Noun Modifiers Noun Conditions Translate Example

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:(Noun Modifiers)
:(M1-1: articles) $ !" #
Noun Modifiers Noun Conditions Translate Example

– 01 5$ – 01 A man was standing … 3 A 3 BC$ ( 3 ?) 3 ? (=$)
– (9 : 9; #-3<7 8 )Ø A teacher should be active in the class.
a, an (indefinite) , -./ 01 2 3 – (=1 ? @ -3) = < + N + =$ . ... MN -3 $ A : ? (5$)
,@ 1 - / ,0$ It is recommended to use a metal.
. Q 3 RB S:. ,@ 1 / 3 P ,? =
– VW " U$ - P 2 R – Ø
Ali gave me a book. I put the book on the table.
The (definite) , -./ =. ? 2 3 <(Y3W)- AX? <- X? – (=1 ? @-3) =
(M2)..." X; Z . < [13- ? < P3 $ . BP X` S ? "- - (=A B )(- X? _ B )_ B (VW)U?...
:=Ba1
.(3- 3 l mB = 3 A a, e, i, o, u - 3 !" # ,B @ e -3) $W ,? an < 1 P k" P « " <( Q) <W <g <h <i » "W A =Q , b:Q / cde
An (umbrella, upset, unhappy, honor, honorable, honest, heir, orange, onion, apple)
A (university, unanimous, unique, unicorn, union, horse, house, once-distilled)
:( M1-2: Demonstrative adjective) - P 2 R

< P3 $ <(Y3W)- AX? <- X? – U$ These are nice. ( -P bu). BC _ s t$
this, these —
(=...U$ :=1 ? @-3)< ... " X; Z . These books tA BQ U$
< P3 $ <(Y3W)- AX? <- X? – VW Those houses =1 s VW
that, those — (= ...VW :=1 ? @-3) <... " X; Z .
<V v <U w $ <U v 5$ <U v Such a book BQ U v, Such water,AW ,wb =$
such, such a(n) — +N+(,wb =$:=1 ? @-3)<V x1W Such students $ x{1 3 (U v z$)U v
the very — (M2 = }$" <| s) <V b <U b Before my very eyes Y tb{v U b cA €?
:=Ba1
. 1 P ,? =b8 t1W " t $ <( $ 1
b ) P A - P bu =Q , e ? those " These – •
.9 ƒ:„ «U wb » such A– ‚
... " The heart V A S8 < The guitar ,€ ? 2†W < The sun, The moon Ba$ S v : $ A the A 9 3 3- e ,$ S v z$ – …
(the, an, this, such an, my, one, …) Ali’s English practice book .3- 1 - t‰ V a? (3 R? 2- Â) ,a:? 9R $ M1 V" A – ‡
1
:(M1-3: Quantifiers) b1 9 b
M1-3-1: Quantifiers – Simple

Some book ,A B Someone (body) 3 .
some .9 / 01 Y.Ž.Z A 01 Some white wire R , something Sv
Sometime ,1 ?/ <,Be"
<(/ ),s A <(/ ) 3 < v Some books tA B / ,s A <_ B 3
some .9 b1 9 b •.Ž.Z A
( / ), • A Sometimes 2 e" ,s A <, `
Some sugar (water) (_’’W) 0P - €?
some .9 b1 9 b Ž.Z.‘ A (/ ) - €?
Some time (V ?/)9e" - €?
some .9 e 3 @ / cde 3" # Some 5 books _ B “ 3" #
I didn’t see any students in the class.
,R ? $ ,; • 2Nb8 -3
any (Y c .)Ž.Z.‘ " (• c .)•.Ž.Z
a1 + N + Ø <– Is there any water in the jar?
˜9C ™- š -3 ,A (– ) $W
Any student (body) can answer your question.
9dm? ds 2Nb8 -3
any a1 +N+ Any oil can be used in that engine.
3- 1 9$3" ›?
You can sit on any chair.
<(3 R? )
3 $/ (3 ) Many books tA B / - CA <_ B 3 $/ 3
-./ c . + ()*+) (.Ž.Z A < (•b8 ) / - CA Many houses are built from stone. ... - CA =1 s
many < - CA (3 ) We have many mistakes.
=Bž . =b8 (M2) $ @ < 3 B? . $- 3 ( 3 $/ 2 dBP ) 3 B? 2 dBP ?
Several students …
several (U$ v) <(/ ) 3 < v
... (V $ x{1 3 / 3 ) x{1 3 v
both (2 things) "3 Both books (Both of the books ) are … .
< + 3 R? + Each (Every) student in the class had a book.
each 0 12 c . + )*+ .Ž.Z
•b8 + / 5$ .9P 3 ,A B MN -3 (V $ x{1 3 / 5$ ) ,$ x{1 3
< + 3 R? + Every of the books is …
every
(•)(=b ) < •b8 + / 5$ ( tA BQ =b )< tA BQ / 5$ <,A BQ
Either way is possible. (either of the ways is …)
either (2 things) "3 / Y Q <"3 (VW <U$ ) / 5$
.9 Uab? - "3 (VW) / 5$
The students in the class explained the terms in details in
<"3 (VW <U$ ) / 5 w
neither (2 things) ( 3 { ? =b8 ,R ? c . ?W NP A) "3 / Y aw
neither lesson.
Neither way is true. 9C 1 9 -3 - "3 VW / 5 w
2
(The entire) All (the) water is … ... _W cQ
all (‚) 3- 1 9$3" ›? cQ <Y b <=b
(The whole) All (the) books are … ... tA B =b
?W NP A
The (No) teacher asked the (no) students a (no)
no (... e<,; R?<,:@ .) + 3 R? + Ø <–
question in the (no) class on no Monday.
3 P,? =b8 ,R ? c .
( Every of the students has …) .3 Q 3 RB =b / V ,b1 < P d1 k u ? Y b ? =A / z$ ` -•

.7a@ A " 3 P ,? =b8 •b8 " $W ,? •b8 c . A <3 A •b8 Ž A ` =Q 9 ,$ b1 9 bQ t all - ‚
Noun
Functions Adj Conditions Translate Example
Conditions
More adj (N) . P d1 ,$ x 5 more expensive book V `_B
,$ x "3 9C -3) the more complicated problem w š c0{?
__ + 9R + More difficult exercise 9ž U$ b
9R A/ ,: •R e y, er, ow =A Y Bž?
( P d1
More strong columns eV B B{ A 3 *
More corrugated pins 3- 3 Y tA
More (adj) N - 8W Uš – - 8W U š B{ A 3
+ B{ A (- €?) 3
8 (. . More purified gold 3- 3 Y tA
__ + 3 R?
A b1 9 b . .9 _1 N¦ B{ A - €? – ¥; s N¦
9R
More bright colors UP"- §1- B{ A 3
More cold drinks 5 s ,1 P 1 B{ A 3
9R Bb + Less big apples B0v ª
‰ VW 7š 9R
Less adj (N) __ .3 P
+ 70@ 9R + Such less pure acid ¥; s 1 U v
9R A 70@ / ,: •R e Bb ... / = ,b Less beautiful girls 1- 3- s A Bb ,$ d$/ / = ,1 Bs3
(3- 1 ,©A- x =A)
(3- 3) 9 - 3- s A Less hot drinks 5s t1 P 1
Less hot drink (Ž Z ‘) 3- 3 Y tA
5 s ,1 P 1 – ‘ 3 ,1 P 1 Bb - €?
Less (adj) N . .9
__
+ Bb - €?
Less contaminated water 3- 3 Y tA
A b1 9 b 9R +
S š _W – 3 ;W _W Bb - €?
Less purified gold (Ž Z ‘) 3- 3 Y tA
Noun Example
Functions Adj Conditions Translate
Conditions
( b@ < [@ «žA) mQ Most important problems t? c$ C? m
most (adj) N (
__ 9R + •b8 + Most clever students Ž A V $ x{1 3 m
A b1 9 b
(•) Most complicated processes wš $ . m
. P d1 ,$ x 5 My most important problem U? c0{? U$ Bbt?
The most adj (N) ,$ x "3 9C -3) ( ) + U$ + 9R The most beautiful girl Bs3 U$ d$/
__
/ ,; @ e y, er, ow =A Y Bž? The most beautiful girls 3- 3 Y tA
( P d1 d$/ V Bs3 U$ B{ A – V Bs3 U$ d$/
The most pure gold ¥; s N¦ U$ B{ A
The most (adj) N ( + •b8 + U$ B{ A
__ The most important problems 3- 3 Y tA
A b1 9 b 9 9R
t? c$ C? U$ B{ A – (2N0{?)c$ C? U$ Bbt?
Much happy students ¬ ›P s - CA V $ x{1 3
Much adj (N) much / 7š 9R
Much bitter memories -: - CA 2 ¦ s
9R A $ { e __ .3 P ‰ 9R + - CA +
Much shallow rivers ®b@ - CA =1 s3"-
(3- 1 ,©A- x =A)
Much narrow rods 5$- A - CA =: ?
Much (adj) N . .9 + + 3 $/ - €? Much pure gold _1 N¦ 3 $/ - €? - _ 1 - CA N¦

__
A b1 9 b 9R Much hot water ‘ 3 _W 3 $/ - €? – ‘ 3 - CA _W

Fewer interesting novels ª; 8 V ?- Bb 3
fewer 9 b1 9 b ƒ€. (. . A BbQ 3
Fewer unsolvable problems c› $† c0{? Bb 3
little (‚).9 b1 9 b . .9 A ,b - CA - €? Little sugar
few . A (/ 3" ? ),b - CA 3 Few friends
.( t1W ,BR " e 9; # V3 A ,a$) 3 Q 3 RB V ,b1 B{ A " ª:„ / mQ 8 =A - •

. little boy zv Q ? =A A9 9R ƒ€. " 9C 1 b1 9 b . / cde little <9 little ,: •R 9R less - ‚
4
: (NP of the NP + V) :;2 <=>
" •b8 A" ž ? (5 :db ) the " 1- 3 9$3" ›? of A (each, either, … ) 1- 3 (3 R?) 9$3" ›? =Q 3 b1 9 bQ
Every room is… (Every of the rooms is …) . $W ,? (3 R?) b1 9 b A ®A ©? c .
One of the books is …
. $ W ,? Aª B? c . A " ž ? (5 :db ) the " 1- 1 9$3" ›? of A < 1- 1 9$3" ›? =Q t1W "
Two books are … (Two of the books are …) _ All of the book is ( books are )( water is )
Some of the book is ( books are )( water is )
:DE
=b:Q VW < P A =b:Q z$ -3 (3 P ±R: =Q) ("W < h < g < W) ai, oi, ei, av ªQ ? t ˆ? $ y 2 ˆ? 1 $ a, i, o, u, e (=Q ") t ˆ? / 3
.(3 P ,b1 _ C# ¬" y " sW e) 3- 3 x 3 Vb
Yellow (2), noise (1), dirty (1), beautiful (4), house (1), moisture (2), rule (1), more (1)
:<=>
.9C 1 Ž- bP cA e ,C :³1 -3 ,$ b P ª Q ,B# $ ,$ b P ˆ @ <S:. – *
.(9 ƒ:„ 9C -3) <(sugars ek 1) Q ,? - P VW # " $ k 1 =A 9 tB1 -3 s *
,$ x z 9R +er " more, less, fewer : 1 P ,? =b8 « » ´bB# S v ‡ ,C :³1 -3 *
(additional, further B{ A) : 1 P ,? =b8 A , ` µ " "3
Intensifiers: :IMIJK 0LHG
much, very, so, quite, pretty, far, too + (adv/adj) == ( e/9R ) + - CA

too + (adv/adj) == ( e/9R ) + # / « A
rather, fairly + (adv/adj) == ( e/9R ) + ´BdC1
much (quite, far) more interesting ª; 8 - CA

much (quite, far) less big 5v - CA
.3 P ,b1 3 RB very more *
too much 3 @ 9; # -3 " <(3- 1 ,; 0P $ A much too ` )3 P !X# much $ A " 9 ƒ:„ $ A much / cde too < ?W to verb =:b8 -3 ` *
much too hot to drink :9 - CA- CA , ? =A " 3- 1 ,:0{?
=b8 | s <(9P 1 •8 ? Ńde) 3 1 , ? ` .9 - P 9R $ A / cde " ,0:? 9R $ M1 / A ` .9C 1 b1 9 bQ S` very *
these very stores = |s t ³P" . U$ :cm? .3 P ,?
M1 + very + N = V b <U b
Before my very eyes = Y tb{v U b cA €? - the very markers = t0$µ ? V b - this very books = tA B U b
. far beautiful = d$/ - CA .9C 1 -"3 ? =A < $ A e $ 9R / cde ` far *
6
M1-3-2: Quantifiers – Compound

a few ( . A (,b 3 :2- 1 =A) v< 3 A few friends , a few more books
very (so, too) few ( S v 1) ,bQ - CA- CA 3
quite a few 3 $/ 3
a little . .9 (,b - €? :2- 1 =A) - €?
very (so, too) little ( S v 1) ,bQ - CA- CA - €?
quite a little 3 $/ - €?
( + are
a lot of (/ ) 3 $/ (- €?) 3
9 + is
lots of Lots of people Y3 ? / 3 $/ 3
plenty of
the whole 3- 1 9$3" ›? c <Y b <=b
the entire The entire city tP Y b
all the All the book(s) ( )_ B =b
a great (good)
. .9 )*+ (/ ) 3 $/ - €?
deal(s) of
a (small, limited) great a large amounts of sugar …
(/ ) (,bQ) 3 $/ - €?
(good, large, huge,…)
(/ ) (,bQ) 3 $/ $3 €?
amount(s) of
a(small) large
(/ ) (,bQ) 3 $/ - €?
(immense, huge, extreme,…)
(/ ) (,bQ) 3 $/ $3 €?
quantity(ies) of
a (small) great (good, large, ( + are (/ ) (,bQ) 3 $/ 3
huge,…) sum of 9 + is (/ ) (,bQ) 3 $/ - €?
a great (good)
-./ c . + (. . (/ ) 3 $/ 3
many of

a (small, limited) A large numbers of books are…
large (enormous, great,…) (. . )*+ (/ ) (,bQ) 3 $/ 3
number(s) of
, ? ,: s "3)3 P ,? 3 RB two xA ´ b@
a couple of •.Ž.Z ( "3 ,0$ =1 ? @-3) "3
(9C 1
A pair of socks(gloves) is («0B 3)_ - 8 9R8 5$
a pair of (is) 3 R? c . + (. . 9R8 5$ < 5$ A pair of scissors (glasses) is (5 @),w e 5$
Two pair of slippers are … ,$ ·?3 9R8 "3
A dozen spoons are …
a dozen (of) •b8 c . + •.Ž.Z ( 3/ "3_ 3 =1 ? @ -3) •‚
A dozen of guest are …
scores of t 3 < 3 $/ 3 Scores of articles are …
Hundreds of books _B
A •b8 2- Â V ³ 3 #" ten, hundred, thousand, million,
Tens of millions of cells ¬ : V :? 3
of billion, trillion
Dozens of classes MN 3
none of (. . )*+ ( v / ) Y 0w <(/ ) z w None of the students is (are) in the class.
a number of •b8 c . + •.Ž.Z (/ ) 3 < v
a number of 9 ª ? µ" .3 P ,b1 ‰ the ´† b ? 9 b1 9 b (. . •b8 c . (/ ) 3 < v

/ " 9C 1 ª ? µ "
b1 9 b < - bP
The number of NP of NP - Bs .3 P ,? ‰ the ´† b ?
9C 1
3- 1 9$3" ›? ¬" NP A ®A ©? c .
(•b8 ) - bP
. ,? " š
:=B01
.9 ¬" NP A ®A ©? P A NP of NP ` " 9 ,b =BC A ®A ©? A c . < P A ª ? b1 9 b ` -
. $W ,b1 none books 2- Â A S` " 9 bu none -
( a few more books ³$3 _ BQ v).9 ³$3 ? =A < $ A ³$3 b1 9 bQ / A more ` -
.3 Q 3 RB (... < 3 B? </ - CA) many =b8 $ / V ,? 9 « 3 $/ 3 » t1W =b8 =Q ,$ b1 9 bQ A -
8
:(M1-3-3: Numbers) 0RISR
zero, 1, two, 3, …, infinity :(Cardinal) (,: ),P- bP 3 @

.9 - bP , ? =A 2- ˆ $ „ -3 <9 b1 9 b $ A / cde ,Be" ƒ€. ,P- bP 3 @
5(M1) apples = ª “ - apple 5 (M4) = “ - bP ª
:(Ordinal) ,d 3 @
M1 U BCž1 - U ;" U ?"3 U? U ?- tv U ?» – U$ sW

U Cš "
The first The second The third The fourth ... The last
(1st) (2nd) (3rd) (4th)
M2 9Cž1 - ¬" Y"3 Y Y- tv Y» ,1 $ š - sW
. 1 M2< $ A / A ` " 1 M1< 1 ` - e / cde ` =b8 -3 " $ A the A $ A $ A A ` ,d 3 @*
The twenty first(21st) century : M2 a$" 9C A V e - M1V e U ba$" 9C A
: CQ 3 @
. 1 { ? c a{ ,d " ,P- bP «žA "3 / , $ < 1 P ,? =BP 1 , - . 1 ? CQ 3 @

a(one) sixth {P 5$ - five & two ninths t1 "3 " ¼ š -four eighths B{ - tv – five thirds Y ¼š
. 1 s ,? A c . " 3- 1 9$3" ›? " $ A the " of A ³? <3 P ,b1 b s A S` CQ
Two thirds of the apple(s) is(are) …
Four fifths of my clothes are …
A third apple ,? ª
The third apple ª U? –Y ª
:(M1-4: Superlative adj) UDS VD1T
adj + est (=M1) + N

The most + adj (=M1) + N
.9C 1 b1 9 bQ ? <9 M1 7š <3 P ,? =b8 / cde

.U$ Bbt? , $ <9 ,; @ 9R " 9 (M1) =b:Q z$ t$"- The most important
The most important problem c0{? U$ Bbt?

Our biggest issue ? c0{? U$ B`-SA
The most beautiful flowers t:` U$ d$/
: Z=J2 [M YK
<(9C S 1 -3 ,C :³1 -3 ) $- 1 ,C :³1 " , - . -3 1" V ? .9 P =Bs ³$3 =b: / ( 1"V ? " 1 { š < 1 Cš ) 1" A ®B{?
_- u _ u <9 ,A @ V A/ -3 B{ A 1" V ?
.3 P ,b1 •À 1/ ,? 9R / = ,$ t1W . ,b1 ¿ @ - =b: k 1 -3 ¾¾/“ 1 {š
a + sleep = asleep(n) A s
em + power =empower(v) V3 3 2- e
. ,? ¿ @ - =b: k 1 1 Cš
:`D^ :_S :^R D I L\]

- logy: biology, geology (, P U ?/) , psychology
- nomy: agronomy ( /-" { :@) , economy
- ics: physics, mathematics is …
- ry: chemistry, history
- aphy: geography
- ophy: philosophy
: 1 P ,? ,Bs P 1 P 9R ,Be" , P Y b < 1 P ,? 9R ical " ic A :@ ,? ,? b
historical ,b$ e <,ž$- - mathematical ,u $- - economical =. =A V" €? < 3 ˆBe - biological ,Bs P 9C$/
10
: M2 VD1T
. 1 P ,? =b8 / A =b M1 2 R !Ns A M2 2 R
VD1T )MR d e VD*=J2 <./ K

bDc2
<3- 1 Ž"- " 9 ,@ b
simple =b: 5$ .,0:? 2 R ³? red, big, nice, heavy, dark, my…,
ical, ic, al, ary, ory, ful, arrive + al = arrival ¬ s3 -3"-"

less, some, y, like, poor, purpose + al = purposal 3t{š
rich, able, ible, ous, free, c . + al =
noun-derived + al = 9R
necessity +ary = necessary -" u
ish, ive ,(bound, based, dictionary :cm? 3/ ,? , ` ary
oriented, led, driven,
centered)
9R / / 9R t ish
redish yellow S? e =A c$ ? 3-/
adj-derived ish fool foolish =1 €b# <®b#
darkish §1-
+ - ˆ? The(M1) running(M2) man (they are running)
1 • "3 ¬ # -3 3 ? - 1"3 3 ?
•
Derivational . P A,? M2 " ,:@ . 9R V+ing big(M2) destroying machines
M1
Z . 9; # "3 s ? •
Á-SA( ³1 $" <_ ž?) _ s t P?
+ Ving + N - ˆ? + ¬ #-3 •
M2 ,A @ ,:@ . 9R _ A • The moving chair
, - . -3 ¬" B? (Â ›B? <U 9 #) 9 # ,;
*
verb-derived 3 $ ®B{? 9R •
, -.
P • a broken arrow ( P)=BC0P
1 P •
. P A,? M2 " ,; R? 9R p.p the punished boy
M1 Z . 9; # "3 s ? • (=d B?) P=d Cš
+ (V)p.p + N ,A @ ,; R? 9R _ A •
M2 , - . -3 ¬" B? big(M2) destroyed building
3 $ ®B{? 9R • Á-SA (=A" ž? <( P)V $") P _ s V bBs
, -.
11
::^R `R `D^ f1T D I L\]

- ic economic, historic
- ical biological
-- al
-- ory 3/ ,? " 9R
-- ary
- ful colorful, beautiful (§1- ³1- < d$/)
- less jobless, homeless (- 0 A <V b1 s ,A)
- some handsome, troublesome, bothersome (§ {e <U$ .W 3-3 < 3- /W)
-y rainy, hairy, cloudy ( A < ; b{š <,1 - A)
- like humanlike, doglike ( 1 ? V C1 < 1 ? § )
- poor oxygenpoor, nitrogenpoor soil (V} C <Vµ" B 1 Â s)
- rich oxygenrich air (V} C š )
- able accessable, portable (, B 3 cA e <cb# cA e)
- ible comprehensible, responsible (Â-3 cA e <( ³ž š)¬" C?)
- ous dangerous, famous (Â 1 ©s <- t{?)
-- ive 9R <3/ ,? µ " 5$ -3 V ?Sb
- free fatfree food, sugarfree (,A v V" A X„ < e V" A)
(,$... <- ?... <3 A... < `... <S ?... <- ›?... < ...M A< ... A , Bd?)
-- bound homebound activities (MN A , Bd? <- ? MN <- ›? MN <, N tB ; .)
-- based taskbased ((- ? <3 A) - ›? :0 < :0 A , Bd?)
-- oriented monyoreinted projects (¬ š A , Bd? <(3 A) - ›? ¬ š µ" š)
-- led studentled demonstrations ( x{1 3 A , Bd? <(- ?)- ›? x{1 3 <,$ x{1 3 2 [)
-- driven electricitydriven cars (... <- ›? Z A <,e A t P ?)
-- centered humancentered (... <- ? V C1 <- ›? V C1 )
12
al:
+ al= 9R
c . + al =
remove removal (!X# : )
culture cultural (,³ . :9R )
ory, ary:
introduction introductory (, ? €? :9R )
observatory (=1 s - : )
element elementary ( 3 A <= ;" :9R )
dictionary ( )
ive:
relation (9dC1 <=©A -) relative («$ s " Y e <,dC1 )
alternative (_" B? < ³$3 <U$S³$ 8 :9R ) (= $S` : )
. $ A N"M2 $" N " M1 U A = 9 9R ,1 ?/ " $ A tobe / A= 9 c . ,1 ?/ V+ing *

tobe " (c? V ?/) $ A have / A $ " (¬ tx? c . ) $ A tobe / A= 9 c . ,1 ?/ V+p.p
am . $ A N"M2 $" N " M1 U A = 9 9R ,1 ?/
is
are Ving .3 P ,b1 =b8 ,:@ . 2- Â (9e" – ) S` ,; R? 9R " ,; R? 2- Â S` ,:@ . 9R **
was
were
. . . be
. . . been
. . . being
13
Ving: 0Ld 2 lR .=^R jY+ 8IMDH ing jY+ `R jkG tobe R

- bB ¬# (am, is, are) running (Y"3 ,? Y- 3 :=1 ? @-3) Y"3 ,? < 1 $"3 ¬ # -3
- bB =BPX` (Was, were) running ( $"3 ,? BP 3 :=1 ? @-3)Y $"3 ,? <Y3 A V $"3 ¬ # -3
- bB $W Will be running 3 A s V $"3 ¬ # -3
- bB =BPX` -3 $W Would be running 3 A s V $"3 ¬ # -3
- bB c? ¬ # (Have, has) been running (9 )Y $"3 ,? <(9 )Y 3 A V $"3 ¬ # -3
- bB c? =BPX` Had been running (Y $"3 ,?) - (9 )Y $"3 ,? <(Y3 A) -(9 )Y 3 A V $"3 ¬ # -3
P.P: IMq 2 rq `R IY P.P oD.=p e 0lR0 have mYM j2Dn

c? ¬ # (Have, has) broken (9 )Y =BC0P
c? =BPX` Had broken Y3 A =BC0P
c? $W Will have broken (9 )Y =BC0P
c? =BPX` -3 $W Would have broken (,u ? UA + ,?) BC0P ,? - Y3 A =BC0P
:<=s
.3 P ,? k" P ,? " ¬ # -3 A - bB =b8 •
. ,b1 ,e . would " will =b8 Ž"- •
. PA PYb $W -3 , ? V ?/ = ,:b@ , $ c? $W •
. $- X` ,? h_ <3 A have 8 =b8 -3 •
(.3- 1 ? =b8 -3 V P <9P 1 Y 9bCe tobe ` ) :¬ tx? c .

