The Effects of Fibre Volume Fraction on a Glass-Epoxy

Composite Material

Ciprian LARCO*,1, Radu PAHONIE1, Ioana EDU1

*Corresponding author
1
Military Technical Academy
39-49 George Coşbuc Avenue, Bucharest 050141, Romania
ciprian_larco@yahoo.com*, pahonier@yahoo.com, edu_ioana_raluca@yahoo.com
DOI: 10.13111/2066-8201.2015.7.3.10

Received: 27 July 2015 / Accepted: 13 August 2015

Copyright©2015 Published by INCAS. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND
license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)

Abstract: This paper focuses on the analysis of the longitudinal mechanical properties of Glass Fibre
Reinforce Plastic (GFRP) plates with different fibre volume fraction, V f, by considering both
analytical and experimental methods. The laminate is 0/90 E-glass/epoxy woven composite material
made by hand lay-up technique. Fiber volume fraction, determined by ignition loss method, has a
direct influence on the ultimate strength and modulus of elasticity of the composite plate. Tensile tests
on specimens with different volume fractions allow the identification of the mathematical relationship
between the fibre volume fraction and the longitudinal elastic modulus.
Key Word: GFRP, fibre volume fraction, mechanical properties.

1. INTRODUCTION
In aviation, composite materials are increasingly used in the construction of more control
surfaces (ailerons, horizontal and vertical tail assemblies), high lift devices (flaps) and for the
construction of other structural components (wings, blades, fuselage panels). For decades,
fibers composite materials replaced the traditional aluminum structures for a wide variety of
aircraft. If at F-15 multi-role aircraft the composite materials represented only 2% of the
aircraft weight, at fighter aircrafts designed to replace the current fleet of F-class fighter the
percentage reaches 25%. The latter aircraft (F-22) demonstrated the feasibility and benefits
of technologies such as RTM (Resin Transfer Molding) to enhance the accessibility of the
composite materials applications in aircraft structures [1].
A report of US aviation authority stated that for every pound saved in airplane weight, a
saving of $ 100-300 is achieved on the whole life of the aircraft (Werfelman, 2007, [1]). It
may seem little, but for example, the replacement of steel brakes with carbon fiber brakes in
1974 at BAE/ Aerospatiale Concorde, led to a saving of £ 500 per year of operation,
estimated in 1990, which required the brakes carbon fiber as standard equipment at all new
aircraft which were to be manufactured.
The new airliner of Boeing, the 787 Dreamliner, which extensively uses the composite
materials, is lighter with approximately 4500 kg and consumes 20% less than if it had used
aluminum structures. In the global economic context, when the oil price remains at a high
rate and the oil itself becomes a scarce resource, the fuel economy should be one major
target for the aviation industry [2].
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 Ciprian LARCO, Radu PAHONIE, Ioana EDU 114

The materials under study are composite materials reinforced with long fibers. It is a
notable quality of these materials to value the remarkable tensile behavior of the fibers in
their composition, which authorizes the increasingly use in manufacturing parts in the
industry.
The mechanics of composite materials approaching, taken directly, raises difficult issues
especially related to material inhomogeneity associated with the extremely high number of
existing fibers.
The models are complex, take into account the composition of intimate, discreet
materials, which make them unsuitable for use in case of complicated structures [3]. The
relatively constant orientation of the fibers over large areas of material legitimized the
emergence and global imposition of an appropriate treatment. The material is considered to
be homogeneous but anisotropic, the type of anisotropy being dictated by the fibers
architecture inside the material.
Composite materials can combine the properties of the constituents, the mechanical
properties such as strength, stiffness and toughness being weighted by the fibre volume
fraction (Vf) of the composite [4]. The amount of fibre in a composite material is basically
governed by the manufacturing process used. Fibre volume fraction was found to have
significant effects, the important composite properties including failure mode and ultimate
strength. Mechanical properties of FRP can be improved with increasing fibre volume
fraction [5], [6].
The stiffness and strength of a laminate will increase in proportion to the amount of
fibre present. But when the amount of fibres in a composite material is too large, the
composite’s ultimate strength will degrade.
For volume fraction values above about 60-70% Vf (depending on the way in which the
fibres pack together) although tensile stiffness may continue to increase, the laminate's
strength will reach a peak and then begin to decrease due to the lack of sufficient resin to
hold the fibres together properly [5].
The significant increase of the use of FRP in industry justifies the need to improve the
properties and quality of polymer composites. In order to maintain and produce polymer
composites with greater mechanical properties, the control of amount of fibers into a
polymer composite is very important. Therefore, a proper fibre volume fraction which plays
an important role on mechanical properties of FRP should be investigated to obtain the best
performance.
The aim of this article is to investigate the performance of different fibre volume
fractions on the elastic proprieties.

