovanović, Lazić, Arsić, 2017).
7. Welding safety and hazards
Welding operations present several hazards to both those undertaking the activity and
others in the vicinity. Therefore, it’s important that you are aware of the risks and hazards
welding poses, and understand what precautions you can take to protect yourself.
During the arc welding process, live electrical circuits are used to create a pool of molten
metal. Therefore, when welding, you are at risk of experiencing an electric shock. Electric shock
is the most serious hazard posed by welding and can result in serious injuries and fatalities, either
through a direct shock or from a fall from height after a shock. You are also at risk of
experiencing a secondary electric shock should you touch part of the welding or electrode circuit
at the same time as touching the metal you are welding.
When carrying out welding activities, you are likely to be exposed to loud, prolonged
noises. A loud noise is considered to be above 85 dB(A), and welding activities such as flame
cutting and air arc gouging can produce noise levels of over 100 dB(A). This can be very
damaging to the ears and can result in hearing impairment.
Looking at the intense bloom of UV light produced when welding, without appropriate
PPE or welding curtains, can result in a painful and sometimes long-lasting condition called arc-
eye. Many factors can affect the severity of a flash burn injury, such as distance, duration and the
angle of penetration. Long-term exposure to arc flashes could also potentially result in cataracts
and lead to a loss of vision.

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 8. Conclusion
Metal is then considered to be weldable when, using a certain welding process, for a
particular purpose, we achieve a homogeneous welded bond with the corresponding welding
technique, which meets the requirements of its mechanical properties, and at the same time
satisfies it as the integral decaying structure (Jovanović, Lazić, 2015).
The weldability of austenitic steels depends not only on metal properties but also on its
welding process. Namely, when welding with one process, one metal can show good weldability,
while welding with some other procedure may show a poor weldability. If the welding agent has
to be taken special precautions in order to achieve an even better connection. The problems of
welding of austenitic steel have been described from the ovograd, which shows that warm cracks
can occur when fusion of austenitic steel is done. The internal connections of the further joining
can also be caused by the internal drives that additionally envelope the construction. Therefore, it
is necessary to execute preheating and proper selection of the welding electrode as well as the
design method prepare the seam. Austenitic steels have demonstrated exceptionally well the
engineering practice, and the further trend and development of this material will be improved,
because it is suitable meeting places of mechanical properties and resistance to corrosion
(Jovanović, Lazić, 2015).
In welding with any particular type of equipment, the technician should consult the
manual supplied with the equipment to ensure that the most effective gases and techniques are
employed. In this paper, the procedures of fusion welding and pressure welding are explained.
The plain electric-arc (stick-electrode) system is commonly used for heavy industrial
construction in steel. Inert-gas welding, on the other hand, is used in a wide variety of precision
welding on many different types of metals and alloys. For this reason it is particularly well
adapted for welding structures and parts for aerospace vehicles. There are many other types of
welding that are not presented in this paper.

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 9. Bibliography
a) Groover M. (2010). Fundamentals of modern manufacturing: materials, processes and
systems, 4th ed. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Industrial and Systems Engineering, Lehigh
University. United States of America.
b) Jovanović M., Lazić V., (2015). Tehnologije livenja i zavarivanja. Fakultet inženjerskih
nauka, Kragujevac.
c) Jovanović M., Adamović D., Lazić V. (2011). Tehnologija zavarivanja – priručnik.
Fakultet inženjerskih nauka, Kragujevac.
d) Jovanović M., Adamović D., Lazić V. (2017). Nauka o materijalima 1, Fakultet
inžewerskih nauka, Kragujevac.

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