¬ tx? 3 ¬# (am, is, are) broken 3 P ,? =BC0P – (9 )Y P =BC0P
¬ tx? 3 =BPX` (was, were) broken P =BC0P
¬ tx? 3 $W Will be broken P s =BC0P
¬ tx? =BPX` -3 $W Would be broken P s =BC0P
¬ tx? c? ¬# (have, has) been broken 9 P =BC0P

¬ tx? c? =BPX` Had been broken 3 A P =BC0P
¬ tx? c? $W Will have been broken 9 P =BC0P
¬ tx? c? =BPX` -3 $W Would have been broken P ,? =BC0P – 3 A P =BC0P
14
: (M2-3: Compound) tn 2 VD1T
: $- 3 V3 ª ? A 9; # … ,C :³1 V A/ -3 :tHn K D el
` <3 P ,? ª ? =b: <3 A ` <9 A A sW µ " A k 1 [1 / ª ? µ " (={ b =1) ´† b ? ). 1 dCv ,? =A - =b: v $ "3 - •
(... 3 A =. u ! #
1. sticking words together (blackboard, greenhouse, intake , hereby , herewith, understand, upon, nevertheless, notwithstanding)
=1 ž:` _X8 =: $ A =? 1 U$ A †A Xt ? / [1 !
intake (c ./ ) ª ? <hereby (=. u ! # / ) ª ? e <understand ª ? c . <into ª ? =. u ! # < Basketball ª ?
(,$ S. ) µ" v U A 5v ƒs 5$ / 3 RB -‚
2. hyphenation (well-known, mother-in-law, well – known)
:Ä ©s
µ " v $ "3 ª - [ ? =A : (-) Hyphen
(3 P ,? 3 3 M-3 A) ›1 - Bs "3 / 8 - [ ? =A : ( —) Dash
3. stress shift (a 'book case, a book 'case) (,A B 8 <_ B =[R›?) . $W ,b1 - =A =b8 -3 " 9 - BR` -3 <M B c›? Æ -…
.9 Y"3 =b: k 1 / ª ? µ " % ¾À

< ,? _ :€? < C !X# A "N@ $ <3 P ,? =Bs C !X# A ,. u ª A ,R " ª / , - . -3 / ª ? Ž"-
1 P5s A BC : ,? 3 RB ª ? =. u ! # / <3 1 _ 8 / A ` " _N` = c` _W < :A e = :A h e
15
VD1T )MR d e VD*=J2 <./ K bDc2
red beard S? e «$-

,: 8 9R a red-bearded man S? e «$- 3 ?
9R + ( C !X# A) -
adj-n ed =A ,: 8 - ed )
_ :€? 2- -
the hard-headed men 9ž V3 ?
( ? a cold-blooded murderer 3 C1 s ,: e
a bad-tempered lady ZNs A ,b1 s
The(m1) hair-removing(m2) spray(N)
Compound ª ? ,:@ . 9R 9R + ( C !X#) -
( ª ? ,:@ . 9R ) A ? ·
n-Ving c . / ®B{?
air-cooled systems
n-vd adj *** n-p.p VW _ :€? 2- -
(ª ? ,; R? 9R ) 1 P 5 s A tbBC
ª ? ,; R? 9R ª ? =. u ! # A -
Hand-made objects (9 3 9s )/ 9 3 P
well-known (- t{? :Y3W) P =Bs P ,A s =A
ª ? ,:@ . 9R
c . / ®B{? 9R + e the rapidly-moving vehicles ( 1"- ) "- = :€1 ƒ$ "
adv-Ving well-cooked beans P =Bžš _ s A ;
adv-vd adj
adv-p.p Thinly-populated areas 9 b8 ®¦ ?
ª ? ,; R? 9R Rapidly-changing world Æ ¬ # -3 9@ =A V t8
=Î < < + #"+3 @ - a 10-meter-tall mast ( B? •À k R - =A) B? •À ,: 3
number-unit-adj (Y @ =b8 ) a 16-year-old lady (¬ •Ë U =A) =; •Ë ,b1 s
+ 3 @ + (9R ) + =A - 2-meter-wide hole B? ‚ (¿ @) tš =A =; v
* (,ˆˆž =b8 ) #" 8-story (tall) buildings =€d¦ Í t1 bBs
. 1 ` ,b1 •b8 s ,? 3 @/ AZ .2d -3 -• *

I have 20 dollars. I am 16 years old. It is 10 meters tall.
.3 P ,? !X# 9R , ` -‚
20-doller notes (worth) -†3 ‚À t 0
10-story buildings (high) =€d¦ •À t1 bBs
16
:M3
. BC M3 ³$3 "3 " 9 sW ,: < $ A ,; B? = ` •
.(= ; ! •?) ,? - ³$3 = 9 ,b M3 •
.(3 =b8 •b8 V3 A 3 R? „- =A V ,? Y"S; 2- -3) 3 $Xš,b1 •b8 s ´† b ? M3 •
.9 / x? ,b =BC / « š M3 "3 m # •
.3 P,b1 =b8 ( C V3-"W) = ; ! •? " ! •? 2- Â ={ b " 3 P,? =b8 (U$ <=Î < < ) =A Y Bž? ,dC1 9R 2- Â M3 ` •
Young(m2) smart(m2) oxford(m3) university(m3) students(n) demonstrated(v).
heavy(m2) industry (m3) organization U³ •$ V ?/

the organization of heavy industries
Heavy Industries Organization (HIO) . 1- 1 ,b " ` @ e 9$ @- =A - d8 – ( 1 P ,? k" P Á-SA !" # A) | s ,?
Student of London oxford university ( ,? cb@ 2- U$ A "3 / « A 3 RB A)
The telecommunications companies , A ž? tB P

News agencies ds tC1 µW
chain stores x1/ t ³P" .
school boy = - ? =wA Cš
sports shoes (9C 1 m3) ,P/-" t{R
.3 P ,? m2 " 9 sport t1W / ,0$ = < 1 P ,? 9R s A ,C :³1 -3 µ " "3 :uDmc=^R
:<./ K l0 VIpe lDYd

. A [1 =A ,b:@ $ ¬ € ? </ 1 Ž ` v ¬ # <3 P =b8 ,b =BC / « š M3 $ M2 ,©$ P – 9› 3- 1 V 0? =8" – =A S`
17
: M4
.9 =u B ? k 1 / ,0$
. that is $ i.e (Id est) t - d@ $ 3 `,? - e ? < : . <<> <" " <{} <[] <() < — — "3 U A ´† b ? = 9 - Bs (Appositive) =u B ?
.9 =:b8 sW VW Y"3 9bCe 3 A ,0$ ` <3/ ,? =u B ? ƒ€. " ,? 8 / - ›1 - Bs "3 <,0$ =v < "3 =v (—) Dash
Ali, my brother, went to…

n m2 n
NP
.(9C 1 =:b8 c lS8) $- X³A Ž3 s 8 1W <=:b8 =b8 / 7š " ( ,? cBž? - =:b8 c Â-3 V v) 3 P !X# =:b8 / $ A vD.=p
. $ A (=:b8 tB1 ,?"3) 5 2- Â U0b? S 1 ? " BC 1 =u B ? ? =b
. $ `,? « ¬ A » , - . -3 VW =A " 3,? M4 c 0{ <3 P ‰ / A =: .NA " P A NP VW ,1"-3 9s = App k 1 / ,0$ D;mK
. 3 RB ( - Bs ) 1 ,? « $» " «, $» 2 b: / M4 =b8 -3
: $W,? 9?N@ V" A (¬ A) M49; # ‡ -3
my brother Ali went to… .(3 P k" P Á-SA ! # A) P A | s M4 = ,? ³ •

the apple 4 ‡ - bP ª .3 P ,? - bP VW , ? " ( $ A ? A $ A 3 P =BP 1 !" # 2- Â ` ) $ A / A3 @ •
.3 P ,? ¿ @ VW 91 . $ 3 P ,? Italic $ Bold , ` •
... •
18
:M5
:(Relative Clause) ,; ? A
RC Relative Pronouns (,; ? $ bu) + Sentence
.3 P ,? =b8 = " P A,? RC k 1 / ,s A M5
(RC NP ) 3 P ,? NP U {1 8 $ 9 M5 $ ,C :³1 -3 RC
ƒ$ P ,; ? $ bu =b8 .(3 P ,? NP < P d1 VW cde ` )
that
which . 1 ¬ ? (while SxA) wh " That *
Noun who
whom
whose = In 1944 when the world war started …
... ,1 t8 § 8 (=0 ? ³ ) = •¾‡‡ ¬
*
-3
V ?/ when
V 0? where . =b8 « VW -3 = » - where 3 P ,? = *
the reason why The palace where the Queen live ….
what ... ,? ,` 1/ =0:? VW -3 = ê
BC 1 M5 9e w whether=if
how
19
: ^lD+ < \H_y R psr jMIkK
NPE (M1)3(M2)×(M3)2 N (M4)×(M5)× (M5) (M4) (M2) (M3) N (M1) NPF
NPE M1aM1bM2aM2bM2cM3aM3b N M4aM4bM5 M5 M4aM4bM2aM2bM2cM3aM3b N M1bM1a NPF
That big crowded 5-story chain store, Ghods, which is located at such a wide busy intersection sells
M1 M2 M2 M2 M3 N NP=M4 R V Prep M1 M2 M2 N V
NP1
a great deal of fresh medium-sized trout fish that is considered a vital prolific cholesterol-free diet especially
M1 M2 M2 M3 N R V M1 M2 M2 M2 N adv
NP2
for the young growing deprived kids

Prep M1 M2 M2 M2 N
who are suffering from any of these fatal malnutritious diseases.

R V Prep M1 M1 M2 M2 N
†W ¬Se , ? 3 $/ - €? P" . ,? ,•$ @ ‘ :P •¦ € U v -3 9 P •e " = < M e , $ < Á-SA ‘ :P =€d¦ “ x1/ ³P" . VW
V 8 P- ¬ # -3 Y" ›? =wA A ´ ˆž? , # XÆ? ¬" BC: V" A ,$ X„ $µ- 5$ (3 P ,?) 9 P Ù ©? = / ƒ B? / 1
.- d` ? =$XÆ l t$- b A U$ / 5$ =A $NBd? (/ 1 A ,? ¼1-) =
:=B01
.3 P ,? =b8 «=A BC NBd?» $ «V P - v3» 2- VW -3 < P d1 ,0$S . c0{? $ -bA VW / A ` <9 V3 A ¼1- , ? =A suffer
20
: Prepositional Phrase (PP) R <+DzR { p |e
PPE Prep NP NP Prep PPF
. NP A <3 P ,? =b8 =. u ! # ¬"
.(3 P ,b1 =b8 -3 ={ b in , $ )9C 1 , - . " ,C :³1 U A 5$ =A 5$ =©A - =. u ! # -3
:3 P ,? =b8 d? = A =. u ! #
cde c . d? A (•
cde NP d? A (‚
A NP d? A (…
1) (We got interested) in such huge organic molecules
Prep M1 M2 M2 N
PP
,`-SA ,;W t; 0; ? U v -3 ( =A $ P ? =eN@ ?)
2) A detailed theoretical research on these wild American camels, lamas, showed …

M1 M2 M2 N prep M1 M2 M2 N NP=M4 V
NP PP
... = 3 3 V {1 < ?† , $ <,{#" ,$ 0$ ? BP U$ - A-3 (on "-) ,:ˆR? [1 « "}š
3) on a cold dark night

Prep M1 M2 M2 N
NP
PP
( Ik\~ 2 }q f1T < | s DM ) 3 5$- ªP -3 (on "-)
21
: of <+DzR { p
" ¬" NP ƒ€. V ,? (,1 s ) =:b8 V bt. A<( = ,; 70@ A) ,? 9€A ©? VW A c . " 9 ,;" ,: NP < NP v ,; -3
.9. ` [1 -3 - c .
NP of NP of NP of NP … of NP
PP PP PP PP
:ƒA- ! #
.3 P ,? =b8 «=A ®: B? <=A Ä A ? </ < C » " (... c . < e < "3) 3 ,? ƒA- =A - 7 8 5$ / ˆ @ "3
.9 NP 5$ c -3 " 9 ƒA - 5$ of < NP of NP -3 A =A U$ /
.( … m # V BC³ . [1) 9C 1 _ s 3 $/ C «$ $" •e ?
The handles of the door of the cabin of the captain of that ship ,B{ VW s 1 =A ®: B? 5e -3 =A Ä A ? ³B 3
<(3 1 _ 8 =b8 ) 3 A 70@ A =@ bx? $/ ` <3 P ,? 3 RB ƒA- ! # =b8 / "9 NPÛ =@ bx? $/ NPÚ ={ b ´d$ € NPÚ of NPÛ -3
. =b8 « - 3» $ « A» - of
A man of incredible talent (3 B h 3 ?) ,13 01-" A 3 B ( - 3) A 3 ?
A mater of great significance V" . 9 b A ,@ u ?
22
: \H_y RIHG •RL R
1- adj-ly (3/ ,? 9R ly A ) ={ b =1 <9 e ´ b@ ly A ( / „S v ) 9R -•
A friendly (N-ly) behavior =1 B "3 - B.-

The orderly arrangement ª ? ³{$ -W
The likely events cbB›? 3 $"-
The costly (N,V) watches 9b e V ` tB@
The deadly weapons (dead = deadly) - d` ? t#N

The elderly people (old ,: •R ) b; 3 .
.9. ` 3 $ $ A ,@ b : (Ø)9?N@ V" A e -‚
often, never, (now, tomorrow, yesterday, today ), here, there, seldom, (yet, still, however, nevertheless, nonetheless ), (somehow, somewhat
), already, always, almost, also, so, then, hence, more
./ =1 <3 P ,? =b8 «,;"» $ « ? » < $ A =:b8 ¬" still " yet
fast, hard, late, long, just :9 ,0$ 9R " e 9; # ,s A -3

a long trip … ,1† ¦ R
It was long thought that … = P ,? - ˆ t ?
Just : a just judge (¬3 @ :9R ) ¬3 @ ,u e 5$
Just : (V† U b , ` ) ´. <ƒ€. – ® e3 <9 -3 : e
Just at 7 o'clock Ý 9@ M - 9 -3
Just my brother U? -3 A ƒ€.
I just had my lunch Y3- s - 1 V† U b U?
(=. u ! # - dB@ =A) PP – …

On a cold night
Prep M1 M2 N (Prep NP = PP)
.9 P !X# VW =. u ! # = 3 A =. u ! # " ` <9C 1 e 9e w NP – ‡
(at) last night, (in) next week, (in) this year, (for) two times
23
.«¬ ?» " «=. u ! #» < 1 !X# 3 ?W =[›; , $ <9 ®; ,$ š"- " t1 A/ -3 S v "3 •u ?
The man (that, who) I saw …
. 3 ,? e c 0{ A =:b8 A e lS8 ª / : e =:b8 - “

ADVerbial Sentence adverbial particles ( adv ) + S
S: =$ š =:b8 S + ADV S adv S

ADV + S adv S , S
. 3 ,? e =:b8 c 0{ A =:b8 A =0:A 9C 1 e =8" – =A e lS8

. $W ,? VW A $ cde = s ,? =$ š =:b8 ´bB# " 9 " š =:b8 ={ b e =:b8
: IHG uR /R
.(9 P !X# -" ? =A ,s A -3 = ) 1 P ,? =b8 «= » 2 d A" 3 ,? ƒA- =A - =:b8 "3 V v < BC 1 (conjunction) ƒA- ! #
.3 P ,? =b8 « / -3 =A» (my trip was as long as her trip) 3 A NP VW A ` : as long as

.3 P ,? =b8 « -"3 =A» (My house is as far as her house) 3 A NP VW A ` : as far as
As far as I am concerned 3 P ,? Ä A ? U? =A = ,$ 8
. 3 ,b1 _ 8 « $/» =b8 < $ A =:b8 ¬" -3 ` : Because
24
adv =b8
if (= , - -3) -(=Q) `
unless (=a1W <=a $ ) ³?
although =01W „- =A – (=Q =v `) (=Q) =v `
though
even though
even if = ,- -3 ,B# – ` ,B#
when =a ? ³ – =Q ,Be"
where =Q ,$ 8-3
while =Q ,; #-3
whilst
whereas
whenever =Q ,Be"
wherever =Q 8
as
as far as =Q ,$ 8
as long as =a ? 3 ? - =Q ,1 ?/ Whether
as soon as =01W 3 x? =A – =a1W ß›? =A However
no sooner than Whoever
(in)sofar as =Q ,$ 8 Whatever
(in) as much as = [1 U$ / – = # such as
because = $/ - =01W (c ;3 < ¦ s) ªd =A like
so that = - ¦ =A – =0 $ provided (that)
such that = V v providing
as if (= ) - ³1 – (= ) ,$ ` incase
as thought once
lest (= ) 3 d?
s 3 3 M-3 (…Y ) $W -3 . P A 1 ,? (R) ¬ ? " e lS8 Ńm? , $ . 1 -Q v< 1 ?W Sx? 2- Â c ©BC? -3 =Q t1W
. P
25
S(sentence) … my problems were solved. S … my problems.