2. MICROMECHANICS OF LAMINA
The micromechanics analysis of lamina has as objective the study of composite materials
behavior, highlighting the interaction between constituents for determining the mechanical
properties of the lamina. There are two basic approaches: an approach based on the
mechanics of materials and an approach based on the theory of elasticity [7].
Several hypothesis are assumed in the mechanics of materials approach: perfect
adhesion between fiber and matrix, fiber diameter and distances between the fibers and
matrix are constant, the fibers and the matrix are linear elastic, there are no gaps in the
composite material, fibers and the matrix are arranged in layers and each lamina is equally
loaded (iso-stress condition). Composite materials are regarded as heterogeneous materials
and their mechanical properties (elasticity modules, stiffness or compliance coefficients) are

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expressed in terms of the elastic properties of the constituents and their proportion in the
material.

Pcompozit  f  Pcostituent_1 , pcostituent_1 , Pcostituent_2 , pcostituent_2 , Pcostituent_3 , pcostituent_3 , , (1)

where Pcompozit represents a composite material property;

Pcostituent_i represents the correspondent property of constituent material;
pcostituent_1 represents the weight of the constituent material.
The weight of the fiber or the matrix into a composite material is defined by the volume
percentage (volume fraction), or by mass percentage (mass fraction).
If we consider a material made up of fibers and matrix, the entire volume of material can
be seen as a summation of the volumes of the two constituents:
vmc  v f  vm (2)
,
where the vmc is the volume of the composite material vf is the volume and vm is the volume
matrix fibers.
The percentage of the fibers volume is defined as the ratio between the amount of fibers
contained in a defined volume and that volume. The percentage of matrix volume is defined
in a similar way.
vf vm
Vf  ; Vm  (3)
vmc vmc
Clearly, the two percent volume must respect the relationship:
V f  Vm  1 (4)
The modulus of elasticity is given by the rule of mixture [8]:
E1  E f V f  EmVm (5)
Several techniques have been developed for determining the elastic constants from the
constituent materials [9]. These techniques are based on the finite element method, finite
difference method, boundary element method, elasticity theory equations, variational
principles [10].
Such technique worth mentioning is the Halpin - Tsai model, a set of equations resulting
from an interpolation to approximate solutions obtained by fiber reinforced composite
micromechanics. They are semiempiric simple and precise equations [8].

3. EXPERIMENTAL MEASUREMENTS
3.1 Materials
Materials involved in this study are composite laminate consisting of E-glass fibre reinforced
fabric (T160 glass fabric) and epoxy resin (EPIPHEN RE 4020). A laminate contains three
layers of fibres and has been made by hand lay-up technique. Layers are stacked in such a
manner that the resulting material can be assimilated to an orthotropic material. Three
plaques with various fibre volume fractions were made by varying the amount of resin used
in fabrication process. Two glass plates were used to ensure the flatness of specimens. The

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anti-adhesive agent applied onto the glass plate’s surface does not affect the composition of
the composite material.
The strengthening of the plaques after 24 hours indicated that the curing process is
finished. The properties of the glass fibre and resin used are given in Table 1.
Table 1. Mechanical properties of constituents

Density Tensile strength Elastic modulus

(g/cm3) (MPa) (GPa)
E- Glass fibre 2.50 1750 73
Resin 1.15 55 2.4
3.2 Ignition Tests
The method chosen to determine the volume fraction of fibers in the glass fiber material is
the mass loss by burning method (ignition loss method). This method is considered to be one
of the most accurate methods for the determination of Vf. The experiments were in
accordance with ASTM D 2584-94 (Standard Test Method for Ignition Loss of Cured
Reinforced Resins) [11]. According to point 4.2 of this standard, if the only reinforcing
material is glass fiber fabric, the loss by burning can be considered as the resin content of the
sample [11]. Since, in the combustion conditions of the experiment glass fibers do not lose
weight and the resin used volatilizes completely, the burning residue will be exactly the fiber
content of the composite sample. The apparatus used in this experiment consists of a
porcelain crucible with a capacity of 30 ml, and an adjustable gas flow heater (figure 1).