M2 N V M2 N
NP NP
S
because ( adv )(S) ( P c# N0{?)=01W ¦ s =A <=01W c ;3 =A <=01W ªd =A
because of (NP) ( N0{?) ¦ s =A <c ;3 =A <ªd =A
although ( adv ) (S) =01W „- =A <=v `

in spite of (NP) „- =A
despite
in addition ( e lS8 =1 9 e) U$ A "N@ <´ bu < "N@ =A

in addition to (NP) A "N@
instead (adv) (S) ¿ @ -3

instead of (NP) 8 =A
as a result (adv) (S) U$ A A

as a result of (NP) =x B1 -3
accordingly (adv) (S) U$ A A <M U$ A

according to (NP) h®d¦ A
in contrast (adv) (S) cA €? -3

in contrast to(with) (NP) h70@ A <h !Ns A
in response (S) - š -3
in response to (NP) =A - š -3
in comparison (S) =C$ €? -3

in comparison with (NP) A =C$ €? -3
26
Ali bought a new car for his wife bumped the old car into a tree.
NP1 V M1 M2 N Prep M2 N V M1 M2 N
NP2 adv np1 np2 PP
ADV
:<./ K VD2 €2
.¬ ? " =. u ! # <9 Y # ,. ›1 c ;3 V" A =b8 =A S v "3 V3"S. - •
: e lS8 =A =. u ! # c$ d – ‚
" P c$ d e lS8 =A =. u ! # <( $ A NP V b =A ®: B? ,: . 7· " NP BA , $ )3 P ‰ =:b8 $/ =. u ! # Ý / 7š `
.3 A s= 2d S 1 VW =b8
1- for =0 $ A
2- since = ,1 ?/ / ( P A =BP 3 have c . = ,Be" ƒ€.)
- " =0 $ x1W / (3- ? = €A -3)
3- after =01W / 7š (after dinner :Y P / A)
4- before =01W / « š
5- till =0 $ (till tomorrow : 3 . )
6- until =0 $
7- than (=01W)=A 9dC1 <(=01W)/
…than her sister (PP). Ž s/ …than I thought (ADV). Y3 ,? - ˆ =01W /
. $W ,? (had A c . ) A ,u ? before / cde " after / A
27
: ^lD+ l0 IHG •RL R
(... " ´ R: <´{ s <´ ` : A ,A @ „ =b: =A - U$ $- 1 ®#) ... " ´ b@ <é R <´BdC1 :,A @ V A/ / ,u e , $ 3 e -•
=A <,A s =A <2 P =A <9@ =A : 9R | + =A - •

=1 @ xP <=1 3 ? : =1 + 9R | -‚ ®B{? 3 e - ‚
V† 1 <V s : V + (_ t ? Y c .)k- •? UA - …
- " V b ? <=1 ` db š < Wc : - " <=1 ` < W + -‡
... " 9P/ <_ s <•$ <=BC W < <9# - <=Bd; < 3 . <S` <V <V t` 1 : (Ø) 9?N@ V" A e -…
9# - ,; - " A 9# - :cm?. e 1 9R < 9R -3 ÍÀ , - . -3
,b:@ - ¦ =A < t? 3 ˆBe á ›; =A : (PP) =. u ! # " ` - ‡
=d ? "3 ( A) <=BPX` ªP (-3) : ( P !X# =. u ! # = ) NP - “
(=v ` < 3 d? < v <V v < $/ <- ³1 <,$ ` < ³? < ` :!"X›? = ) =:b8 + = 2 d (ADV) e =:b8 - Ë
quickly : Ńm? .(9 =€ : )9 =b8 cA e , - . 3 e / Y A ,C :³1 3 e / Y *

´ $ – •
9@ =A – ‚
•$ – …
9@ A – ‡
.3"- ,? 9@ A ,: s " – “
.9P 3 3 $/ 9@ = ,; # -3 – Ë
28
.( ,b1 - S` ) ,? - "3 VW " 9R "c .= 9 =b: e :IHG
One of my (relatively) intimate friends drank a (relatively) cold tea (relatively) quickly (exactly) in his office (exactly) before I arrived.
M1 m2 adv m2 N V M1 adv m2 N adv adv adv Prep m2 N adv adv NP1 V
NP1 NP2 PP ADV
. A U? =0 $ / cde (´€ e3) Ž B.3 -3 (´€ e3) 9@ =A (´BdC1) 3 (´BdC1) v P 1 U? ,b b (´BdC1) V B "3 / ,0$
:IHG •RL R
9C$ / V b / ? <=b8 A VW / ? U$ BtA ) 3 P ,? =b8 8 V b -3 " 3 P ,? ‰ / / ? -3 : ,? -c .= e –•
. (9 ?W =
.(3 ´BdC1 v) 3 P ,? =b8 9R / « š " 3 P ,? ‰ 9R / « š =: .NA : ,? - 9R = e–‚
: R ƒR 0LHG
A dramatically important event (ƒ:„ = ,bt? S ³1 „ 3 $"-) ,bt? - CA 3 $"- $ ,bt? S ³1 „ - ¦ =A 3 $"-
M1 adv m2 N
NP
A considerably trivial point 3 B. š « š - CA =B01 - 3 B. š « š =[#N? cA e - ©A =B01

. 3 A 3 B. š « š =0:A < 3 d1 =[#N? cA e Ń =B01
A horribly comic movie (ƒ:„ = , B{#" - 3 s : .) -3 s - CA : . - -3 s, B{#" - ©A :.
.3 3 RB V ,? S 1 ... " ´ $ P <9$ t1 ,A <2 P =A < 3 ; Z . / <(,: s =1 ? @ -3) 9 «- CA» , - . -3 $ { e

.3 P =b8 ´ @ $ A " 3 d1 Z „ e 2- ˆ $ „ -3 .,R ? ,R ? $ 9 9dm? 9dm? $ , $ <9 ,R ? $ 9dm? ¦ "3 Z „ e
an economically important event (ƒ:„ = ,bt? 3 ˆBe 3 $"-) ,bt? 3 ˆBe á ›; =A 3 $"-
A scientifically trivial point (ƒ:„ = 3 B. š « š ,b:@ =B01) 3 B. š « š ,b:@ á ›; =A =B01
.(Ž- B.3 -3 ´€ e3 <•$ ´BdC1 ) 3 P ,? =b8 " P ‰ ³$3 e / « š =: .NA : ,? - ³$3 e= e –„
29
:jY+
cÎ . 9Î . ‰ - BÎ{` - BÎ 3 -3 Î? < ÎP ,Î? ÎC€ (transitive -XÎ`)(Vt) Î B? " (intransitive -XÎ` 1)(Vi) Y/† =B 3 "3 =A c . ,B - B 3 -3
.3 P ,? ¥ž{?
1) NP1 VI Ali went to the cinema yesterday. .9.- b =A /" $3 ,:@

I
NP1 V PP adv V PP adv NP1
2) NP1 VII NP2 Mark saw Merry in the park yesterday. . $3 â- š -3 - ? /" $3 â- ?
II
NP1 V NP2 PP adv V PP NP2 adv NP1
3) NP1 VIII NP2 NP3 Mark gave Merry a rose in the park yesterday. .3 3 ? =A ,s c` â- š -3 /" $3 â- ?
II
NP1 V NP2 NP3 PP adv V PP NP2 PP adv NP1
.9 Bb ,0$ , - . c . 9 . ‰ ´† b ? < P d1 A A ¬ b ? ¬ "- !Ns A , - . -3 VW ¬3 ? c . 9 . ‰ A ,C :³1 -3 ,: . 9 . ‰ ` *

.3 P =b8 ª ? =. u ! # A , $ PP 2- =A = 3 A s NP2 - b L_Y2 2Nb8-3 3 / ? NP 9t8 U b =A
.3 P =b8 ª ? =. u ! # A , $ PP 2- =A = 9 NP1 - b 3 / ? NP <9 . ‰ V3 d1 A A 2- -3 bL;E2 2Nb8 -3 U0 ;
. $ ` ,? « ` S b » - ,B . ‰ = t: . U$ A A < BR` ,? ( C?) S b - NP3 ®A -3 *
<V3 Q ,€: =V3 ¿ . <UB. $ <(V ? 1 ? =A)V 1 s =V ? 1 <UBC1 3 <UBP ³1 =UBP š : 1 3" ›? , - . -3 ,B . ‰ = t: . *
.V 1 3 ` = UBs <V3-"W _ C# =A =V3 _ C›? =UB. ` [1-3
.9 ,B . ‰ "3 † " 9 ,B . ‰ = VW , - . < P A `S b c . VW , - . ¬3 ? ` *

.9 ,B . ‰ "3 c . < ?W ,a:? 9R $ M1 c . / A ` *
.3 P , ? , B . ‰ = $ "3 c . <3 A NP c . / A ` *
30
: ^lD+ b0DY2
./" $3 b =A 9.- ,:@ : VI NP1 (•
( -) NP2 VII NP1 ( ;

(‚
PP VI NP1 (_
NP3 ( -) NP2 VIII NP1 ( ;

(…
( -) NP2 PP VII NP1 (_
Ali ate food X„ 3- s ,:@ .9 ,? S; « -» UBP X` < P A =. ? NP2 ` ( ; -‚

Ali ate the food (=@ b? X„) - X„ 3- s ,:@
They enjoyed the party last night. .=BPX` ªP ,1 bt? / 13 A 2X; t1W ( _ – ‚
.3 P ,? =b8 ,B . ‰ "3 c . <3 3 _ 8 c . / « - 7 =v» " « - S v =v» ¬ ã ` *
Merry called her new doll Jane. .U 8 - Ž $ 8 z " @ ?1 ?( ; –…

III
NP1 V NP2 NP3
Mark gave Merry that rose in the park yesterday. .(9 =. ? =1 {1 that) /" $3 â- š -3 - ä c` VW ? =A 3 3 â- ? ( _ – …
The English political authorities granted that major economic issue that sufficient attention.
III
m1 m2 m2 N V m1 m2 m2 N m1 m2 N
NP1 NP2 NP3
. - ,. Q =8 t? 3 ˆBe k u ? VW =A ( BP 3 ¬"Xd? < 1 {žA ) 13 Q ©@ ,C :³1 , 2 ? €?
31
VW NP1 =a1W Ä P =A =Bd; ) Q ,? =b8 ª ? =. u ! # A 1W NP1 < P d1 `S b VW c . Ua ; <3 P ‰ NP ,; tx? c . / 7š ` *

( [… Y =A Ä A ?] < P d1 •8 ? V" A It
Her new doll was called Jane. (9 `S b V ? 1 c .) U 8 P ?1Ž $ 8z " @
That big crowded chain store, Sharvand, has been granted a lot of useful facilities.
. R? 2 1 a? 3 $/ - €? 9 P ©@ < 1" tP , $ <Á-SA ‘ :P x1/ ³P" . VW <
Mark gave Merry a rose.(VIII) .,s c` ? =A 3 3 â- ?

Merry was given a rose.(PVII) ., s c` P 3 3 ? =A
:(Passive Verbs (PV)) bL;E2 bDY+R <./ K
V $3 ` <UB{` <V P / 3 RB (•
: ? (Y/†) -X` 1 c . / 3 RB (‚
The kids burnt the forest. The forest was burnt by the kids.
=wA 9 3 =A (9. ` « W) 9s c³ 8 =wA ƒ ( P 3/ « W ) P 1/ c³ 8
:(•% / Bb )3 {1 3 . c . / 3 žA3 s Y tR? P A ªe ? <9P 1 by … =:b8 ` *

The forest was burnt. (9 å› P =B. ` « W 7š . ,? !X# - c? @ " 3 ,? 3 žA3 s ? ) .9. ` « W c³ 8
.3 A - aA - « ®$ ¦ / < / </ < A <9 3 =A » V ,? ƒ xA *
New results were achieved. .( ?W 9 A ) P 3-"W 9 A $ 8 ¼$ B1
.9. ` - e ... 3- ? ( …
Ali was questioned. .9. ` - e ¬ • 3- ? ,:@
(Impersonalization) / ,ˆžP „ ( ‡
(Passive Active) Y : ? =A ¬ tx? c$ d ( “
32
: (Conjunctions) ) l {e p
. $W ,? VW jkG <(... <=:b8 <9R < e< ) $ A VW IY X "9 V Ca$ VW U . ¦
...and…
...or…
...but…
as well as (... S 1 " ...)
neither …nor… (5 w ... " ...)
either… or … (... $ ... ( $) )
not only … but (also) …. (... S 1 ... = ... t =1)
both … and … (("3 )..."... _ ... ... )
whether …or … (... $...( $) _ ...=v...=v _ ... s... s)
.9 ƒA- ! # (nor, or, but, and A) S ; 1W -3 " 3- 1 ç ¬" 9bCe both…, not only …, either …, neither… -3
: and
. $ A 1 ,?(... " =. u ! # " ` < e ) - Bs @ ƒ€. " 3- 1 - t‰ V 0? c . " NP ³$3 P 9A ç =:b8 ¬ ? . ,Be"
The school principal punished Merry and her sister broke the window. (NP1 VII NP2 V NP ƒ:„ S ; 1W)
II II
M1 M3 N V NP2 M2 N V M1 N
NP1 NP1 NP2
S S .(ƒ:„ =b8 ) ={ P UBC0P †D… - Ž s" ?3 =d = - ? $ ?
.9C0P - ={ P Ž s" - ?3 =d = - ? $ ?
The laser beams should attack the electrons and the positrons should be preserved.
II
NP1 V NP2 NP1 pV
.(ƒ:„ =b8 ) 1 {A 9[. ›? $ A <n t1" B$/ š " t1" B0; =A 3 P A $ A -S ; = P

.(3 {1 A t1W =A = P = ) 1 {A 9[. ›? $ A t1" B$/ š " t1" B0; =A 3 P A $ A -S ; = P
. 3 ,? ƒA- =A - =:b8 "3 Z . t; m? -3 and
33
Neither Ali nor Javad will leave the country tomorrow.

II
NP NP V NP2
.(3 P ,b1 Bs c . =A V v <3 ` ,? ƒ:„ - B $" - ...=1...=1 =b8 ). 3 . - - { 3 ž1 Â 5w 3 8 " ,:@
Either Ali or Javad will leave the country tomorrow.

(9 ƒ:„ ... ... =b8 ). 3 . - - { 3 sÂ 3 8 $ ,:@
Not only Ali but Javad will leave the country tomorrow.
.3 . - - { 3 sÂ S 1 3 8 = ,:@ t =1
Both Ali and Javad will leave the country tomorrow.

.3 . - - { 3 sÂ ("3 ) 3 8 " ,:@
.( 3 RB ... ... / 7š < 3 ,b1 _ 8 "3 =b8 8 ,: s)
Whether you stay at hotel or come my house …

.( P A ,? ƒ:„ ... $... =v " .... $... s) ... ,$ A U? =1 s =v <,1 bA cB =v
: as well as
.3 P ,? 3 RB e $ 9R A A A as…as .9 e $ ` ,? ,s A
Mina plays the piano as well as her brother. .Ž-3 A ,A s =A 1 š 3/ 1 ,? ?

She drives as carelessly as her mother. . ,? ,` 1 - Ž-3 ? ,¦ B# ,A =A "
Ali is as tall as his brother. .9 Ž-3 A e :A =A ,:@
Asghar, Ali, Gholam, Taghi and Ghazanfar as well as Kambiz went to school yesterday.
I
NP1 NP2 V PP adv
. ... B.- S d? (,A s =A) H e R •„ " ,€ <YN„ <,:@ < Æ
34
. BC (and) ƒA- ! # ? U$ *
.,A s =A 3 P ,? " 9 e as well as 7š P e well ` < $- 3 A - ¬" as " A =A Y"3 as = 9 - © $ VW V3 A e ,$ P Ž"- *
" 1 ƒA- ! # t $ <3 d1 e =$ š A well " BP 3 A - ¬" as " A =A Y"3 as Ubu -3 " 3 A ,$ ? " ›1 7 8 5$ / as well as U . ¦ ` *
. ,? =b8 «... S 1"... »
.(9C 1 ƒ:„ ,;" 9C 1 9›:ˆ? e 9; # -3) =b8 « 1 b » " « 1 ?» <( $3 ` 8 ) 3 3 ,? _ 8 - ƒA- ! # " e 9; # "3 ` *
The strategic sites, the oil reserves, the power plants, and the major dams should be protected against the missile attacks.
I
M1 M2 N M1 M3 N M1 M3 N M1 M2 N PV Prep M1 M3 N
NP NP NP NP
NP1
.,0P ? 2Nb# A A -3 3 P 9[. ›? $ A t? " ( t `" 1)Z A =1 s- <9R1 V/ ž? (, $) <( 3 d - t1 0?) 5$} B tB$
. 1 ` ,b1 - e 5$} B tB$ lS8 5$} B t1 0? $ 3 P 3-"W «, $» ` *

A $ d1 S` "3 A s ƒA- ! # ,³b ? < P A ,$ ? " ›1 7 8 5$ / < t1W / 7š [B? ƒA- ! # U . ¦ " ? U . ¦ ` **
.3 P dBP =u B ?
. $- 1 «" ? » , - . -3 " 9 UBP 1 -3 ¼$ - ƒ:„ 5$ ,and *
: ,and •RL R
. ,? 9$ @- - U b U @ , - . -3 " 3 3 ƒA- =A - ˆ @ x : x, x, x, and (or, but) x – •
t? =u B ? cs 3 x) 9 =Bs (App) =u B ? =:b8 .9C ? VW A ,;" 9C 1 ? VW cde :( Æ • # 1 ? ) x, and (or, but) x, … – ‚

.(9C 1
Haj Asghar, and Javad, went to the cinema yesterday . B.- b =A /" $3 (3 8 " ) Æ •#
. 3 ,? V {1 SB1 š A - =u B ? =:b8 7š < $- 1 «" ? » , - . -3 *

( Haj Asghar, and Javad, is ) . $W ,? 3 R? c . <9 !X# cA e =u B ? =:b8 V v **
a long with
together with A b Haj Asghar a long with Javad is …
. ,? 9€A ©? NP1 A c . < 1 =. u ! # t $ V v
with
35
PP .(9 U$ Â 1 ©s ) VW A =1 <9 ³$3 ? VW cde =1 : x, and (or, but) x – …

NP
. 3 ,? ƒA- cde x =A ,€A ? -3 5$ -3 " 1 VP ƒA - $ (S) =:b8 ƒA - 3- ? -3 ¾¾
1) NPa P NPb and NPc V …
.9 NPa ®A ©? c . . 9 VW e = €A " 3 3 Y x1 - c . NPa
The jewelry in the boxes and the antique bags was stolen.
NP1
2) NPa P NPb , and NPc V … .(9 ,€A ? -3 5$ lS8 " )9C 1 =:b8 ƒA - 7š <3- 1 3 8" c . $ =:b8 VW cde V v
PP . $W ,? •b8 2- Â VW c . " 9 VW e P NPb " 1 3 3 Y x1 - c . NPc " NPa
The jewelry in the boxes , and the antique bags were stolen.
The jewelries in the boxes and the antique bags were stolen. . 1 P $3/3 =€ B@ e =d 8 cs 3 2 8
I
NP Prep M1 N M1 M2 N pV
NP NP
NP
The jewelries in the boxes ,and the antique bags were stolen. . 1 P $3/3 =€ B@ H e =d 8 cs 3 2 8
I
NP PP NP pV ( 13 A =d 8 cs 3 ƒ€. 2 8)
36
: Not only … but (also) …
=b8 « ? » , dBP Á-SA / -3 C$ A VW † A) =b8 « S 1... = » $ « =0:A » 1W " =B.- but ‘ •$ < $ $3 not only ` *
.( 01
. $ A / / ? -3 9 eV v $ $ 19 U0b? also *
.( ? =1 ) 3 P ,? =b8 « =0:A » ( not only, not ) 9 ,R ? VW =$ š «žA ,Be" but *
Not only Ali but (also) Javad will (also) leave (also) the country tomorrow. .3 .3 sÂ - - { S 1 3 8 =0:A ,:@ t =1
. =b8 «=0:A» ( 9 ƒA- ! # = ) - ? 3- ? U$ -3 < $ A also " $ 1 but = 9 U0b? *
. ,? ,R ? - ¬" NP " 9 ,R ? not !X# - only ` " 3- 1 ,R ? «€1 not only …but(also)… -3 not *
Not Ali but Javad … .3 sÂ - - { 3 . 3 8 =0:A(= ) ,:@ =1
.3 P ,? =b8 « t » " « ´. »"9 e < $ A ,BbCe "3 t: . U A ` but *

I can but tell you one thing. . $ ³A bP =A S v 5$ 1 ,? t U?
.(but or Ali = ,:@ SxA) 9 P !X# VW or -" ? =A " 3 A but or Rž? = <3 P ,? =b8 « SxA » " P A =. u ! # 9 U0b? but *
Everybody went to the party but me. .U? SxA ,1 bt? =A B.- =b
All the students but one answered my question. . 13 3 - š ?¬ • t1W / ,0$ S8 V $ x{1 3 =b
. 1 P ,? =b8 ( e) « t <´. » $ " (=. u ! #) «SxA» <(ƒA- ! #) «=0:A» <« ? » = $- 3 but - tv c -3 **
37
. $ ` (ambiguity) Y tA 3 P ,? ( interpretability ) UB? $Xš CR ªd = - B 3 - SA =A :Ambiguity

1) Lexical
1- Grouping
Ambiguity 2) Structural
2- Transformational (Functional)
3) Semantic
. $W ,? $ š ±R; µ " 3 8" =© A :( Lexical ) ,1 `µ " Y tA – •

She was standing near the bank. .3 BC$ ,? ( =1 s3"- c# $) - dB@ 51 A 5$3S1 "
3 x$ Y tA t1W UB. ` - e - / ,;" BC 1 td? V P3 s = - ©A 1 ` ,? - e - -3 µ " "3 :( Semantic ) ,Bs P ? Y tA – …

.3 P ,?
Ali passed the river yesterday.
.3 P ,? ¥ž{? å › ? =:b8 = €A / .3- 3 « V3 ? » " «UBPX` =1 s3"- / » ? "3 pass the river ,;" <3- 1 Y tA ,BÆ; – Z . =:b8 -3
Y ,? ¥ž{? =:b8 . 1 {A " ` A ¬" µ " "3 Y µ" = ª -3 = 9 U$ k u ? :( Structural – Grouping) , " ` Y tA – ‚-•
.9 9 -3 ª
More beautiful girls d$/ Bs3 B{ A 3 - d$/ V Bs3
X company undertakes to deliver the galvanized girders and beams at y port by 26th 1994.
.•¾¾‡ ¬ =$ 1 µ ‚Ë y - A -3 - S 1 ; ` " P A c$ › = ,? t x9 P
.•¾¾‡ ¬ =$ 1 µ ‚Ë y - A -3 - S 1 ; ` P" A c$ › = ,? t x9 P
.3 P ,? c€B ? , - . =A ´ @ Y tA < =b8 sW / ` .3 =b8 sW ,b =BC / / $ 3 •.- - Y tA $ A $ td? - Bs -3 **

. ,? =b8 sW ,b =BC / Y tA ±R# A"9 td? < $ 1 $ $ A t1W U A ƒA- ! # =0 $ / @ ,b =BC "3 / cde M3 $ M2 *
Smart (m2) boys and girls Ž A V Cš " V Bs3
History (m3) books and teachers -$- tA B " : ?
A big door handle (33 ` ,? A ³B 3 $ -3 =A ,`-SA V 1 s ›1 Æ A) Á-SA -3 ³B 3
38
:( - B 3) - B{` Y tA – ‚-‚
II
V NP2
Smoking cigars can be dangerous. .Â 1 ©s P A 1 ,? Á A -³ V { :VP
II
M2 N V M2 NP . P A Â 1 ©s 1 ,? V3 3"3 ¬ # -3 Á A -³ :NP
NP1
VP NP
II
V NP2
She likes jumping horses. .- ª A Ž š 3- 3 9 "3 " : VP
II
NP1 V M2 N .- t8 ª 3- 3 9 "3 " :NP
II
V NP2
Fighting lions may be dangerous. . P A Â 1 ©s 1 ,? P A V ³ 8 :VP
II
M2 N V M2 NP2 . P A Â 1 ©s 1 ,? § 8 ¬ # -3 P :NP
II
V NP2
Developing countries can have an important role in this issue. .=; C? U$ -3 ,bt? «€1 P A =BP 3 1 ,? - { V3 3 = :VP
II
M2 N V M1 M2 N PP .=; C? U$ -3 ,bt? «€1 P A =BP 3 1 ,? = ¬ # -3 - { :NP
NP1 NP2
: - B{` Y tA Ä" P
( 3" ›? ,:@ . 9R , $ M2 =A ´. 1W = $ 1 ³$3 3 M– VW / « š , $) 3 P / „W Ving A =:b8 =1 `- tv NP / ,0$ ` *
s P - - B{` Y tA / ,B; # ( 3" ›? - ˆ? =b8 " VP NP =A 1W = ) $ 1 ,0:? 9R $ M1 S 1 Ving / 7š =01W A Ä" {?
.3 b1 _ žB1 - å › =b8 V ,? UB? =A k 8- A t ³1W < P A ,€© ? " ¬ € ? - Bs "3 / c # ? ` = 3 A
" M2 NP 1 ?) VP NP $/ 3 A s Y tA V3 d1 $ 3 8" $ ? S 1 c . V3 A •b8 $ 3 R? <3 P •e " NP1 ³$ 8 -3 - X? 9s ` *

.9 0 12 - b ( RC NP
39
Smoking the cigars … ... Á A -³ V {

M2 VP NP M1 N
She likes jumping such horses. .,$ ª U v A V $ š 3- 3 9 "3 "

M2 VP NP M1 N
Fighting my lions … ... U? P A V ³ 8 :VP

M2 VP NP M2 N
Developing some countries … ... - { ,s A V3 3 = :VP

The smoking cigars … ... V3 3"3 ¬ # -3 Á A -³ :NP
Big fighting lions … ... Á-SA § 8 ¬ # -3 P :NP
Such developing countries … ... = ¬ # -3 - { U v :NP
Smoking cigars is dangerous. .Â 1 ©s 9C Á A -³ V { :VP

Smoking cigars are dangerous. .Â 1 ©s BC V3 3"3 ¬ # -3 Á A -³ :NP
Fighting lions is dangerous. . P A Â 1 ©s 9C P A V ³ 8 :VP

Fighting lions are dangerous. . P A Â 1 ©s BC § 8 ¬ # -3 P :NP
Developing countries have an … ... 1- 3 = ¬ # -3 - { :NP

Developing countries has an … ... 3- 3 - { V3 3 = :VP
40
: Transformation lD=J
.( {1 ,? NP 8 S v =v 9 VW t? <9C 1 t? NP 8 , $) {1 ,? NP 8 = ,$ X ®:©? - e :(, $S³$ 8) , {1 8 - B{`
. PNP " NP1 V NP2 NP3, M4(, NP,) : ,? š - t‰ ,@ . ³$ 8 5$ " ,: ³$ 8 ‡ -3 NP
.( 8 =1 $W ,? ,b " ` 8= 9 =b: bu 7š) .9 $ bu <3 P NP U {1 8 1 ,? = S v U ;" : Pronouns – •
Pronouns
=b8 - t‰ ³$ 8
Subjective ,:@ . I, You, He, She, It, We, You, They ... < <U?
NP1
Objective ,; R? me, you, him, her, it, us, you, them ... < <U?
NP2, PNP
Possessive ,0:? mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours, yours, theirs ... < ¬ ? <U? ¬ ?
3- 1 9$3" ›?
Reflexive Pronouns , 0 1 $ bu 3 s
myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself,
or $ 3 RB Ž <2 <Y =1 ? @ -3) NP2, PNP
yourselves, ourselves, theirselves (themselves) (Y3 s :3 P ,?
Emphatic adverbs 3 e
. BC ,0:? 2 R my, your, his, her, its, our, your, their *

.3 P ,? ±R: ,: s ¬" «žA " 9 Y"3 x "- M B , 0 1 $ bu -3 *
.3 P ,? 3 RB him, … 3 d1 c? @ "- cb@ M 0 1 ` " himself, … <3 A c? @ "- cb@ M 0 1 ` :,BC =B01 *
.(3 P ,? e lS8 =A c$ d for) … for I … : (9 NP1 =BCA {v ) $ A =. u ! # / A NP 8 ,:@ . bu 3- 1 V 0? **
:3 P 1 s 9 -3 xA 8 - e $ =b8 =1 ? @ 2- Â $ 3 e =b8 -3 *
I myself saw Ali in the park. .Y $3 (3 s) Â- š -3 (3 s) - ,:@ (3 s) U? (3 s)
: =b8 VW 8 1W •8 ? 1 ,? < BP 1 9 "3 - «¬ ?» ` ,0:? $ bu =b8 -3 *
Ali's book is on the table. Mine is on the table. .9 S? "- (U? ¬ ?) U? _ B . ... ,:@ _ B
41
.(M1 NP) f^R M1 8NP ŠHJ D/ ŠH2e0 – ‚

:=b8 Ž"-
. ,? =b8 NP1 xA - M1 S 1 , - . -3 ´ @ (•
P A ªe ? .9 † A ©s -3 <3 P ,b1 = Ž"- U$ Ń ) =b8 M1 / ‹] 1W ,: •8 ? $ ,d ? " ,m s ,b =BC (‚
... " S v <- <3 . <¥žP < ? <=B01 <ª:©? <k u ? <=;éC? :( $ ³1 dBP - •8 ?
This can be explained in an easier way. . 3 ,P"- =A 3 P å$ { 1 ,? (... <k u ? <=; C?) U$
I
M1 NP pV PP
Some may say that … ... = $ ³A 9 U0b? ,s A

Many believe that … ... = 1 €B ? - CA
:M1 =; ž1
that those that of, that which

(the) one (the) ones
.3 P =b8 t1W xA t1W •8 ? IMD " 1- 3 - bu 0# < 1 P ,? NP U {1 8 t $ ,Be"
There were many pens on the table ,but I took that of Reza. . - u- - 3 s BP 3 A U? ? <S ? "- - 3 s 3 $/ 3 (9P 3 3 8")3 A x1W
II II
NP1 V NP2 PP NP1 V M1 NP NP
… those on the chair. .3 A ,; "- = - ,$ - 3 s BP 3 A U? ? ...

… that which belonge to Ali. .3 A ,:@ =A ®: B? = - - 3 s BP 3 A U? ? ...
… the ones which belonged to Ali. .3 A ,:@ =A ®: B? = - ,$ - 3 s BP 3 A U? ? ...
. $W ,? ! ` - š ¬" " 3- 1 •8 ? one , ` *

One may say … ... 9R` V ,? < ... $ ³A 1 ,? V C1
42
.(M2
NP) .f^R M2 8NP ŠHJ D/ ŠH2L^ – „
:=b8 Ž"-
She is beautiful (She is a beautiful girl) d$/ 9C " : ,? =b8 NP xA - M2 S 1 , - . -3 ´ @ (•
d$/ ( 3 .) Bs3 9C " : (3 P ,b1 = Ž"- U$ N
´ ) =b8 M2 / ŒH] 1W ,: •8 ? $ ,d ? " ,m s ,b =BC (‚
. =b8 •b8 1W " $ b1 U {1 8 - 9R 1 ,? .3 P ,? NP U {1 8 the A b M2 , ` .9C 1 M1= $- 3 9 : the 5$ (…
The poor can not compete with the rich.
I
M2 NP1 V PP (V b" ç A 9A e- 1 ,b1 €.) . b " ç A 9A e- 1 ,b1 €. (3 . )
The disabled should attend ordinary classes.

... 9 P $ A V† : ? < . 3@ t N -3 9 P $ A ¬ : ? (3 . )
:<=s
. B{ A =1 P A =BP 3 NP U {1 8 1 ,? M2 5$ m # *
She is beautiful attractive. (ƒ:„)
She is beautiful and attractive.
. $ A 1 ,b1 NP U {1 8 M2 / cde ³$3 3 M– *
She is (the, a, this, such, …) beautiful.
: (RC NP) NP ŠHJ D/ RC – •
bu + (=0 $ ) = » $ «= + wh » 2- Â = $W ,? wh A $ 3 P ,? =b8 «=0 $ <= » = $W ,? that A $.3- 3 9; # "3 P d1 M5 ` RC
.3 P ,? =b8 «,{ š
Mina said that her husband was sick and that he had to stay in bed. RC NP2
II II I
NP1 V R NP1 V M2 NP2 R NP1 V PP
. BCA -3 ( 1 ? ,? $ A) 1 bA 3 A - dx? <smMR " - b A 3 A Ž P <n 9R` ?
: $/ 9C 1 M1 Ubu -3.9
NP2 U {1 8 " 9C 1 M5 7š ? 1 (S)=:b8 ¬" that / cde V v
.( $W ,? c . NP2 / A) 3 P ,? ß€1 =:b8 ¬ ? . 9Cž1
.9 NP 5$ ˆ @ U ;" ={ b ,0:? 9R 7š . P A ª ? =01W ³? <3- 1 - t‰ V 0? ³$3 3 M – ,0:? 2 R / cde =0 $ Y"3
(this, such, big, small, …) (my, your, his, her, its, our, your, their) - many of his problems …, a lot of my friends …
43
_ 8 t1W / ,0$ A , ` < P A :A $ A - =b8 "3

R = wh = + wh ,{ š bu + (=0 $ ) =
. 3 ,b1
which = =w1W Y (=0 $ ) =

who = ,C ,C =v (=0 $ ) =
whose
whom = ,C ,C =v (=0 $)=
where = ,:›? <= ,$ 8 x (=0 $)=
when = ,Be" <= ,1 ?/ 9e" =v (=0 $)=
why = ,B:@ <= ,: ;3 v (=0 $)=
what = S v <= =w1W =v (=0 $)=
whether $W (=0 $)=
how = ›1 <= P<= ,P"- (=1 ³v)- ©v (=0 $)= .what = R 7š (3- 1 ˜ 9?N@) 9C 1 ,; • $/ =:b8
What you said will be used against you in the court. ( RC NP1)
I I
R NP1 V pV pp PP
( 3 ,b1 _ 8 ... =v =0 $ ) . `3 3 -3 bP = :@ P s 3 RB BR` bP = =w1W
What you said is important … (...9 t? BR` bP ,v =0 $ )... 9 t? BR` bP = =w1W
I don't know where she hid the stolen jeweleriese. ( RC NP2) . - =e" C? 2 83 V t š " (= - ,$ 8) x = 1 3 ,b1 U?
II II
NP1 V R NP1 V NP2
. - =e" C? 2 83 V t š " (= - ,1 ?/) 9e" =v = 1 3 ,b1 U? :When
. - =e" C? 2 83 V t š " (= - ,: ;3) v = 1 3 ,b1 U? :Why
. - =e" C? 2 83 V t š (= - ,C ) ,C =v = 1 3 ,b1 U? :Who
. - =e" C? 2 83 V t š " $W = 1 3 ,b1 U? :Wheter
. - =e" C? 2 83 V t š ,C =v = 1 3 ,b1 U? :Whom
44
VP V(NP(NP)) . 9 (VP) ,: . " ` 1 ? ,? ,e A =w1W < !X# - NP1 =:b8 / ` : Verb Phrase
.(RC RVP) $W ,? ,: . " ` A , ` <( RC RS ) $W ,b1 =:b8 A ={ b R
She told me why she suffocated her husband. RC(RS) NP3

III II
NP1 V NP2 R NP1 V NP2
S
.3 =Rs - Ž P (= - ,: ;3) v = U? =A 9R` "
.3 =Rs - Ž P (= - ,$ 8) x = U? =A 9R` " : Where
.3 =Rs - Ž P (= - ,P"-) - ©v = U? =A 9R` " : How
She showed me who suffocated her husband. RC(RVP) NP3

R VP
.-Ž P 3 =Rs (= - ,C ) ,C =v = U? =A 3 3 V {1 "
.-Ž P 3 =Rs (= - =w1W) S v =v = U? =A 3 3 V {1 " : What
.-Ž P 3 =Rs (= - ,C ) ,C =v = U? =A 3 3 V {1 " : Whom
They were talking about why she assassinated the mayor. RC NP =. u ! # / A

I II
NP1 V Prep R NP1 V NP2
S . - - 3 tP 3 -" " ( v =0 $ ) = ,: ;3 - A-3 13 ,? 9d› t1W

. - - 3 tP 3 -" " ( x =0 $ ) = ,$ 8 - A-3 13 ,? 9d› t1W : Where
. - - 3 tP 3 -" " ( 9e" =v =0 $ ) = ,1 ?/ - A-3 13 ,? 9d› t1W : When
. - - 3 tP 3 -" " ( =1 ³v =0 $ ) = ,P"- - A-3 13 ,? 9d› t1W : How
. - - 3 tP 3 -" " $W =0 $ - A-3 13 ,? 9d› t1W : Whthere
They were talking about who assassinated the mayor.

. - - 3 tP 3 -" ( ,C =v =0 $ ) = ,C - A-3 13 ,? 9d› t1W
45
: =. u ! # / A NP U {1 8 RC
: (PrepR) ¬ ? / cde =. u ! # :¬" 9; #
.3 P ,? RC NP < ?W ¬ ? / cde =. u ! # ` A =A U$ /
:=b8 Ž"-
= + wh + =. u ! # (•
(9 =. u ! # / A V v <9 å› =0 $ ƒ€.) ,{ š bu + =0 $ + =. u ! # (‚
PrepR = + wh + =. u ! # ,{ š bu + =0 $ + =. u ! #
from when = (,Be") ,1 ?/ / 9e" =v =0 $ /

to where = (,:›?) ,$ 8 =A x =0 $ =A
to why = (,B:@) ,: ;3 =A v =0 $ =A
in what = =w1W -3 =v =0 $ -3
about whether $W =0 $ - A-3
with how = ( ›1) ,P"- A - ©v =0 $ A
in that (= [1 U$ / ) =0 $ -3
I hadn't see my brother from when he left the country. ( 3 ,b1 _ 8 9e" =v =0 $ / ) - - { 3 Â " = ,1 ?/ / - Y-3 A Y $ 1 U?
We have travel to where no one … . .9 =BP X³1 x1W =A š 70w = ,$ 8 =A $ 3 R ?
I have objection to why you get us here alone. .t x $ -3 - ? $ =BP 3 =³1 bP ( v =0 $ =A) = ,: ;3 =A Y- 3 ¿ B@ U?
I put the keys in what he gave me. .3 3 U? =A = =w1W -3 - : BP X` U?
About whether she assassinated the mayor. . - - 3 tP 3 -" " $W =0 $ - A-3
I have problem with how he handles the class. . - MN ,? - 3 " (- ©v =0 $ A) = ,P"- A c0{? Y- 3 U?
These two markers are different in that one is black and one is blue. .9 ,AW ³$3 " 9 ,0$ =0 $ -3 1 2" RB? 5$µ ? "3 U$
46
: VP NP – •
.( BC 1 c . t $ 9e w V v ) to A - ˆ? $ tobe V" A Ving < P A ¥e 1 c . ` ƒ€. " ` 3 P ,? NP U {1 8 VP
. 1 P ,? =b8 - ˆ? 2- Â VP NP Y b U$ A A <9 c . V3 A U @ -3 = 9 ˆ @ - ˆ?
She likes swimming. . - V3 P 3- 3 9 "3 "

II
NP1 V VP NP2
She is interested in reading such comic novels. . S¦ t1 ?- U v V 1 s =A 9 ? =eN@ "

I II
NP1 pV Prep M2 V M1 M2 N
NP
(To write) Writing these business letters is his major duty. ." t? =R ‰" 9C -3 =? 1 U$ UBP 1
II
M2 V M1 M3 N V M2 M2 N
VP NP1 NP2
She taught me playing the piano. . - 1 š UBs 1 U? =A 3 3 3 $ "

III II
NP1 V NP2 V M1 N
VP NP3
(Finding) To find a real loyal friend is almost impossible nowadays. . /" ? U0b? „ ´d$ € 9C , e " - 3 ." 9 "3 V3 š
II II
V M1 M2 M2 N V adv M2 NP2 adv
VP NP1
=:b8 =A 9dC1 $ A " 3 P ,? 3 x$ - B{` Y tA =1 `" P A =BP 1 Y tA ?9 U0b? 2- VW -3 = P A td? =:b8 - Bs 9 U0b? *
VP NP2 .3 P =b8
II
V
She is interested in reading comic novels.
M2 M2 N
(...<V 1 s ¬ #-3 <U V 1 s) V 1 s t1 ?- =A 9 ? =eN@ " : NP .S ¦ t1 ?- V 1 s =A 9 ? =eN@ " :VP
Writing business letters is his major duty.
VP NP1 . ...(...<UBP 1 ¬ #-3) UBP 1 -x =? 1 :NP ." ,: =R ‰" 9C -x =? 1 UBP 1 :VP
47
:D |`D^
MD^Dmd
:V A/ @
(ä C ?) !X# " =. u - @ V A/ =[›; .9C 1 V3 Q 9 t. cA e " 9C 1 3" ›? t1W 3 N, adj, V, adv :(Open set) / A =@ bx? (•
. Q ,?
< e lS8 <¬ ? <=. u ! # : 1 P ,? 9 t. " 9 3" ›? V P3 Prep, R, adv , conj, Pronouns :(Closed set) =BCA =@ bx? (‚
,abQ ¬ . < $ bu
. 3 ,? ¥ ž{ - / A @ / ? =BCA @ "- / V C1 U ê
:(Border Markers) D D. ` 2
90% N
1) … 10% VI Puntuation ( - X` =©€1) . , : ; ( { [ “ __ <> ! ?
90% N
2) … 10% VI
Prep NP
90% N
3) … 10% VI adv S
4) … 70% N
30% VIII
R S, VP
5) ... 90% N
10% VI
V
6) … 100% N RT2
7) ………... M1 … N [ NP (M1)(M2)(M3) N (M4) (M5) ]

my, … their
8) ........... Pronouns
| s ,?
9) ……… Xs Vs: ¥žP Y c .s
Ns: •b8 s
48
.9 ,B . ‰ z$ c . .9 P Y b ,:de / =Q $ ` ,? t $ (•
. PA P Y b ,:de / $ A U$ A A <9 c? Q / z$ PP (‚
ADV adv S .9 c? Q / z$ e =:b8 (…
. PA 1 ,? RC NP V v <3 P ,? c? P - ,B . ‰ "3 t: . (‡
.3- 3 / ? "3 9 c? Q / V v .3 P , ? ! ,abQ c . A V v <9 =BCA V3 A / A U @ -3 c . (“
... (Ë
. $ A M3 $ M2 9 Uab? VW A .9C 1 , A « š cA e ,:de ˆ @ (Ý
.9 , A « š cA e „ VW A " cde @"9 / ? ! ¦ "3 .9 c? Q / z$ NP " 9 NP U {1 8 | s (Í
... " ? Q / M4 ,b " ` -3 .9 M2 " 9C 1 =B 3 U$ lS8 (!" B šW) ‘s .9C 1 Ž3 s A s U$ $ U•b©? " P A s =A Y Bž? X µ " (¾
" ` -3 U$ A A .9 / ? VW ! ¦ "3 " 9 c? Q / z$ M5 " 3 ,? / ? R < M5 -3 " 9 c? Q / z$ Ž3 s " Q ,? 3 RB
.9 / ? dCv ,? ,b =BC =A =Q •b8 s / A 7š .9 / ?N/ A $ 1 =v $ A =v M5" M4 ,b
:(,@ .)U v =©€1 / ?
NP of NP . $W ,? U v =©€1 / ? of / cde : NP ƒA - (•
. 1SA c? - / ? " $ ³A =. u ! # - VW A of <3 A of / cde NP U {1 8 9R 9e"
VP to VP :( - B 3 / . 5 to) ,: . ƒA - (‚
,: / ? U$ A A <V 5$ 3 P ,? V to V V v .9 VP " V / ,0$ VW A $ cde $ <9 VP $ V VW A " cde $ <3- 1 B{ A - t‰ 9; # - tv
.3 P ,? 3 x$ ,@ . / ? to / cde " 9 V / ! ¦ "3
:,: . ƒA - =b8 Ž"-
Y" A < A žA <Y- žA :(= P + ? c .) ,? SB; k- •? + ( Ø < <(=0 $ )= ) (•
UBP 1 =A <V3- s A :- ˆ? + (=A <- [ bA <9t8 < A) (‚
-3 (…
49
a) I want to sleep. V to V . A žA (= ) s ,? U?
b) She decided to write a book. VI to VP ._ B UBP 1 =A... . C$ A _ B ( Ø < <= ) 9. ` bˆ "
c) They bought a novel to read. VP to VI .V 1 s (- [ bA <9t8) A... . 1 žA ( ) = ,1 ?- 1 $ s t1W
VP VP
d) They started to excavate the tough ground near that hill to unearth the possible relics of an ancient civilization. VP to VP
II
NP1 V V M1 M2 N Prep M1 N V M1 M2 N M1 M2 N
II
V NP2 PP NP NP
NP2
.,1 B A ,1 b ,; bB# $ €A (V3-"W V" A A) 1-" A V" A (= ) =· VW 5$3S1 9ž U ?/ (V =A) 0A ( <= ) 13 k" P t1W
:=B01
They went to the cinema. . $- 3 (Prep) =. u ! # to 5$ -
ƒA - to ` ? 9 c? VW / cde / ? " 3/ A 1 ,b1 =: . t1W U A S v – " $W ,? NP VW / A =: .NA < P A =. u ! # to ` -
.9 U v =©€1 VW / ? " ?W c . / cde " 3 P ,? k" P ! ©1W =b: 5$ / NP < P A ,: .
.9C 1 c? / 9e w =. u ! # " 1 ? ,? / ? "3 U A =. u ! # V v < 1S1 / ? 9e w VW NP " =. u ! # U A -
. ¥ž{? - cde / $A/ ? U / 7š - b -
.9 (N) ´bB# / ? U$ ˆ @ U$ sW <3 A =. u ! # $ ,0:? 9R <M1 / ? / A ! # U ;" ` -
.(NP of NP and NP or NP but NP … NP = NP) 3 P ,b1 ª =. u ! # A " {1 ¥ž{? VW - bP $ 1 9 A ,$ t1 NP -
. A VP $ V =A $" A ª€@ - €1W ,: . ƒA - to / cde -
.(3 P ,? ¥ž{? =b: k 1 V v) 3 P ,? 9# - =b: , e " ? V3 š" {0$3 A - ³$3 <3 ` 2- S ; 1W ,Be" -
.3 Q S ; 1W V ,? =b:Q z$ ? UBC1 3 V" A - ,C :³1 =:b8 Y b ,@ . / ? ‚ " ,: / ?¾Ub A
50
: =. u ! # / A NP U {1 8 RC
: (PrepR) ¬ ? / cde =. u ! # :¬" 9; #
:=b8 Ž"-
= + wh + =. u ! # (•
(9 =. u ! # / A V v <9 å› =0 $ ƒ€.) ,{ š bu + =0 $ + =. u ! # (‚
RC=M5 : whom " which / cde =. u ! # : Y"3 9; #

NP Prep which S
whom
ª ?R cde NP =A Ä A ? bu + =. u ! # + = + NP :=b8 Ž"-
.VW cde NP A9 RC=M5 vD.=p x $ -3 U$ A A <9C 1 NP U {1 8 9e w PP " 9 PP V b c -3 =P" cs 3 - Bs V v -