Fig. 1 - Experimental device for Ignition Loss Method

The standard requires that at least 3 samples of material to be calcined, with 2.5×2.5 cm
maximum size. From each plaque, a number of five samples were taken for the experiment.
The experiment was carried out in laboratory conditions (temperature 23º C and 50% relative
humidity), and weighing was carried out with an electronic balance.
Table 2. Weighing of specimens from plaque #1

No.1 Initial mass Final mass

Sample 1 29.71 29.23
Sample 2 29.78 29.26
Sample 3 29.80 29.27
Sample 4 29.82 29.26
Sample 5 29.83 29.28

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117 The Effects of Fibre Volume Fraction on a Glass-Epoxy Composite Material

Table 3. Weighing of specimens from plaque #2

No.1 Initial mass Final mass

Sample 1 29.35 29.11
Sample 2 29.41 29.14
Sample 3 29.42 29.15
Sample 4 29.50 29.18
Sample 5 29.53 29.19
Table 4. Weighing of specimens from plaque #3

No.1 Initial mass Final mass

Sample 1 29.82 29.38
Sample 2 29.83 29.39
Sample 3 29.84 29.39
Sample 4 29.87 29.41
Sample 5 29.88 29.42
The relation used for the fibre volume fraction is:
mfinal  mcrucible
Vf 

 mfinal  mcrucible   fibre  minitial  mfinal  (6)
resin
where, minitial = mass of sample before ignition
mfinal = mass of sample after ignition
mcrucible = mass of crucible
ρfibre = density of reinforcement
ρresin = density of the matrix
The volume fraction was calculated using (1) for each sample. The average values for
the three plaques are:

V f1  21.98 V f 2  25.33 V f3  32.33 (7)

3.3 Tensile Tests

The tension test is the type of test used to measure the longitudinal modulus of elasticity and
strength of the material. The machine used to conduct the tensile test is 30 kN INSTRON
Universal Testing Machine, model 3367. The test follows the ASTM standard D 3039
specifications, a standard which is specially to be used to determine the tensile properties of
polymer composite materials.
The specimen is suitably prepared for gripping into the jaws of the testing machine. To
avoid results disruption due to the possible sliding of specimen in the machine grips, the
elongation was measured both by use of a tensiometer and of an extensometer. That is also
why, as a measure against possible specimen tearing into the heads of gripping teeth of the
machine, the contact areas have been strengthened by additional material. This does not alter
the behavior of the specimen, but prevent breakage near the grips of the machine as a result
of destruction of material by penetration.
The specimen used is approximately uniform over the entire length. To ensure the
consistency and accuracy of a static experiment, the speed of test is set at a constant value of
1mm/min.

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The ultimate tensile strength of the specimen is determined from the raw data file of test
results, which are preferred to the stress-strain curve plot generated by the machine software.
The modulus of elasticity is determined taking into account the initial portion of the curve
where stress is proportional with the strain, specifically in the first rows of the raw data file.
The measured modulus of elasticity was compared with the theoretical modulus
calculated with the rule of mixture (5), the fiber volume fraction being the averaged values
determined previously in (7). As shown in table 5, there are no significant differences.
Table 5. Comparison between theoretical and measured modulus

plaque Measured Theoretical Difference

#1 19.929 17.768 11%
#2 21.987 20.138 08%
#3 28.953 25.089 13%

Fig. 2 - Elasticity modulus variation with fibres volume fraction

Interpolation using the least square method of longitudinal elasticity modulus variation
with increasing amount of fibres conducts to a linear relation:
E  0.892 V f  0.051 (8)

4. CONCLUSIONS
This study investigates the mechanical properties of E-glass/epoxy composite laminae. The
fiber volume fraction was determined experimentally using the ignition loss method. The
modulus of elasticity of the laminate was determined both theoretically, using the rule of
mixture, and experimentally, by the tensile tests. Specimens are subjected to axial load to
establish the mechanical properties of the composite laminates.
The results of experiment show that the mechanical properties of the specimens are
increasing when the fibre volume fraction increases. The comparison between the theoretical
and the experimental modulus of elasticity indicates a quite good consistency of results. The
rule of mixture gives satisfactory results for the studied case of a balanced 0/90 laminate.
Further studies should be made to verify the accordance for an angle ply laminate.
Experimental results indicate for the mechanical properties a linear dependency between
the fiber volume fraction and the modulus of elasticity. The least square method is used for

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interpolation of data. The linear law allows finding the appropriate volume fraction for the
desired modulus of elasticity. The laminates were made by the hand lay-up technique, so the
high volume fraction values could not be achieved. Depending on the desired modulus of
elasticity, the dependency law also indicates if superior techniques are required, like the resin
transfer molding or the autoclave forming.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This paper has been financially supported within the project entitled “Horizon 2020 -
Doctoral and Postdoctoral Studies: Promoting the National Interest through Excellence,
Competitiveness and Responsibility in the Field of Romanian Fundamental and Applied
Scientific Research”, contract number POSDRU/159/1.5/S/140106. This project is co-
financed by European Social Fund through Sectoral Operational Programme for Human
Resources Development 2007-2013. Investing in people!

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