.9 -" u =b8 -3 NP =A Ä A ? bu V3-"W -
. $ A ,? - =P" x1 b ´bB# - ³$3 c . =A / ? ` (R NP V (NP)) RS c b0 / 7š < ,? / A - RC =P" 9e" -
.9 c ,b =BC S 1 NP1 ,b " ` -3 / <3 !X# - RC V ,? =:b8 ,: - [ ? 9. $-3 9t8 ,1 s 5 0 -3 -
RC=M5
The big cardboard boxes in which Ali put some spare parts yesterday have to be transferred to the warehouse.
II I
M1 M2 M3 N R NP1 V M1 M2 N adv pV Prep M1 N
NP1 NP2 PP
.- d1 =A (( A $) 1 P 3 3 ¬ €B1 ) 1 P c€B ? $ A /" $3 , $ = ©e 3 9P X` ,:@ t1W -3 = ,`-SA ,$ €? =d 8
:=B01
.( dCv ,? =. ? =A ) 3 P ,? =BP X` « » = / cde , - . -3 -
51
- NP under which VW $/ = NP
The table under which a cat is lying is broken. .9 P =BC0P { / -3 =A ` 5$ Ž $/ = S?
- … over which VW / . A = NP
The river over which a plain is flying runs to the sea. . $-3 =A 3S$- ,? ,? / " š ,$ b š VW / . A = =1 s3"-
- … to whom " =A = ...
The man to whom I gave my book was a university prof. . ³{1 3 3 B 5$ 3 A - A B Y3 3 U? " =A = 3 ?
- … beyond which VW -" = ...
The temperature beyond which water boils is 100 degree celsius. .M C: •-3 •ÀÀ 9C P 8 ,? _W VW -" = ,$ ?3
- … in front of which VW :8 -3 = ...
The mirror in front of which she was standing is cracked. .9 =BP 3 A Â 3 A 3 BC$ " VW cA €? -3 = = $W
- … due to which VW =© A = ...
The lie due to which I was fired was a white lie. .,B›:ˆ? ,„"-3 3 A Y P • s U? VW =© A = ,„"-3
- … with whom " A = ...
The lady with whom I went to cinema was my sister. .Y s3 A b =A B.- U? " A = ,b1 s
- … interms of which VW (M A <ª; „ -3 )ªC# A = ...
The unit interms of which we measure electric current is ampere.
. ·?W 9C - ,0$ B0; V $ 8 ,? ` / 1 ? VW ªC# A = #"
- … as a result of which VW =x B1 -3 = ...
52
:which / cde of =. u ! # :Y 9; #
whom
RC=M5 S
NPÚ of which NPÛVP NPÚ =A Ä A ? bu + C + NPÛ + = + NPÚ :=b8 Ž"-
whom
ª ?R
. $3 3 - e 1W ¬3 ? S xA =P" -3 <9 S = NPVP V v

NPÛ - RC -3 NP1 U b A. 3 ,b1 _ 8 ,:de =b8 Ž"- U$ A A .3 P ,? =b8 « C » 3- ? -3 ¾Í -3 " «/ » -3 "3 ,0$ -3 of
. ,? 3 RB C xA VW / =b8 -3 " ,? - X³? 1
RC=M5
The small old bungalows of which the sloped roofs are leaking in this heavy rain aught to be reconstructed immediately.
I I
M1 M2 M2 N R M1 M2 N V Prep M1 M2 N pV adv
NPÚ NPÛ PP
< 1 P / /A $A N$") .´- . 1 P / /A $AU³ V - A U$ -3 (3- 3 ,B{1) ,? =0v t1W - 3 ª P € = ,0v ,b$ e N$"
( € =1
The armed guerilla troops of which the cruel commanders have instructed to annihilate the residential zones as well
M1 M2 M3 N R M1 M2 N V V M1 M2 N adv
II
NPÚ NPÛ V NP2
are being briefed to commence a heavy broad aggression.
V V M1 M2 M2 N.
II
V NP2
8t k" P = 1 P ,? = 8 1- 3 S 1 - ,1 0C? ,# 1 3 A1 = 1 3 3 - B 3 t1W # A V 1 ? . = ,›:C? 5$ v V ·

(... = 1 P ,? = 8 1- 3 V · :,1 s ) ., ³ 3 BC`
:=B01
. $ ³A S 1 ={ b ,;" 9R` V ,? «U wb » <3 P ,? =b8 «S 1» " 9 e as well -
.( s ?)å:C? <3 3 RB P ,; R? 9R " =B. ` ed = 1W ,: . ?"3 š - arm $ A < {0$3 -3 armed , ? UB. $ A -
53
:_ – Y 9; #
.9 P ¿ @ VW ‰ ƒ€. <9 V b =b8 Ž"- . $W ,? c . of which / A 7š < 1-"W ,? =P" V" A " 3 xA 8 - RC =:b8 NP
whom
RC=M5
NPÚ NPÛ of which VP
whom
RC=M5
The lethal nuclear weapons the high-tech warheads of which have been fully designed by a number of young motivated domestic experts
I
M1 M2 M2 N M1 M2 N R pV adv Prep M2 M2 M2 M2 N
NP1Ú NP1Û PP
are to be translocated to a new secret dungeon for security purposes.

I
pV Prep M1 M2 M2 N Prep M3 N
$ A V 8 S ³1 A (,? A) ,:s 3 V P- / v, 9 A c? - ©A 1 P ,# ¦ t1W =B. { š t0 N = - d` ? =BC t#N

.,B ? ! A $ 8 ’ =„ / =A 1 P xA 8
:=B01
. e"9 e"9 e <(fully) ,? 8 / - c . 9bCe "3 = S v VW -
. $W ,b1 M2 cde M3 V v 9 M2 ´ ©e VW cde < P M2 VW ic ¦ žA domestic ,Be" -
. P A ,? « / v , » V C1 A a number of =Bž . =b8 -
have to
(9 Ž3 s ¬ ? VW to 9 $ A ,v ) P A ,? « $ A » = ?"9 V P3 s ¬ ? to < 1 Bš cm? t $ aught to
(am, is, are, was, were) to
.9 M3 security 7š <9 / 1 Cš U$ !" ? ity -
54
: Reduction Transformation (RT) !X# - B{`
!X# - B{` Y A dA ,? , - A ¬" .9 P !X# S v 5$ , $ 1 P ß€1 @ e U$ 8 < P A l mB NA " ß›? @ e `
. ,? =b8 / / A / 7š < 1 s ,?
.3- 3 3 8" !X# @ e Ë c -3
:RT1
c . "3 9 3 H e PA P ß€1 =:b8 ¬ ? . " (... ? <9C 1 t1W U A S v – ) $ A 9{š =: .NA NP "3 =:b8 8 `
=b8 «= » " 3 P ,? c 0{ RC=M5 / / A / 7š = ) .9 which ¬ ? P !X# ƒ " U$ = S v VW < P A =:b8 VW -3 c? ,:
whom
(3 P ,?
which
NP1 VII NP2 ( ) NP1 VI I saw the man (whom) my mother hits. .3/ 5B Y-3 ? = - 3 ? Y $3 U?
whom
NP1 ( which ) NP1 VI PP VII NP2

whom
RC=M5
The old man (whom) my sister has seen in the park is her university prof. . ³{1 3 3 B 9C Â- š -3 9 $3 Y s = , C? 3 ?
I II
M1 M2 N M1 N V Prep M1 N V M2 M3 N
NP1 NP2
:RT2
.9 -x 1 $ A ³$3 c0P =A ` . ,? -"W3 $ - t1W -x BA .3- 3 - " adj " Ving " P.P ˆ @ = A RT2
P.P:
1- to be Y Ce + P.P = ¬ tx? c .
2- have Y Ce + P.P = c? V ?/ ¬ .
3- P.P + N = M2 ,; R? 9R V @ =A / cde
4- P.P = ( P A A A VW Y"3 9bCe A c . Y 9bCe ,Be") =BPX` c .
55
Ving:
1- to be Y Ce + Ving = - bB t1 ?/ ¬ .
2- Ving + N = M2 ,:@ . 9R V @ =A / cde
3- VP NP = - ˆ? =b8
adj:
1- adj + N = M2
2- M2 NP
NP U {1 8 Ving " ( P A ,: c . =:b8 -3 ³$3 c . 5$) P d1 =BPX` c . P.P " P A / ? V P A " $ A (N) / A adj " Ving " P.P `
:3- 3 cde =A ,³BCA R .9 P !X# (N) / A R be < P d1 M2 NP 9R " ( ž1 NP ³$3 =:b8) P d1
.V C1 „ A which " V C1 A who
.=BPX` -3 $W " =BPX` A was, were " $W " ¬ # A is, are : $W ,? =:b8 ³$3 c . M A to be .9 M5 ´bB# RC
RT2: RC=M5
R be P.P =BPX` c . (to be P.P) ¬ tx?
NP who is,are Ving VP NP (to be Ving) - bB = + NP :=b8 Ž"-
which was,were adj M2 NP (to be adj) V P <V3 A <UB + 9R
RC=M5 :Ving ¬ m?
The chemical liquids ( R be ) running in spiral routes under the vertically-arranged cupper plates evaporate and soon start
M1 M2 N which are Prep M2 N Prep M1 M2 M3 N V adv V
I II
NP1 NP1 V PP PP V
corroding the plates. 2- Â ,C? 2 ›R $/ ,w š- ? C? -3 1 P ,? - 8 = ,$ b P 2 $ ?

II
V M1 N (NP2) . - 2 ›R (V3 .) V3- s 3"/ =A ,? k" P " 1 P ,? žd ( P ª ?) P =BP X` - 3 b@
VP NP2
.9C 1 =:b8 -3 c . "3 $/ 3 P RT1 A = 3 P ,b1 VP NP.9C 1 c . 7š < ?W to be V" A running -
(liquids , evaporate) are -
. ,b1 cb@ ˆ @ 5$ "- "- - B{` "3 <9C 1 ¬ b ? -
56
_ RC=M5 : adj ¬ m?
The young educated recently employed ladies ( R be ) happy for the sudden unexpected raise in their monthly wages
M1 M2 M2 M2 N who were M2 NP2 Prep M1 M2 M2 N Prep M2 M2 N
II
NP1 NP1 V PP PP
invited all their colleagues to dinner. ,1 t` 1 [B ? „ «$ S. A 13 A ¬ ›P s = ,1 8 3 0: ˆ› P Y žB / tb1 s

II
V M1 M2 N Prep N .Y P =A - V {1 - 0b =b 13 2 @3 V P =1 ? 3SbB 3 -3
NP2 PP
. $W ,b1 =:b8 ¬" NP "3 " $ A / cde $ A 9R -

(ladies , invited ) were -
.9 9R 7š dCv =A ly < monthly -3 .9 9R < dCwA 9R / „ 1?" =A ly -
RC=M5 :P.P. ¬ m?
The Û rays ( R be ) deviated due to the thick cupper coil round the glass tube will be reflected to the photocells
I
M1 M3 N which are Prep M1 M2 M3 N Prep M1 M3 N pV Prep M1 N
I
NP1 NP1 pV PP PP PP
RC=M5
( R be ) transforming their energy into a faint electric current upon reaching a small mirror on their way.
II
which are M2 N Prep M1 M2 M2 N Prep V M1 M2 N Prep M2 N
II
NP1 V NP2 PP VP NP PP
PP
,$ t: B. 9b =A P s 70 ? ={ P =; ; -"3 =A ,b žu ,C? – š =© A( 1 P) 1 P ,? ! › ? = Û š
.V P C? -3 ,0v = $W =A V - / 7š ,R u ,0$ B0; V $ 8 =A - V P µ 1 ,? c$ d = ( - 1 t; : )
.9 c . ´ ©e ?W ,0b c . A V v will be reflected < P A =BP 3 c . "3 1 ,b1 ´ ©e =:b8 -

.9 ,B . ‰ 5$ cde c . V v 9C 1 NP U {1 8 " ?W ,0:? 9R cde V v 9C 1 M2 < ? 1 VW cdeto be V v 9C 1 c . transforming -
.3"- ,b1 ; 1 =:b8 -3 ³$3 c . 5$ =A = ,1 ?/ P.P -
.9 å› š <9 ! sS? = P "9 k P •b8 = P -
57
:RT2 -3 P.P ,$ P c# -=
The books ( R be ) published … in Iran can be cheaper. . BC :A - c . " NP -•
I II
NP1 which are pV PP V M2 NP
. s ,? to be " 9 ¬ tx? c . 7š < ,? {B ? =1 3 P ,? {B ? _ B
! › ? , - . -3 .(V3 ! › ?) 1 3 ,? - deviated , ? " 1 3 ,b1 - rays , ? Ńm? . BC 1 :A - NP ,;" BC :A - c . , ? -‚

.3 P !X# 1 ,? RT2 A to be . P A =BP 3 to be " P A ¬ tx? " P A P ! › ? $ A 7š <3- 1 3 8" NP2 ? 9 ,B . ‰ "3 V3
P A ¬ tx? $ A c . = 3 ,? ¥ ž{ by (via, through) "- / $/ ¬ m? -3 . - c . , ? =1 < 1 3 ,? - , ? =1 -…
The rehabilitation dorms ( which are) revitalized by … will be used. . P s 3 RB ... =: A 1 Pl # = -" š/ A t ³A s
:RT4
c . t1W A $ A ` < $ 1 M2 NP1 $ VP
NP1) 3 P ,? ß€1 =:b8 ¬ ? . <ADV adv S $ A =:b8 / „ S v e lS8 / A
.9 P !X# NP be ƒ " U$ " (3 P ,? c 0{ =:b8 " ?W
˜9 P !X# v
< P A A A =:b8 U$ NP A =$ š =:b8 NP ` " 3- 3 NP =$ š =:b8 " s ,? =$ š =:b8 ´bB# " 9 " š =:b8 e =:b8
.(•%) 3 A (•8 ? V" A It) , A « š cA e $ (¾¾%) 3 A - 0 NP $ 7š . ,? !X# - {# V A/ " {# 3 P ,? - 0 " - 0 3 P ,?
(3- 1 , ? V v <9 •8 ? V" A It VW " 9 , A « š cA e NP 5$ ƒ€. )
was, were =BPX` -3 $W <=BPX` _ am, is, are $W < ¬ # :3 P ,? / / A =$ š =:b8 c . V ?/ "- / to be
RT4:
P.P
Ving VP NP1
adv adj M2 NP1
NP NP1
NP be to V VP NP1
58
ADV
: adj ¬ m?
This exercise will enlarge the arm muscles if ( NP be ) possible.
II
M1 N V M1 M3 N adv It is adj NP2
II
NP1 V . P A =BP 3 V 0? VW ` - "/ A =w ?3 s Á-SA Ž/-" U$
( P A U0b? Ž/-" Y x1 ` )
.9 ?W 9R " ? 1 e =:b8 if / A -
ADV : P.P. ¬ m?
Whenever ( NP be ) required, the mechanical engineers use these delicate tools.
II
adv It is P.P. NP1 V NP2
I
NP1 pV . $ ‰ - SA U$ / ,? 3 RB 5 1 0? V t? 3 P Y/† 9e"
: t? =B01
µ " , - . V A/ -3 .9 (3 . <3 . :,A @ " , - . cm?) P =B. ` U † V A/ / •b8 2- Â " 3 R? 2- Â 2 Æ; / ,s A ,C :³1 V A/ -3
. 1/ ,? / ? V P3 R? µ " / A / -3 U$ A A . 1- 3 9?N@ •b8 µ " " 3 R? µ " U † V A/ -3 ? <3- 3 9?N@ •b8
-a •b8 -on
-a -um U † -3 3 R? 1 Cš
-i -us (Mg <Yg <Vg)
3 R? •b8 -ses -sis
phenomenon phenomena $ š
criterion criteria -
?
bacterium bacteria B A
datum data 33
curriculum curricula , -3 =? 1 A
stimulus stimuli Â ›?
fungus fungi ™- e
syllabus syllabi (M"-3) cˆ.
corpus corpi, corpora (= ; ©? 3- ? ) 0š
hypothesis hypotheses (2 u .) ¿ .
.9 9C ï 3 t $ -3 (•b8 $ 3 R?) ª ? c . _ žB1
The bacteria are (is) , receive (recirves)
59
ADV : Ving ¬ m?
While ( NP be ) preparing the small white rats for the dissection session in the veterinary lab , the vets suddenly came across
II
adv the vets were M1 M2 M2 N Prep M1 M3 N Prep M1 M3 N M1 N adv V
II
NP1 V NP2 PP PP NP1
RC=M5
a queer phenomenon ( R be ) contradicting a number of commonly-accepted principles in this discipline.
M1 M2 N which was M1 M2 N Prep M1 N
II
NP2 NP1 V NP2 PP
1 P =8 ? V t` 1 (V 0PS·? 3) t1W <,0PS·? 3 ³{$ ?/W -3 å$ { =C:8 A - 5v R tP ? 13 ,? 3 ?W V 0PS·? 3 = ,; # -3
.,: ˆ› =BP- U$ -3 - P =B. $Xš ¬ b ? - ©A ¬ / 3 3 ,? ß€1 = ,d x@ $ š D
c? =:b8 5$ A =A ? / . $- X³A ? $AV 3 s"9 ƒ:„ VW - X` =©€1 3 d1 ` < P A

e lS8 V $3 / A?W ?- $ A (while)
. P A $ A (=$ š =:b8)
VW , ? = ,€A ? •% -3 <9 å › , ? 3- ? ¾¾% =b8 •e ? < S ; 1W =:b8 sW " 1SA - / ? =. u ! # / cde $ A ={ b -
=8 ? <V3 3- s A) s $ 3- 3 ,#N© , ? 5$ =. u ! # A c . = 5v {0$3 -3 (come across :¿ @ -3 ?W) 3 P ,? ! sS?
.(3 1 _ 8 8 ` ) ¿ @ - =$ š c . ? = $ ³A A - =. u ! # " c . ,Be" U$ A A . (come across :V P
. $-"W ,? « A» =. u ! # A - NP2 7š <9 ,B . ‰ 5$ c . 5$ V P =8 ? -
:<=s
t: . 3 .,B . ‰ = 3 P ,? $- X³A NP VW / A BC1 ` < $- X³A c . / A me 5$ (9# - ,: s) ,B . ‰ = t: . ,$ P A
.9 3" ›? , - . 1 ? ,C :³1 -3 ,B . ‰ =
Give me a book.
Bring me a pen.
Send me a letter.
Buy me some flowers.
Fetch me a coffee.
Find me a friend.
Consider me your friend.
Receive me ….
60
ADV : NP ¬ m?
When ( NP be ) still a school boy , I sold flowers on the street.
II
adv I was adv M1 M3 N NP1 V NP2 PP
II
NP1 V NP2 .V A s -3 ,$ t:` Bs" . ,? U? < = - ? =wA / Y3 A U? = ,Be"
:=B01
:3- 3 =b8 "3 3 =BPX`
Ali washed the dishes yesterday. ./" $3 - t. ‰ 9CP ,:@ .3 A = .3 5$ ƒ€. ` : 3 ,u ? -•
Ali washed the dishes when he was young. .3 A V 8 ,Be" - t. ‰ 9CP ,? ,:@ .3 A cb@ - 0 ` : - bB ,u ? -‚
ADV : PP ¬ m?
Although ( NP be ) just in its early years of emergence in the realm of sociology ,

adv Darvin's theory of evolution was adv Prep M2 M2 N NP Prep M1 N NP
I
NP1 V PP PP
RC=M5
Darvin's theory of evolution could soon attract the attention of a good many of outstanding elites ( R be ) philosophizing
II
M2 N NP adv V M1 N M1 M2 N who were
I
NP1 NP NP NP1 V
NP2
on the merits of such hypotheses.
Prep M1 N M1 N
NP
PP
<, P = ? 8 (" b:e) =u # -3 «$ š / Ž = ;" t; -3 ´. 3 A (c? 0 , $"- 3 - • ) U$"- 3 c? 0 =$ [1 =v `
., u . U v 2 / B? ( "-) - A-3 13 ,? / 3 š =RC:. = - =BC8 A V ³dž1 / - CA 3 =8 ª:8 3"/ =A 9C1 VW
:=B01
. =b8 sW / - NP of NP ={ b <(its early years of emergence) $ $3 =:b8 -3 - ,0:? 9R
Ž = ;" «$ š t; «$ š / Ž = ;" t;
U$"- 3 c? 0 =$ [1 c? 0 , $"- 3 =$ [1
61
: Imperative Sentences (Simp) 2R V•./

- {# V A/ " 9 {# 7š <9 , A « š cA e 9 You ={ b V v <9 You ={ b VW NP1 " 9 ,; b ? =:b8 cm? VW ¬ ? .
. 3 3 3 c . <,: . =1 tB ? <3 P ,? k" P c . A " 3- 1 NP1 ? =:b8 U$ A A . ,? !X#
:=b8 Ž"-
( $ + ) k- •? UA + (ÎA)
Simp NP VP
VI Sit down. . { A <U { A
NP1 VII NP2 You Close the door. . - -3 ( $ dA) dA
VIIINP2NP3 Give me a book. .,A B U? =A ( A) A
. /A< 0A / A : open . 1 P ‰ « V3 » 2 d A = ,$ t: . <3 P !X# 1 ,? VW ¬" «_» t: . / ,s A -3 -

. 1 P ,? ®B{? ds =:b8 / - B{` 5$ A = 1 , Nb8 ,; • " ? 2Nb8 -
Go, Do, Listen, Come, … : P A =:b8 5$ 1 ,? ,; s 3 c . 5$ -
ADV : (RT4) cmb; _ u 5$

When ( NP be ) in Rome , do as Romans do.
I I
adv you are Prep N V adv NP1 V
I
NP1 V PP S imp ADV
(... - {1 , s). 3 ,? Y x1 ,?- =0$- ©1 b A Y x1 <Y- -3 ,BC ,Be"
.9 you " š =:b8 NP1 U$ A A <9 you ={ b ? =:b8 NP1 -

. $ A 1 ,? " š =:b8 v A =$ š =:b8 5$ -
62
: as IHG u /
: as (such as, like, unlike) NP -•
Ali has been working in our company as a Janitor.
I
NP1 V Prep M2 N he was NP2
.(- $ ) V A-3 3 A " =0 ; # -3 ? 9 P -3 9 3 ,?- ,:@
.- $ V @ =A
. $-"W ,? - 5$ =b8 " ,b1 / / A - =:b8 tB ? 3 /A -" A e lS8 U$ 3- ? -3

" « [1 < 1 ? <cm?» ƒ€. « such as, like » =b8 "« [1 < 1 ? <cm? » 3 1 _ 8 ` " 9 «V @ =A » as =b8
. P A ,? « !Ns A : unlike »
. P A ,? «... [1 < 1 ? <cm? (unlike :9C 1) 9C NP1 =0 ; # -3 » Z . 3- ? =b =b8 ,b:@ Ž"- :<=s
.9 VW A NP e lS8 such as <(3 P invert) $ A NP 9 U0b? as " such U A :‚<=s
:j+DK f\K
Unlike the other kinds of birds, … . . ... <V ` 1 š ³$3 k 1 !Ns A
a) there is no feather on the heads of the vultures. . tC "- š– 3- 1 3 8"
b) No feather grows on the heads of the vultures. . tC "- $"- ,b1 š–
c) The heads of the vultures lack any feather. .9 š =1 ` e . tC
d) Vultures have no feather on their heads. .V P "- š– 1- 1 tC
( tC =NP1) . 3 ,? _ 8 =:b8 Y NP1 = $3 $ A <3 P 3 RB «... cm? 9C 1 NP1 =0 ; # -3 » ,b:@ =b8 `
: as (such as, like, unlike) PP -‚

.9 « [1 < 1 ? <cm? » t1W =b =b8 " ,b1 / / A - =:b8 " 3 / A - " A cde 3- ? 1b
Women are quite comfortable in their offices as in their homes.
II
NP1 V adv M2 NP Prep M2 N pp .V P =1 s cs 3 cm? V P - 3 -3 9# - (- CA) Ń? BC 1s
63
: unlike e like 8such as D as +

. $W ,? PP " NP ƒ€. " < $W ,b1 =:b8 « unlike " like <such as » / 7š ( -" ›? -3 =1) - B 3 -3
She was walking so proudly … she was a queen.
a) such as b) like c) as d) unlike
: as `R IY <+DzR { p
.9. ` [1 -3 S 1 ª ? =. u ! # V ,? , $ <3 S ; 1W - 8 "3 V ,? with, for, to, of =. u ! # - tv 3- ? -3 ƒ€.
as with
as for NP ( - A-3 <3- ?-3) | ˆs -3 :ª ? =. u ! # =b8
as to . 1 P ,? =b8 « [1 " 1 ? " cm? » <3 1 _ 8 ª ? =. u ! # `
as of As with me I should say … ... = $ ³A $ A Y3 s | ˆs -3
: as S -„
. P A =BP 3 3 8" 1 ,? ,$ ? =©A - = =$ š =:b8 " " š =:b8 U A
. B. ,? Z R V ?Sb " š " =$ š =:b8 :(= ,? ³ <= ,; # -3 :=b8 ) ,1 ?Sb (•
As I was crossing the street, I fell down. .U ?/ Y3 B. <Y P ,? 3- V A s / (=0 ? ³ ) = ,; # -3
.9 ¬ : ? =$ š =:b8 " 9:@ " š =:b8 :((=01W =© A <=01W c ;3 =A) =0 $ x1W / :=b8 ) ,’:@ (‚
As I didn't have enough money, I couldn't buy that car. .Y žA - U P ? VW BC1 B1 < BP 1 ,. ¬ š =0 $ x1W /
. B. ,? Z R " š =:b8 ®d¦ A =$ š =:b8 :(= - ©1 b <=0 $ ®d¦ A :=b8 ) ®A © (…
As my father said, the rate of precipitation in Mediterranean areas is high.
.† A 9C =1 B$ ? ,# 1 -3 Ž- A V S ? <9R` Y- š = - ©1 b
. =. u « =0 $ » ,:de =b8 =A 9; # U$ -3 . 3 ,b1 _ 8 Z . 9; # = <3- ? / À/• % -3 (‡
(=0 $ [1 <=0 $ 1 ? <=0 $ cm? <=0 $ V @ =A :=b8 )
Mina was walking so proudly as she was a queen. .3 A =0:? " =0 $ cm? =1 d0B? ,: s 9.- ,? -"
64
:<=s
( 3 ,? - ,1 ?Sb Y tR? = - ©1 b $/) . ,? =b8 « = - ©1 b » " $- X` ,? … A - A … " • U A 5P -3
( 3 ,? - =0 $ x1W / , ? =0 $ ®d¦ A $/) . ,? =b8 « =0 $ ®d¦ A » " $- X` ,? … A - A … " ‚ U A 5P -3
.3 P 3 3 ¥ ž{ $A"9 c¦ A ‚ " • U A 5P
.3 =b8 « <sHMDE q `R » " « <n lL‘ D. » AV ,? - ?W =:b8 VW A = as ŠMR Dm
: <=d“ e bDp D2` Z

. ,? " š ,1 ?/ Z / , $ <( -c . $A"9 e " š =:b8 V v) BC Cb ={ b e =:b8 -3 " š " =$ š =:b8 c . V ?/
¬# ¬# =BPX` =BPX`
$W $W =BPX` -3 $W =BPX` -3 $W
c? ¬# 3 =BPX`
1 ,? =BPX` -3 $W Y Ce $ =BPX` Y Ce A ƒ€. =BPX` -3 $W V ?/ U wb < $ A 1 ,? $W Y Ce $ ¬ # V ?/ Y Ce A ƒ€. $W V ?/

. $ A A 1 ,? " BC l mB 3 =BPX` " c? ¬# t . $ A
: RT5A
P d1 VP NP1 Ving =01W Ä P =A < P A / ? t1W / A " $ A ((Puntuation) ïN@ / A " =:b8 sW " ¬" , $) / / „W -3 P.P., Ving, adj `
. (9 RT4 U @ VW / A) 9 while e lS8 < A 9; # -3 .9 P !X# adv NP be < P d1 M2 NP1 adj 3- ? -3 "
. $"- ,? RT5 ‘ 3 1_ 8 ` $ ` ,? RT2 ={ b - =:b8 sW
RT5A: P.P.
# Ving VP NP1
adv NP be adj M2 NP1
65
: (RT4 ¬ m?) Ving ¬ m?

( adv NP be ) Preparing the small white rats for the dissection session in the veterinary lab , the vets suddenly came across
While the vets were
a queer phenomenon ( R be ) contradicting a number of commonly-accepted principles in this discipline.
which was
"3 3 P ,? " ?W NP ? / A $/) 9C 1 NP U {1 8 <( ?W M1 cde ) 9C 1 M2 <( ? 1 VW cde to be ) 9C 1 c . =:b8 ¬" -3 Preparing
.( P ,? NP U {1 8 < ?W ,? ? / cde can be easy ` .=:b8 / „W -3 NP
ADV ADV : P.P. ¬ m?

( adv NP be ) Fully transformed to an odd organism in the lab , the beast started to tremble , ( adv NP be ) emitting
While the beast was Prep M1 M2 N Prep M1 N M1 N V V while It was
I I II
NP1 pV PP PP NP1 V NP1 V
RC=M5
a colored gas from its nostrils ( R be ) rasing upward.

M1 M2 N Prep M2 N which were adv
I
NP2 PP NP1 V
•- s VW = ,; # -3 <V $/ ; =A 3 k" P (- 1 8) VW < ³{$ ?/W -3 ,d x@ 1/ 3 8 ? =A (3 A =B. $ c0P Æ)3 A P c$ d Ń? - 1 8 = ,; # -3

.† A 9b =A 13 A P =BP . = Ž , A ts - / ,³1- /`3 ,?
. $W ,? ? 3 c . ƒ€. < $W ,b1 ed c . =:b8 ¬" -

.( ?W ? VW cde) 9C 1 cde c . NP U {1 8 <( ?W M1 / cde) 9C 1 M2 <(3- 1 to be) 9C 1 c . emitting -
.9 RT2 7š <(9 c? =:b8 NP) 9C 1 cde c . NP U {1 8 <( ?W e / cde) 9C 1 M2 <(3- 1 to be) 9C 1 c . rasing -
66
: adj ¬ m?
( adv NP be ) Really sad for the sudden tragic demise of his dear newly-wedded wife in such a horrible car crach , Mark
While Mark was adv M2 NP2 Prep M1 M2 M2 N M2 M2 M2 N Prep M1 M2 M3 N NP1
II
NP1 V NP PP
PP
wiped his tears and left the church with a tall blond lady …
II II
V M2 N V M1 N Prep M1 M2 M2 N
NP2 NP2 PP
VP1 VP2
3 Âš" <, B{#" c d? !3 ˆ U v -3 ŽS$S@ M" @ / Cb ,1 t` 1 S ³1 „ (2 .) 9PX`-3 A 3 A 9# - 1 ´ e " Â- ? =0 ; # -3

... e :A - A 1 s 5$ A - C : 3 Â " - «$ t0P
1- still sobbing hard for this catastrophe. .= 8 . U$ A ,Bž =A 3 ,? ® ® / =

RT2: R be adv PP
who was
NP1 VI
2- , still sobbing hard for this catastrophe. .= 8 . U$ A3 ,? ® ® ,Bž =A / Ž3 s = ,; # -3

RT5: adv NP be adv PP
while he was
I
NP1 V
.9C 1 NP ƒA - and " 9 c . left < P k" P ! ©1W =b: 5$ / and / A NP V v -

.«1/ s 3 P ,? $- X³1 ` " Ž B.3 ,{ ? 3 P ,? 1 s VW $- X³A ? ` -
67
: ; e : ŠH +
•% -3 " ( $- X³A =©€1 = 1 Ä A ? 1 ,: s =1 " $- X³A ? = 1 Ä A ? =A ,: s =1 = ) 9 =:b8 "3 ƒA - 3- ? ¾¾% -3 " 9 and V b ;
. $- X³A «"» =b8 •e ? .(9 and / A) 9 ³$3 / ƒA - ,€A ?
(;) ¬ ` $" =©€1 - 9C and = - ,$ ? VW <( and ? " 9C 8 ? = =:b8 -3) $- X³A Z . ? U A =0 $ A
. $- X` ,?
. $ A VW -3 1 ,? (..." ,; ? A <=:b8 < e) Sv "9 =u B ? ={ b (: .) =©€1"3
:3- 3 9; # = =u B ? : / A
There are just two ways to solve this problem: 1-… 2-…. :9 3- ? ê -•
There are many ways to solve this problem: … . :9 ¬ m? ê -‚
.9 B{ A å u ê -…
A ? / ,C :³1 -3 ? <3 P ,? 3 RB ¬ e c€1 A Z . 9; # = A "N@ , - . -3 . =b8 " =BP X` : ,C :³1 U @ =b8 •e ?
.3 P ,? 3 RB ¬ e c€1
Ali (Np1) said (VII), " quickly " (NP2). .9 NP2 =? ` 3 s <9C 1 NP e. $ A 1 ,? Sv =? ` cs 3
" … " (NP2), Ali (NP1) said (VII) . . 1-"W ,? - =:b8 = €A A =BP X` - c€1 ¬" ( P A $ `/ t? c€1) , ` c€1 -3
II
" quickly " (NP2) , said (V ) Ali (Np1). . ,? Full invert , `
. and =1 9 NP1 =? ` " and " is a conjuction. =:b8 -3 :=B01
68
:D2Dn •RL R
# (PP, adv, ADV) , . 1 P 8 =:b8 c / ? A 1 ,? < $ A =:b8 ¬" ` ( PP, adv, ADV) S v = : 8 ? -•
PP: In practice, For example - adv: However, Nevertheless , Today
, , , , , ,(and, or) : (Conj) ƒA- ! # ? -‚

.(9 P 33 å u Ńde = 9P 3 c0P = ) or $ BC and ? bt. ,? and, or "- /
:(Direct speech) €BC? ¬ e c€1 ? -…

.9 ?W ; " : Z . -3 VW å u
=u B ? = 3- 3 ³$3 ? ´bB# $ A ` <(9 ¬ ›?) 3- 1 - t‰ V 0? ? =:b8 t; ? . / Y 0w @ U A :(App) =u B ? ? -‡

.( P d1 ƒA- ! # ? = ,¦ P =A )3/ ,?
1- S NP, …, VP Ali (NP1) , … , V
2- VP V , …, (NP(NP)) has, … , (PP, NP2)
3- RC R , …, (S, VP) wh, … , (S, VP)
4- ADV adv , …, S if, … , (S, VP)
5- PP P , …, NP in, at, instead of, in addition to
6- NP (M1) , …, (M2) , …, (M3) , …, N (M4)(M5)
7- Conj , … , x (and, or, nor ,…) ,… , x
8- AUX (auxiliary verb)
9- S , (NP)(PP, RC, RT) ,
69
. $ A9 ¬ ›? ? NP1 / A -•
. $ A ³$3 ? 5$ $ A <9 =u B ? $ A ? ` (,0b ,B#) c . / A -‚
. =b8 =P" $ SB1 š cs 3 - =u B ? " =b8 - RC < ?W ? R/ A ` -…
. $ A9 ¬ ›? ? e lS8 / A -‡
. $ A9 ¬ ›? ? =. u ! # / A -“
-3) 9 {1 9$ @- 9R ,; = A V {1 s ,? ƒ€. ? U$ .IH ` 2 IMlRI Zp .9 M2 U A ? <? U$ B 1 ©s -Ë
. s ,b1 ? M2 NP< P A 3 8 ? N $ A ´bB# . (9 t? ,C :³1 -3 ,;" <9C 1 t? 9R ,; , -.
M2, M2, M2, M2 … N tall, young, handsome, smart, welleducated man
- CA = ) $ A NP ` ƒ€. 9C 1 t? ?W PP, adv, ADV, RC ` tB ? .9 App ´bB# < ?W ? =:b8 V $ š ` < P Y b = =:b8 ¬ ? . -¾
=u B ? ƒ€. =1 `" 3 P ,? ¬ A < P A (NP2) VW / cde ` " 3- 3 RT $ RC $ PP 2 e" ¾À% -3 NP U$ .9 t? ( $W ,? 3 $/
.9
They analyzed the structures , the complicated constructions associated together in a logical manner.
II
NP1 V NP2 NP = M4 which were adv PP
.,€© ? P =A ³$ 0$ A 1 P ƒd ? = - wš / , $ <- - Bs 13 c :› t1W
$W ,? ? A = ,$ =u B ? .9C 1 ƒA- ! # 9e w ( ,and V" A) t ? " s ,? ƒA- ! # ´bB# =:b8 "3 : S , (S, VP) , -
. $ A ... " =P" <SB1 š A =01W ³? < P A 1 ,b1 VP $ =:b8 9e w V P ,1"-3 9s
:<=+ JH] RT4
.3 P / /A $A= 9 P !X# NP be < R / 7š " =B. ` 2- -x 1 (RC R (S,VP)) $ A =:b8 / „Sv R / 7š `
I don't know what ( I am ) to do.
I don't know where ( I am ) to go.
I don't know how ( I am ) to play football.
70
: *H*p tn 2 R
. 1 Pª ?R 1 ,? what, which, whose & how = ,; #-3 < BC ª ? R $3 ¿ . - of whom " of which
... =v what which

... Y which NP I don't know what ((English (scientific)) book ) she is reading.
II
,C =v ... whose NP1 V whose NP1 V
ª ?R
. 1 s ,? " (,C :³1 (,b:@) _ B <,A B ) =v = 1 3 ,b1 U?
e/9R - €v how adj/adv You don't know how beautiful (dumb, smart) she was.
II
NP1 V ª ? R NP1 V
.3 A " ((Ž A <§ s) d$/ - €v) - ©v = ,1 3 ,b1
You don't know how horribly (beautifully) she was playing the piano. . - 1 š 9s 1 ,? " ( d$/) Â B{#" - €v = ,1 3 ,b1
. 3 {A ª ? VW A NP A 1 ,? ,B# " 3/ ,? ª ? R < much " many A = $- 3 ³$3 how 5$ -
You don’t know how many friends she has. You don’t know how much she earns.
NP1 V
You don’t know how much money she spends on her dresses.
I
ª ?R NP1 V PP
wahtever,whoever ,however. $ A 1 ,? t; ? U$ =b A ever .3 P ,? «- e » VW , ? " ?W ever e how / A however -3 -

RC Ń $/) 9 ªQ ? e lS8 <9 ¬ tx? V v $/ =:b8 -3 .(ever ¦ žA) 1 - Q"3 , $ < P A ªQ ? e lS8 $ " ª ? R 1 ,?
( $- 1 Y/†
… their own interests had "been most peculiarly attended to" however "grievous" the effects on others.
pVI ª ? adv they were NP2
.V ³$3 A V { ç 13 A t1W - A - e Uab? caP U$ | s =A 3 A =B. ` - e =8 3- ? V { . ? ...
71
However hard I tried, she was not convinced. . {1 •1 e " Y3 Q ŽN U? 9ž - e

I
ª ? adv pV
However hard I tried was useless. .3 A $ . ,A Y3 Q ŽN U? 9ž - e

RC NP1 ª ? R VII M2 NP2
:•D} bDY+R
keep, make, find, turn, [leave, get, render, consider] :3 P ,? NP3 U {1 8 < ?W 9R NP2 / 7š ` ?W ,B . ‰ = ¬ . -3
( BC make 1 ? Ń? render " get) ( 1 ?W 9 b ª =A [1 3- ? ¬ . )
V adj - NP2 NP1 :=b8 Ž"-
Refrigerators keep the food cold. (9 3 = - ,$ X„ 1- 3 ,? =³1 t; wž$) .3 - X„ 1- 3 ,? =³1 t; wž$

Mina made her house beautiful with some flowers.(c` - €? A d$/ 3 A = - Ž =1 s 9s ? ).c` - €? A 9s d$/ - Ž =1 s ?
Ali found that novel interesting for its comic tone. (ŽS ?WS ¦ U›; ¦ žA 3 A ª; 8 = - V ?- VW 3 š ,:@) . ... ¦ žA 9. $ ª; 8 - V ?- VW ,:@
Sunshine turns the leaves of the trees red in fall. (S $ š -3 BC S? e = - V Bs-3 t` A 1 s w ? _ B.W)S $ š -3 1 3 ` ,? S? e - V Bs-3 t` A _ B.W
III
NP1 V NP2 NP3 PP
She left her friend alone. .(3 A t = - «B "3 3 Â ")3 - t - «B "3 "
She considers her friend lazy. (3 A cd = - «B "3 9. ` ,? [1-3 " ) 9C1 3 ,? cd - «B "3 "
72
:be to V
P.P. She is punished. ¬ tx? - Bs
Ving She is running. - bB - Bs
be adj She is beautiful. M2 NP2
NP She is student.
PP She is at home.
to V
:be to V
<V3 A A <V3 A - e » " (9C 1 8 c . / to) P A ,? =b: 5$ c . " 9 (Aux) s.n jY+ 5$ ought to " have to 1 ? be to -•
.3 P ,? =b8 « UBC$ A <UBC$ P
The students are to analyze the sentences before translating them.

II
NP1 Aux V NP2 PP
. t1W V3 =b8 / cde - 2Nb8 =$Sx ( $ A <9 A) 9 - e V $ x{1 3
These books are to be published before Xmass. .7bC$ / cde 1 P {B ? 9 - e tA B U$

I
NP1 Aux pV PP
My brother was to leave the country in July. .= $"µ ? -3 - - { Â 3 A - e Y-3 A

II
NP1 Aux V NP2 PP
. ,? =b8 P =BR` U v =©€1 / ? -3 = Ž"- V b =A .9 U v =©€1 / ? x $ . $ ` ,? _Y+ ) Rl - to ( ; - ‚

Our major problem in the country is to find the right person for the managerial positions.
.,B$ $ ? 9Cš A ,d ?3 . 0A š =0 $ 9C - { -3 ? , c0{?
- ˆ? =b8 + ( P <3 A <9 ) :=b8 Ž"- . $ ` ,? VP NP - A =A to V / " $ ` ,? ,B . ‰ "3 c . - be (_ - ‚
73
Our major problem in the country is to find the right person for the managerial positions.
II II
NP1 PP V V NP2 PP
VP NP2
.,B$ $ ? 9Cš A ,d ? 3 . UB. $ 9C - { -3 ? , c0{?

. ,b1 A ,e . c -3 .9 § {e =b8 ,;" < P A 9ž - €? Y"3 S ; 1W 9 U0b? -
:<=s
:3 A ,š å › =b8 =A ¾À% V B ? =B01 v A ,;" 3 _ žB1 - å › =b8 " 3 3 ® d© UB? A " 3 P =b8 $ A " 3- 3 Y tA be to V =b8
.3 P ,? =b8 «... <9 - e» " 9 ,0b c . •e ? ¾À% -3 <3 A ¬ tx? be to / Ac . ` -
.9 ,0b c . •e ? ¾À% -3 < P A c . (agent) c? @ 9C1 NP1 ` -
.9 Y"3 9; # •ÀÀ% P A c . (agent) c? @ 9C1 B1 NP1 ` -
:RT5B
.9 if e lS8 = . $ " 9 P !X# adv NP be ´ ©e < P d1 VP NP1 VW / A ,; bB# NP A " $ A to A - ˆ? / / „W -3 `
.( s ,b1 ? " $ A $ A c . VW A < P A VP NP1 ` ) c? =:b8 5$ VW / 7š " P A ?W $ A ? " š e =:b8 tB1
To explain the problem in detail, the professor had to analyze it into its constituent parts.
If the professor were
II II
NP1 V NP2 PP NP1 V NP2 PP
.Ž 1/ S8 =A 1W 3 ,? =$Sx $ A " <c ˆR =A - c0{? å$ { 3 A - e - C." š `

.( $ ` ,? was ?/"- -3 ? $- X³A were ´bB# 9C -3 ) $ ` ,? were ´† b ? if -3 -
.3 P ,? =b8 « - [ bA » =b8 -3 " 3 ,? PP c 0{ ? " 3 B. Z R in order =. u ! # !X# (ƒ:„ =A) ¿ .- ,B# - A
74
In order to explain the problem in detail, the professor had to analyze it into its constituent parts.
.Ž 1/ S8 =A 1W =$Sx 3 A - dx? 3 B <c ˆR =A c0{? V3 3 å u - [ bA
:( ._S el DE ) in order tn 2 <+DzR { p `R |0D1=^R IMRL+

RT5B V P 3 -•
" 9C 1 l mB 9; # U$ -3 =0 ; # -3 .3 ` ,? l mB 1W / 7š 3 c . V ?W " =BC1 3 =. u ! # - in order to ,B - B 3 -‚
.3 P ,? PP VW A VP NP
.3/ ,B# - =A - 9C ,s A V ,? ,b:@ Ž"- A t -…
To mix the two acids safely , ………….. . ... <Ub$ - ©A "3 V3 ª - [ bA
a) It is necessary for the chemist to use special tubes. ., s =; ; / 3 RB V bP A9 Y/†
b) Using special tubes is necessary for the chemist.
c) Special tubes should be used by the chemist.
d) The chemist should used special tubes.
.3 ` ,? - e =$ š =:b8 NP1 <" š =:b8 If NP be -3
_,? to / cde (for A ={ b ) =. u ! # " ` 5$ - [ ? U$ A < P A =$ š =:b8 NP1 ž1 VW NP1 " P A =:b8 lS8 in order ` -‡
.3 3 - e ³$3 PP 5$ VW V"-3 " 9. 0P 1W V ,b1 < P A =. u ! # (,B - B 3 -3) in order to ` = ,; # -3 . $- X`
In order ( for the students) to explain the problem in detail, the professor had to analyze it into its constituent parts.
Prep VP NP
. 1SA $ A - for … <3 A NP Ž A ` " to V 3 A c . Ž A ` . 1/ ,b1 - to … =: .NA ³$3 in order … =. u ! # 9C -3 -“
75
: ) l 0LHG
. 1 ƒ:„ =b « U$ A A < v <=v ` <¬ # =A » =b8
,? =b8 =:b8 BA -3
$ A =:b8 ƒ " ` ,B# " 1 ƒA- e However, nevertheless, nonetheless, yet, still, but(at the first of sentence) -
« † •? <
; •? <U0 ; <U0; <5;ê •? < X •? <¬ # U @ -3 <¬ # U$ A <U$ 3 8" A <,;" < ? » : 1- 3 =b8 3/ $ " 1 P
. 3 ,? - e ¬" =:b8 A 3 • -3 - Y"3 =:b8 = 9 U$ Ž- 9 ƒA- e ,Be" however -
. 3 ,? - e Y"3 =:b8 A 3 • -3 - ¬" =:b8 e lS8 " 1 e lS8 « =v ` " v » -
The teacher was teaching in the class however the students were not listened.
. 13 3 ,b1 Ž ` V $ x{1 3 (... <U$ 3 8" A <,;") ? 3 3 ,? M-3 MN -3 9P 3 : ?
:than •RL R
:« <=A 9dC1 </ » 9 ,0$ = =b8 " $- 3 ,C :³1 -3 than k 1 =
. $W ,? NP VW A = =. u ! # than 5$ (•
. $W ,? (S) =:b8 VW A = 9 e lS8 than 5$ (‚
.(9 ,0$ VW A " cde) 9 ƒA- ! # < ?W VW A 1 ?" Y 9; # -3 (…
:<=+ JH] RT2
.9 P !X# R be 2- ˆ1W -3 < P d1 ,: . ƒA - $ VP NP = ,Be" ,tB ? <3 P ,? =. u to A - ˆ? 9; # U$ -3
PP NP1 to V . P A =BP 1 3 8" ³$3 c . – =:b8 / „W =A V - $A
PP to V
NP1 PP to V
The inherent desire to develop a new teaching methodology in the field of translation coused him to spend 11 years
II II
NP1 which was NP2 PP V NP2 V NP2
II
R,NP1 V VP VP
to devise an efficient teaching method.

II
V NP2
VP
-¬ •• ! = -" 3 - 3 " =b8 / #-3 $ 8 ,P/ ?W , P Ž"- 3 ,? 3 x$ $ A = (, ê) ,1"-3 ( "/-W) c$ b
. ?W- ,P/ ?W Ž"- V3 ,# ¦ A
... Ž"- 3 x$ A , ê c$ b : $ ³A « A » VW / / A xA 1 ,? - 9; t A -
76
: as IHG u /
:(_ X@ as) Y- tv 9; #
.( 1 {A 8 1 ,? / = ) $- 3 ª ? e lS8 - tv
adj NP = ... - e V b -•
as adv as PP Y"3 as / A @+ e/9R + =A -‚
much … adv S e/9R + Y"3 as / A @ + / 1 =A -…
many N
so few that S = ... - €1W
little adv
such that S = ... V v

adv
NP …
NP (M1) = ... V b
the same as PP (M2) =A {? ...
adv
S
:<=s
NP
. $W ,? =:b8 ƒ€. that / A = ,; # -3 $ A 1 ,? PP 9 as t1W Y"3 ! ¦ = ,$ elS8 / A -
S
V 0? ³$3 NP) „†" $ A 1 P k" P much, many, few, little A = ,$ NP " e <9R 1 ,? ƒ€. so " as / A =: .NA ¬" "3 -3 -
. $W ,? NP < the same " such / A =: .NA ? (3- 1 - t‰
.9 e lS8 Y"3 9bCe " (9 3 ž1) 3- 1 , s «€1 " 9 e ¬" lS8 -
. $ A 1 ,? ³$3 ( - d8 , ` $) - Bs @ P ê @/ A -
.9 VW =b8 / ,0$ «V v» ,;" ,? Z . S ; 1W . $W ,b1 « š ,:0{? 1 ¥ ž{ 1W ` such … that … 3- ? -3 -
(9 «V C0$ <=A {?» $ «V b » the same =b8 ) . 3 RB «=A {?» / $A" 3 ,b1 _ 8 «V b » , ` the same … as … 3- ? -3 -
Mina was as beautiful in the party as her sister (was). .3 A Ž s = ,1 bt? -3 d$/ - e V b 3 A ?
II
NP1 V M2 NP2 PP adv NP .,1 bt? -3 Ž s ,$ d$/ =A 3 A ?
.,1 bt? -3 d$/ Ž s / 1 =A 3 A ?
77
Mina drives as carelessly on the roads as her mother (does). . ,? ,` 1 - Ž-3 ? = 3 8 -3 Ä B# ,A - e V b ,? ,` 1 - ?

I
NP1 V adv PP adv NP . 3 8 -3 Ž-3 ? ,¦ B# ,A =A ,? ,` 1 - ?
. 3 8 -3 Ä B# ,A Ž-3 ? / 1 =A ,? ,` 1 - ?
Mina has as much money in the bank as Rokefeller (has). .3- 3 :. Â - = 51 A -3 V " . ¬ š - e V b 3- 3 ?
II adv
NP1 V NP2 PP NP .51 A -3 V " . ¬ š :. Â - / 1 =A 3- 3 ?
Ali is using the same pen as his father was using when he was young.
( 3 ,b1 _ 8 ³$3 «V b ») .3 A V 8 = ,Be" 3 ,? 3 RB Ž- š = VW =A {? - 3 s/ ,? 3 RB ,:@
This is the same as your book. (This is the same book 9 _ B V b U$ ) .9 bP _ B =A {? U$
He explained the point in such a low tone that nobody understood anything.
.S v – 3 01 Â-3 70w = ,? -W V v A - =B01 3 å$ { "
She was so sad that couldn't stand up. .3 P :A 8 / 9C1 B1 = 3 A 9# - 1 - €1W "
::;2 <=s
an " a <(an " a ƒ€.) 3 P k" P an " a A = $- X³A NP žA 9R xA 8 <(9 ¬ ›?) $W ,b1 NP 9e w so that " as as U A -•
9C ï 3) $W ,? 9R so " as / A =: .NA 2- ˆ $ -3 . 1 P xA 8 9R A 1 ,? , $ 1- 3 - (inversion) ,` P M 0 ? 9 :A e
( 1- 3 žA 9R = ,$ 8 -3 - ,` P M 0 ? 9 :A e an " a) . (9
Mina was so lazy a person that she couldn't even make her own meal.
II II
NP1 V NP2 adv NP1 V NP2
. $ A 9R 1 ,? ƒ€. = 9 Y ³$ 8 VW / A to " too U A -‚

It is too hot a tea to drink.
78
:I Ld 2 <./ K IHG <n MD;_Y+
_Y+ DmY2 jY+ IHG DmY2

" 3 P ,b1 =b8 V3- s 9C0P 3- ? ¾¾% -3 Fail to -
(3 { ? =b8 e ƒ€.) used to ´€A . 3 ,? ? (can't) UBC1 B1
V - [1 =A seem (to)
[1 =A , ? = ,: . ) ´ ‰ Ali failed to answer mina's question. ... 9C1 B1 ,:@
appear (to)
( AV - They failed realized that…... = A $-3 BC1 B1 t1W
look (to)
UBP 3 c$ b tend to V .3 P ,? =b8 e ƒ€. = 9 ,: . t used to -
(Y3W „ A) ´† b ?
V ?W come to V ¼$- =A . 01 3 RB «´† b ?» / Y3W A tend to =b8 -3 -
V P =8 ? <V3 B. Z R happen to V é R <´.3 ˆ 23 @» get used to " be used to Ving/NP t: . -
continue to V . 1 P ,? =b8 «UBP 3
go on I am used to listening her lies.
V3 3 =? 3 Y ? <=B š
." t„"-3 =A V3 3 Ž ` =A Y- 3 23 @ U?
carry on Ving
I am used to her lies.
keep He will get used to her lies.
V3 3 =b s Sv A -- end up in Ving
Y x1 <=b s -3
end up with Ving
V $ 8 <V3 xBC8 seek to ,š-3 <3 -3
(¬ d13 =A :=1 ? @)
V3 e B? cease to ,R ? c . + ³$3
I used to go out my friends. . B.- ,? V" A 1 B "3 A ®A U?

I used to have a lot of friends. . BP 3 3 $/ V B "3 ®A
I used to be happy. .Y3 A ¬ ›P s ®A
79
There seem to be a great problem. .3- 3 3 8" ,`-SA c0{? ´ ‰

Ali seems sad. ( - ,? [1 =A 9# - 1 ,:@ xA) 9 U ³b„ ´ ‰ ,:@
He tends to wake up early at morning. Mina tends to sleep late at night. ... .3 P - A _ s / 3"/ åd 9P 3 c$ b "
These structures tend to resist strong earthquakes. . ,? 9?" €? $ P =;S;/ A A -3 ´† b ? / U$
He came to talk to me. . 9d› U? A ?W "

We came to understand that … ... = B. $-3 ¼$- =A ?
The scientists came to realize that … ... = B. $-3 ¼$- =A V b{1 3
Reza happen to have knife in his pocket. .9P 3 «d 8 -3 ,$ e v ´.3 ˆ u-
Ali was lost in the desert. It seems to be nowhere land. There happen to be a small house in the middle of nowhere land.
.3 AW x 1 VW ƒ " -3 ,0v =1 s 9P 3 3 8" é R .3 A 3 AW x 1 ´ ‰ . P ` V A A -3 ,:@
Mina kept nagging at her husband and ended up in screaming. . { ó 8 =b s -3 " Ž P 3/ ,? „ (, ) =B š ?
She seek to establish an institute. .9 =C ?7 ,š -3 "

She sought to give him sharp response. . A " =A - š3 A3 -3 "
Mina ceased to answer Ali's call. .3 1 - š ,:@ t b =A ³$3 ?
80
:(Dummy Verbs) ;K bDY+R
. ,? á ›; «$ A , ? ,A " dummy c . 5$ A< ,? c$ d =A - c . <=:b8 -3 c . - 0 / ` :8 A
. $ 3 3 x$ k - U$ A " 9 (dummy) , ? ,A -3 c . 5$ UBs 3 š .9s 3 š - VW Y x1 =A :, - . -3 ¬ m?
. BC get | s ƒ$ P -3 " take " make ,C :³1 -3 ,t ¬ .

I walked = I took a walk .9 Y3 "- 3 š •e " -3 = ,; # -3 . "- 3 š B. ` 3 P ,? ±R; =A ±R; =b8
I bathe = I took a bathe. .( B. ` Y b#) Y3 Y b#
contribute : He make contribution in the committee. . ,? 9 - {? Ubx1 -3 "
deposit = make deposition = V3 9s 3 š
mistake = I made a mistake .Y3 dBP
We decided = we made a decision
:<2LH D;=UDp
.NP 3 P ,? VW c .9 § NA Ž- :¬ e c€1 -•
.3 P ,? S ; 1W ,; b ? =:b8 2- Â " 3- 1 ç : B$N$ -‚
.9 APP -…
:<=s
be (is, are, was, were) of == have (has) -
It is of important to me. (has) It was of quality. (has) He is of high family. (has)
.« A =A {? » ? =A 9 ª ? =. u ! # analogous to -
81
:D Modifier URLK
(my, your, his, her, its, … $ s !" B šW / @ ) ,0:? 9R $ ( P ß€1 ,; ) ?W $ š ,::s ,b " ` -3 Modifier ,; x1/ -3 `
C A 7· " $ b1 =b8 - Y"3 «žA BA 9 Y/† 9t8 U b =A " 9 NP of NP 9C0P =©€1 <c›? V b / ´€ e3 P ‰ t1W V ? -3
. $/ Ä A ? U$/ „W «žA =A 1W
Those two mechanical engineers' five new enrichment techniques. .M t? "3 VW $ 8 / ,„5 0 ¼š
M1 M1 M2 M2 M1 M2 M3 N
NP NP
(=B. ` !" B šW NP ,$ xA 8 " of !X# / 7š 9 Y3W M t? V v) V A - =:b8 NP of NP A 1 ,? $- 3 A - !" B šW `
five new enrichment techniques of those two mechanical engineers.
The handles of the doors The doors handles
Two friends of mine My two friends
[3- 1 ¬ 0P ª ? M ].3- 1 - t‰ V 0? VW / cde ³$3 3 M– < $W ,? / BA -3 ,0:? 9R of !X# •e ? V v U$ A A
A lot of friends of mine A lot of my friends
82
: RT6A
< P A help, let, make, have, watch, see, hear, notice, would rather, had better ¬" c . ` 9 -x 1 - Bs = NP V NP V - Bs -3
. ,? / /A= 9 P !X# Y"3 c . / cde ,: . ƒA - to
Mina helped her husband wash the dishes.
II II
NP1 V NP2 to V NP2
VP VP . t. ‰ ( $ {A = ) UBCP -3 Ž P =A 3 5b ?
« V P ªd <V3 - dx? <V3 -3"»" 3 ,b1 - ( X„ V3- s <UBP 3 _ UBs ) V P3 s ? 1 {A RT6 ` have " make t: . -
. 3 ,? , ?
to , prefer A) $W ,? prefer VW xA ´† b ? " 9

«V3 3 å 8 » , ? =A ª ? c . 5$ ´@ bx? " 9C 1 ,0b c . would rather -3 would -
.(9C 1 !X# cA e
. s ,? to (is, are, …) $ A ³$3 S v A Better .9 ¬ # V ?/ " « V3 A BtA » , $ <3- 1 c? =BPX` V ?/ =A ,©A- – had better -
It is better to know. You had better do.
.to V" A $W ,? to A V B? -3 help -
V P =8 B? :notice -
.3 P ,? !X# NP2 ={ b had better 3- ? -3 ,;" $ 1 1 ,? NP2 < help " would rather 3- ? -3 ƒ€. -
: =\K <=s
.9C 1 !X# cA e t1W ,: . ƒA - to " 9C 1 å › (synonym) !3 B? ¬ . 3- ? -3 " ,? Z P ê ¬ . 3- ? -3 ƒ€. RT6 @ e
Let: permit, allow help: assist, aid make,have: force,get
83
:RT3
,0b c . ,$ xA 8) inversion $ š S 1 =:b8 "3 / ,0$ / „W -3 " P d1 t1W U A ƒA- ! # = 3 P c 0{ =1 ` =A Sx? =:b8 "3 / =:b8 `
VW / /A= 9 3 3 ä- If e lS8 !X# inversion - 3 =:b8 / „W -3 < P d1 ,; • =:b8 U0 ; 3 ä- (,; • 2Nb8 -3 ¬ m? A < NP1 "
. ,? c$ d =$ š =:b8 5$ " ,¦ P " š e =:b8 5$ =A - =:b8
. P A ,1 $ P 5b 1 ,? RT3 ,$ P A ,¦ P =:b8 k 1 = t: . V ?/
=A =8 V" A " 1- 1 RT3 =A ,¦ d - – = 1 P ,? inversion $ š ªd 1 P ‰ =:b8 `Dƒq -3 ,R ? 3 e ` =0 $ êV$P
. ,? Y e t1W =b8 =A inversion
Had the students analyzed the sentences with the transformational techniques in their exam, they would have comprehended the concepts
If NP1 VII NP2 PP PP NP1 VII NP2
necessary to answer the questions.

which were M2 NP2 VII NP2
A -" u 13 A = - R? ( 13 A 3 Â-3) 13 ,? Â-3 t1W <V {1 ›B? -3 - B{` 5 0 A - 2Nb8 13 A 3 c :› V $ x{1 3 `

.2† • =A V3 3 - š
.9 VW tB1 -3 ? 3 8" e =:b8 =1 {1 <=B. ` 2- =:b8 BA -3 inversion ,Be" -
You may contact our office any time should you require any information on our products or services.
NP1 VII NP2 adv if NP1 VII NP2 PP
. ? 2 ? s $ 2† ˆ›? - A-3 , @N¦ =1 ` BP 3 / 1 bP ` ,1 ?/ ? B.3 A $ ³A M b 1 ,? bP

any time = at any time -
Be it an extraordinary case in that district, the real estate staff would definitely grasp it themselves.
If NP1 NP2 PP NP1 VII NP2 adv
.V P3 s 1W 1 š e ,? ´b:C? ÂN? -" {? V - < (= # 1) =:›? VW -3 3 ; Z . 3- ? VW 3 A `
84
It were … Be it … .3 P c$ d Be =A 1 ,? P d1 ,; • ´ e " =:b8 ` < $ A =:b8 ¬" =A ,Be" to be c . :,C :³1 @e -
.3 P ,b1 =BR` agency -" ›? -3 real estate agency 3- ? -3 .2N€BC? , $ real estate -
: † d V•./ •RL R
1- If ¬# , $W (will, shall, may, can, must) V
2- If =BPX` (were, ed) , =BPX` -3 $W (would, should, could, might) V
3- If c? =BPX` (had P.P.) , c? =BPX` -3 $W (would, should, could, might) have V
If you are smart, you will succeed. . P, s ®. ? ,P A Ž A ` :9C . P A :A - ¬" k 1 ` -

.9 =B.- ª€@ =A V ?/ 5$ ,0$ = 9 ¬" k 1 V b Y " Y"3 k 1 ,¦ P -
$W "9 =BPX` <9 ¬# should " 9 can =BPX` -3 $W " =BPX` could . 9e3 - should " could c . "3 -
.9 =BPX` -3
if, unless, as if, as though, even if, even though, wish ,would rather : $ A $ A were " $- 1 was " A"- 3- ? / A -
I wish he were a doctor.
Even if it were a bad situation… .
He was talking as if he were.
I would rather it were a joke.
: 1m2 0LHG Inversion

Not, Neither, Nor, Never, Nowhere, Not only, Only, Little, Seldom, Rarely, Barely, Scarcely, Hardly, Prep no … N, So
= 1- 3 ,0b c . $ , $ < 1 P ,? inversion ªd ´? S; < $ A =:b8 / „W -3 ` . 1 ,R ? ƒA- ! # ,s A " 1 ,R ? e =b t$
. 1 P ,b1 8 ? A $ A =:b8 ¬" t $ . $W ,? =:b8 ¬" do, does, did =1 `" =:b8 ¬" $W ,?
.(3 P ,b1 $3 9t8 U b =A < 3 ,? _ 8 =. u ! # " ` A) 9C no VW -3 = =. u ! # " ` , $ Prep no … N -
85
You can (nowhere) find such a friend nowhere. Nowhere can you find such a friend.
. š 8– - ,B "3 U v 1 ,b1 bP
I (seldom) went to see my uncle in summer seldom. Seldom did I go to see my uncle.
.V BCA -3 $ b@ V $3 A B.- ,? 2- 1 =A U?
The students not only analyzed the sentences but (also) they criticized some of the questions. Not only did the students analyze …
. 13 €1 - 2† • / ,s A - 2Nb8 13 c :› V $ x{1 3 t =1
You never may (never) contact our office any time (never). Never may you contact our office any time.
.,1 ?/ $ ³A M b ? B.3 A $- 1 / 8 S` bP
You rarely require any information on our products. Rarely do you require … .
. ,? š ? 2† ˆ›? =A •8 - , @N¦ =A • B# 2- 1 =A bP
I knew little about her family (little). Little did I know about her family.
The governments (in no country) interfere with the tourism industry almost in no country of the world.
In no country of the world do the governments interfere … .
.V t8 / - { – -3 ´d$ € C$- 9 -3 ,b1 =:s ? tB;"3
:<_./ e0 ˜DkKlR
Ali plays the piano well and Mina plays the piano well too.
Ali plays the piano well and Mina does too. (Aux VP)
Ali plays the piano well and so does Mina.
Ali doesn’t play the piano well and Mina doesn’t play the piano well either.
Ali doesn’t play the piano well and Mina doesn’t either. (Aux VP)
Ali doesn’t play the piano well and neither (nor) does Mina.
. $W ,? either < too xA ,R ? =:b8 -3 -
86
: Substitution of Arbitrary Elements (SAE) M•† lD=J
RC, PP, adv, ADV, APP, M2, M3 . 1 - Bs @ = €A c . " ,b " ` =BC / „ .3 c$ d =A - - Bs @ V ,? ,1 A/ -3
.(RC) ?W 9P 3 =A R N = Cš
.(PP) ?W R N A Cš
.(ADV) ?W 9P 3 =A R N = ,; # -3 Cš
.(APP) ?W R N , $ Cš VW
.(M2) ?W R N Cš
:<=s
.9C 1 U0b? ={ b - Bs =b =A c$ d ´†"
.( 3 ,? ³$3 ?) ,? Æ ? 2- 1 =A ´ 1 ç
:Variety
,? 3 RB ,t NP 5$ / < $ ³A =:b8 " 01 3 RB NP / =. u ! # / A =0 $ A .V3 3 RB :Bž?tP"- / Y tR? 5$ V A A
.
(9 - ?W ,;" 9C 1 ƒ:„ 9€ €# U$ <3 P ,? =b8 «=0 $ » ´ b@ the fact that) .9 «U$ » , - . -3 " the fact ,C :³1 -3 Dummy NP
We were talking about the fact that Ali was lying.
.3 01 / /A"3 3 RB SAE / V ,? < $W ,? 9 A ADV " RC ´? b@ RT / / A / 7š

c$ d PP =A VW RC = 9 c . = ,; # -3 .9 =. u ! # 7š 9R` V ,? about A - concerning V v , {1 8 @ e ®d¦ ,B - B 3 -3
. $ =B. ` =. u ! # - c . " 9 P
These articles concerning such tools are … .
Which are
. ... BC ,$ - SA U v =A 1 P ,? Ä A ? = 2† €? U$
. ... BC ,$ - SA U v =A Ä A ? 2† €? U$
(while we are) considering, following, relying on
87
Following
Concerning ,š-3 <¬ d13 =A
( ,? ¬ d13 = )
Regarding =A Ä A ? Considering UB. ` [1 -3 A
Relating to Taking into account (V3-"W _ C# =A A)

Depending on
Using / 3 RB A =A =BCA
( 1 A ,? - 0A = )
Relying on
Applying `- 0A A A=0 A
Including Based on
M A
( 1 P ,? c? P = ) c? P
Comprising Owing to
(V3 A V ?) =© A
Composing of Comparing to/with
( 1 P ,? c 0{ = ) / c0{B? A =C$ €? -3
Composed of Compared to/with
:RT5C
( adv =after)9 P !X# adv NP be < 1 VP NP c 0{ A @ A = ,¦ P =A < $ A c . Y 9bCe A Having / / „W -3 `
. 3 ,? PP c 0{ " 9 after A VP NP «€1 -3 Having … " 9 P !X# after =. u ! # adv NP be xA ¿ .
# having P.P. … VP NP
adv NP be
after
After having P.P. … (V3 ...) Y : ? - ˆ? + / 7š

After having been P.P. … (V P ...) ¬ tx? - ˆ? + / 7š
88
Having discovered the truth about that complicated legal (homicide) case , she decided to dedicate a full column to it in the paper.
After VP NP PP NP1 VII NP2 PP PP
.=? 1/"- -3 VW =A - ,:? V B 3 | ˆBs = 9. ` bˆ " < w š (,$ 8) ,e €# 1" š VW | ˆs -3 9€ €# V3 { / 7š
- LAPD: Los Angeles Police Department

- LAPD Homicide Department 7:x1W M ; 7 :š - 3 ,$ 8 V b - š3
cide : UB{
Insecticide : « {# suicide : ,{ 3 s pesticide : « 9.W patricide : ,{ - š
matricide : ,{ -3 ? homicide : 9$ 8 (,{ k b )
The Mi6 agents were determined to report the case to the headquarters , having been informed of the deadly plot of the bandits
NP1 VII NP2 PP after VP NP PP
PP
to assassinate the Queen.
VII NP2
VP NP
<, 1? . =A - 3- ? 3 Ž- S` = 1 P bˆ? (7 :³1 , 8 u V ?/ ) Mi6 V - ? ?
.=0:? V3 -" A V - 0td - d` ? =•¦ / V P •:©? / 7š
. 1SA c? / ? 7š < ?W c . of / cde -
V3 A bˆ? <V3 U :Determine -
[ 3 ,b1 •b8 , ? <9 Ž3 s ¬ ? s] [,? [1] , 1? . < S ? ( - 3 ) B.3 : headquarters -
7 :³1 ,:s 3 , 8 V ?/ : (Master Intelligence) Mi5 -
89
:) l {e p
Conjunctions ƒ$ P =b8
and "
or $
but
. PA e «€1 -3 (â B{?) 1b " 1 ? <«,A s =A»
as well as
.9 ƒA- ! # < P A =BP 1 e «€1 (â B{?) 1b " 1 ? <«S 1"»
… =1 … =1
neither … nor … ,R ? c . (z w ) … " …
either … or … … $ … ( $)
not only … but (also) … S 1 … =Q … t =1
… …
both … and … ("3 )…"…
whether …or …
90
:DmY2 e ) l 0LHG
? ƒA- 3 e åu =b8 ? ƒA- 3 e åu =b8
However PA e lS8 =Q , - -3 Basically ´
:3 P,? =b8 «=v ` »
The former ,;"
However S, S <?
<U$ 3 8" A <,;" The later sW
Nevertheless <¬ # U$ A By the way (=1 ? @) ,B -
Nonetheless <¬ # U @ -3 On the contrary
"3 U A $ ,R ? " ,; ã =:b8 sW 7a@ A
< X •? Conversely
Yet e < $ A ,R ? ,: . 9bCe <z;ê •? Similarly
/ :=b8 <9 ,; b ? <Ua ; <Ua; Likewise ª U b =A
«/ » P A ,; b ? e ` < ; •? Correspondingly
Still † •?
.3 P ,? =b8
In fact
But As a matter of fact
<9€ €# -3 <•e " -3
Besides Actually
•e " =A <´ e " <´B€ €#
Furthermore Indeed
Moreover Really
< "N@ =A
Meanwhile In part
<U$ A "N@
In addition to + NP PP <´ bu Partly
In addition , + S <Ubu -3 In/To some extent #
In addition
<´. •? In/To some degree
U$ A ! •?
Additionally To a small extent / little degree ,bQ #
ƒA- e Á-SA ! # A =:b8 / „W -3
And To a great extent / degree 3 $/ #
9
ƒA- e -• :9 k 1 "3
No more ,R ? c .) ³$3
Otherwise <70@ A :,; b ? e -‚ 2- ˆ $ „ -3
³$3 =1 ` =A
No longer (3 P ,? =b8
In turn =CR1 ,. <3 s In the long time 2 ? / -3 -3
<cA €? -3 <¿ @ -3
In return
9{`/ A -3 In time •e ? =A <V ?/ ¬ ¦ -3
Respectively ª =A
91
? ƒA- 3 e åu =b8 ? ƒA- 3 e åu =b8

Anyway
Any longer
³$3 Anyhow ª =A <¬ # =A
Any more
In any case
… ly speaking
e.g. (exempha gratia)
Generally speaking Y @ V A =A<,: - ©A <´? b@
For example (AmE) <=1 b1 A <¬ m? A
Scientifically speaking ,b:@ V A =A <,b:@ á ›; =A
For instance (BrE) ¬ m? V @ =A
Practically speaking Ńb@ <,:b@ á ›; =A
say
Theoretically speaking [1 á ›; =A
In contrast cA €? -3 On the other hand ³$3 /
In comparison =C$ €? -3 On the one hand z$ /
Thus
Therefore
So <U$ A A i.e. (id est)
Hence <ª U$ A That is
As a result <"- U$ /
That is to say < ³$3 2- d@ =A <, $
Consequently <7š
Namely ³$3 Už =A
As such < X;
,; b ? e = ,? ³ <=x B1 -3 So to speak
:3 P ,? =b8 9 ´Bx B1 In other words
Then
³1W -‚ 7· -•
V ?/ VW -3 -…
. $W ,? ? "3 U A ´† b ? =:b8 ƒ " -3 " ? 5$ A †

´ b ? =:b8 / „W -3 ƒA- e -
. 1 P ,? =b8 / „W -3 - b < $ A =:b8 / / ? -3 ` " 1 P ,? =b8 8 V b < $ A c? =:b8 "3 U A $ =:b8 / „W -3 ` -
: UL.Y2 D IHG
,ž$- á ›; =A So called ÙN© =A
Historically
3 3- e á ›; =A Somehow
Conventionally
,B á ›; =A Somewhat #
traditionally
( 1 - Ž3 s , ? ` ) =BPX` -3
92
RT:
Removed Condition NOTE
RT1 which NP1 VII NP2 ( which ) NP1 VI =b8 « = » " 3 P ,? c 0{ RC=M5 / / A / 7š
whom
whom 3 P ,?
NP1 ( which ) NP1 VI PP VII NP2

whom
R be P.P. =BPX` c . (to be P.P) ¬ tx?

RT2
NP who is,are Ving VP NP (to be Ving) - bB = + NP :=b8
which was,were adj (to be adj) V P <V3 A <UB + 9R
M2 NP
. P A =BP 1 3 8" ³$3 c . – =:b8 / „W =A V - $A
PP NP 1 R be to V
RT2 Prof PP R be to V VP NP « A » VW / /A xA 1 ,? - 9; t A
NP 1 PP R be to V . $ ³A
RT2 Prof NP R be PP
3 P c 0{ =1 ` =A Sx? =:b8 "3 / =:b8 ` $ š ªd 1 P ‰ =:b8 `Dƒq -3 ,R ? 3 e `
S 1 =:b8 "3 / ,0$ / „W -3 " P d1 t1W U A ƒA- ! # = V" A " 1- 1 RT3 =A ,¦ d - – = 1 P ,? inversion
RT3 If 3 ä- (NP1 " ,0b c . ,$ xA 8) inversion $ š . ,? Y e t1W =b8 =A inversion =A =8
- 3 =:b8 / „W -3 < P d1 ,; • =:b8 U0 ;
.9 3 3 ä- If e lS8 !X# inversion
P.P. ß€1 =:b8 ¬ ? . < $ A =:b8 / „ Sv e lS8 / A

Ving VP NP1 ADV
adv adv S 3 P ,?
RT4 adj M2 NP1
:3 P ,? / / A =$ š =:b8 c . V ?/ "- / to be
NP be NP NP1
am, is, are : $W < ¬ #
to V VP NP1 was, were : =BPX` -3 $W <=BPX`
RT4 Prof R ( NP be ) S,VP (RC R (S,VP)) $ A =:b8 / „Sv R / 7š `
93
RT1:
- I saw the man (R) my mother hits. (whom) The old man (R) my sister has seen in the park is her university prof. (whom)
RT2:
- The chemical liquids (R be) running in spiral routes under the vertically-arranged cupper plates evaporate and soon start corroding the
plates. (which are)
- The young educated recently employed ladies (R be) happy for the sudden unexpected raise in their monthly wages invited all their
colleagues to dinner. (who were)
- The Û rays (R be) deviated due to the thick cupper coil round the glass tube will be reflected to the photocells ( R be) transforming
their energy into a faint electric current upon reaching a small mirror on their way. (which are) (which are)
Prof: The inherent desire (R be) to develop a new teaching methodology in the field of translation coused him to spend 11 years to
devise an efficient teaching method. (which was)
RT3:
- ( If ) Had the students analyzed the sentences with the transformational techniques in their exam, they would have comprehended the
concepts (which were) necessary to answer the questions.
- You may contact our office any time ( if ) should you require any information on our products or services.
- ( If ) Be it an extraordinary case in that district, the real estate staff would definitely grasp it themselves.
RT4:
- This exercise will enlarge the arm muscles if ( NP be ) possible. (It is)
- Whenever ( NP be ) required, the mechanical engineers use these delicate tools. (It is)
- While ( NP be ) preparing the small white rats for the dissection session in the veterinary lab, the vets suddenly came across a queer
phenomenon ( R be ) contradicting a number of commonly-accepted principles in this discipline. (the vets were) (which was)
- When ( NP be ) still a school boy, I sold flowers on the street. (I was)
Prof: I don't know what ( I am ) to do. I don't know where ( I am ) to go. I don't know how ( I am ) to play football.
94
RT Removed Condition NOTE
/ A " =:b8 sW " ¬" , $) / / „W -3 P.P., Ving, adj `
P.P. adv NP be < P A / ? t1W / A" $ A ((Puntuation) ïN@
RT5A # Ving VP NP1 .9 while e lS8 <A 9; # -3 .9 P !X#
adv NP be adj M2 NP1
RT5 ‘ 3 1_ 8 ` $ ` ,? RT2 ={ b - =:b8 sW
while
. $"- ,?
ZR in order =. u ! # !X# ¿ .- ,B# - A
# to V VP NP1 =b8 « - [ bA » =b8 -3 " 3 ,? PP c 0{ ? " 3 B.
RT5B NP be
adv .3 P ,?
If
.9 P !X# after =. u ! # adv NP be xA ¿ .
RT5C # having P.P. … VP NP After having P.P. … (V3 ...) Y : ? - ˆ? + / 7š

adv NP be After having been P.P. … (V P ...) ¬ tx? - ˆ? + / 7š
After
« V P ªd <V3 - dx? <V3 - 3 " »: have " make t: .
-3 ,;" < $ 1 1 ,? NP2 < help " would rather 3- ? -3 ƒ€.
NP V NP V V: .3 P ,? !X# NP2 ={ b had better 3- ?
RT6A to help, let, make, have, watch, see,
.9 ¬ # V ?/ " « V3 A BtA » , $ had better
hear, notice, would rather, had better
NP have NP P.P. t1W ,: . ƒA - to " 9C 1 å › synonym 3- ? -3 RT6 @e
get
to be .9C 1 !X# cA e
V: Expressive Verb V {ž š « ˜ - S v =v » « š -3 -3 =Q ,; . :,1 A ¬ .

say, tell, state, mention, note, express, .(«˜ v» =A - š -3 =1) 9 RC
NP V NP V explaine, illustrate, describe, declaire, 3 €B@ <V3 A €B ?» ? A t maintain " hold t: .
RT6B
that announce, think, believe, offer, suggest,
. BC ,1 A «UBP 3
hold, maintain, recommend, wish,hope …
95
RT5A:
- ( adv NP be) Preparing the small white rats for the dissection session in the veterinary lab, the vets suddenly came across a queer
phenomenon (R be) contradicting a number of commonly-accepted principles in this discipline. (While the vets were) (which was)
- ( adv NP be ) Fully transformed to an odd organism in the lab, the beast started to tremble, (NP be) emitting a colored gas from its
nostrils ( R be ) rasing upward. (While the beast was) (while It was) (which were)
- ( adv NP be) Really sad for the sudden tragic demise of his dear newly-wedded wife in such a horrible car crach, Mark wiped his
tears and left the church with a tall blond lady … (While Mark was)
RT5B:
- ( adv NP be) To explain the problem in detail, the professor had to analyze it into its constituent parts. (If the professor were)
- In order to explain the problem in detail, the professor had to analyze it into its constituent parts.
RT5C:
- (After) Having discovered the truth about that complicated legal (homicide) case , she decided to dedicate a full column to it in the
paper.
- The Mi6 agents were determined to report the case to the headquarters, (after) having been informed of the deadly plot of the
bandits to assassinate the Queen.
RT6A:
- Mina helped her husband (to) wash the dishes.
- This might sound like a strange way to get things (to be) started.
RT6B:
- They announced (that) the poor people could receive subsidies.
96
:<=s
.3 P ,? =b8 «V ,?» 3- ? ¾À% -3 may -
1 ,? ,B# A <( 3 V {1 B{ A - can ¬ bB# s ,? , $) 9 can ,; bB# k 1 tBe" ,: s <9C 1 =BPX` ={ b could -
. ,b1 9d› =BPX` =A •8 - $ $3 ` < =b8 « 1 ,?»
:can D may <\MD*2
May I go out? ˜V" A Y" A 9C / 8 : / 8 -•
:may 3 A-
It's may rain. .3- dA V - A 9 U0b? :¬ bB# -‚
Can I go out? ˜V" A Y" A 9C / 8 : / 8 -•
It can rain. .3- dA V - A 1 ,? :¬ bB# -‚ : can 3 A-
.Y" A † A 9s-3 U$ / 1 ,? U? :,$ 1 -…
. =b8 can 1 ,? - may U$ A A .3- 1 may - can Y ,$ - ? <3- 3 can ={ b - may ,$ -

It doesn't make sense. :9C 1 - 3 , ? .«7#» VW Y"3 , ? " 9 «Y tR?» Sense ¬" , ? -
He is a sensible person. .9 ¬ € ? Y3W " sensitive lady : M C# 1 s
. =b8 YS:BC? - "3 involved , required -
{? _ V $3 <V š <• žB : eliciting -
.(9 ,0$ t1W 7 8 V v ) 3 ƒA- =A - M1, M2, M3 1 ,? and ƒA- ! # -
( 1SA / ? $ d1 " 9 9R ,; ) . ³$3 ? =A 1 M2 ={ b an other " other -
.9 =:b8 "3 $ VP "3 ƒA - 3- ? ¾À% -3 ,(and, or, but) -
(U - ` : undertaker) V de <UBs 3 š <UB. ` t@ A <V3 8 <V3 3 Y x1 : Undertake -
.( given that = =0 $ ¿ . A) 3 =b8 « UBP 3 A » " 3 ¿ . =. u ! # V ,? - =:b8 BA -3 Given -
.« A =A {? » ? =A 9 ª ? =. u ! # analogous to -
.9 ª ? =. u ! # out of -
97
:« <=A 9dC1 </ » 9 ,0$ = =b8 " $- 3 ,C :³1 -3 than k 1 = .3- 1 ,©A- than =A more -
. $W ,? NP VW A = =. u ! # than 5$ (•
. $W ,? (S) =:b8 VW A= 9 e lS8 than 5$ (‚
.(9 ,0$ VW A " cde) 9 ƒA- ! # < ?W VW A 1 ?" Y 9; # -3 (…
.3 P NP VW cde M1 A " R$ - N «€1 1 ,? ={ b VP NP -
. 1SA c? - / ? " $ ³A =. u ! # - VW A of < 3 A of / cde NP U {1 8 9R 9e" -
(9 8 B? V3 A - ?W =1 {1 <9C 1 ƒ:„) . 01 =b8 «U v» " =b8 VW / A NP A ƒ€. < $ A NP 9 U0b? as " such U A -
Such English novels as The Debacle can influence people …
(... ,C :³1 t1 ?- U v )... Y3 ? A 1- X³A ç 1 ,? (†"/ c ? )«, b8 =B 3 - B{ » 1 ? ,C :³1 t1 ?-
.3 P ,? =b8 «,t8 cA e- ©A» ,? b@ V B? -3 ,;" 3 P ,? =b8 « - 3 , ? - ©A » - ?W " ,0PSš V B? -3 significantly -
( Cš ´† b ?) 1/ . – Y ¬ / ?W «1 3 :3- 3 , ? "3 Junior -
S v =A UBs 3 š <V3 3S? 1 <V P `-3 :3- 3 , ? = engage -
. $ ` ,? B? =A <9 tP" . =v- š ` / 1 - SA yardstick -
. ,? =b8 ª:„ - =b (too, more, most, very) often , - . -3 -
UB? (, P V A/ V B? -3) <9. A : Context -
_W = Rˆ (“ -"W cb@ (‡ UBs 3 š (… V3 - B.- (‚ V3 V ?-3 (• : Treat -
.3 P , - A $ A ?“
2) She didn't treat me well. 3) I will treat this problem… 4) Concrete treatment 5) Water treatment
U$" :Y :@ $ -3 (‚ A 2- :, P V A/ -3 (• :Formulation -
.« UBP 3 / 1 » , $ P A ,: c . ` " «V3 A Y/†» ? =A 9 ,0b ¬ . lS8 need : -
You need n't answer my question. ., A- š ?¬ • 9C 1 Y/†
98
:ŒMR Me
(- ›? ? =b8 ) Meaning-based Translation _ B -3 Mildred L.Larson 1 s [1 / _ s =b8 t `}$"
(3 {1 3 $/ " ,? tR?) 9e3 " 9› : Accuracy -•
( 1 =b8 A) V3 A , d¦ : Naturalness -‚
(ª ? " [ ? <Y tA / - @) Ù u" : Clarity -…
:ŒMR Me f;/ lD=J lL=^0 ISRLG

1) SVO SOV (c . " ¬ R? ,$ xA 8)
2) Extraposition (¬ €B1 - B{`)
. ,? c€B ? «= » / cde =A - ,: c . $ 3 ,? c =:b8 tB1 =A - RC
.9P 3 :A e = ?W Cš . ?W [ 9P 3 :A e = ] Cš
:<=s
. 3 ,? _ 8 3- ? ÍÀ% -3 =Bd; .9 -3 ? , ` ,;" ,? 3 x$ - ˆ›1 ={ b Extraposition -•
. ... = ,? ³B 3 - 3 . 7 :š . ,? ³B 3 [ $ b1 ,? U =A UxtBC? M d; = ] - 3 . 7 :š
btRA P xA 8 RC ` =0 $ A< 3 RB «=B 3 VW» / $ 3-"W 3" ›? $ (RC / cde) tB1 ´bB# 3 Extrapos ` -‚
.9 3 A Y A RC
. BP 3 U =A R M d; = 13 A ( )2 •e 3S1 ( )V ³Bs d; ? A b - ( )V 3/3 ( )V 1 d š
. ... ,::b; U A ³{$ b1 / ( V {1 3 B / =B 3 VW ) ,1 3 B A b V $ x{1 3
. B. ,? Z R - ˆ? VP NP " RC , $ S v "3 3- ? -3 ƒ€. Extraposition -…
It is said [ that Ali can’t finish his PhD program]. ( ,? š - NP1 8 ƒ€. " 3 P ,b1 =b8 •8 ? V" A It)
It is good to see you. (To see you is good)
99
: =\K <=s
=:b8 sW to A - ˆ? $ RC ) P A P Y x1 =:b8 VW -3 Extraposition ´ 1 ç " P A •8 ? V" A ´†" = $ A It bu 1 ,? , - -3 =:b8 BA -3
.( P A =B.-
… was Ali who broke the window. a)She b)He c)It d)They
. $ A 1 ,? •8 ? V" A It ƒ€. " P Extrapos = 3 A Who broke the window was Ali. =:b8 c
3) Compounding:
.3 P ,? ` :8 =B0 /" A / " 3 š ƒA- =A ƒA- e $ (conj) ƒA- ! # =: A 2Nb8 , $ ª
.3 Â - t1W =1 s R 8 ŠMR Dm 1 1 R =A t1W D2R 3 9d› (" ) M d@ A (" ) e 9.- M d@ =1 s =A ,:@ :¬ m?
4) Complexing (Embedding):
/ wš/ 1 ,? ,1 ?/ . š ƒA- =A e lS8 $ (R) ¬ ? =: A 2Nb8 , $ ( ` =1† < / =1"-3) / wš
. P A =BP 3 Â B{? NP 5$ =:b8 "3 -3 = 3 RB
.9P 3 U =A , - ? t d; Cš VW .9.- M d@ =1 s =A /" $3 Cš :¬ m?
=:b8 BA -3 - «= » ¬ ? •-3 - B{` Â B{? NP / A .70@ A $ 3"- ,? ¬" =:b8 cs 3 Y"3 =:b8 $ .9 Â B{? NP « Cš» Z . =:b8 -3
.3 P 3 RB =:b8 "3 V3 3 ƒA- A (= ,; # -3) e lS8 / «= » xA 9 U0b? .3 P ,? !X# " 9 {# Y"3 Cš " ,? •-3
.9.- M d@ =1 s =A /" $3 9P 3 U =A , - ? t d; <n Cš -

.9P 3 U =A , - ? t d; <n UDp l0 9.- M d@ =1 s =A /" $3 Cš -
.9P 3 U =A , - ? t d; 9.- M d@ =1 s =A /" $3 = Cš VW -
.9 Decomplexing $ Decompounding VW c# - " 3 P ,? :A # / « A Complexing $ Compounding =: A =:b8
5) Decompounding:
.ƒA- e " ƒA- ! # c›? / ª ? =:b8 9C0P
$ A NP1) 3 ƒA- =A - =:b8 "3 Y tR? =BP X` ƒA- e =©€1 / A <( 1 {1 =BCC` =:b8 "3) 3" 1 U A / =:b8 "3 ,$ ? Ä d - =0 $ A
. ... 9t8 U b =A. ... ¬ # U$ A .3 9d› M d@ A " 7· .9.- M d@ =1 s =A ,:@ :¬ m? .(3 P - 0
100
6) Decomplexing:
.¬ ?" e lS8 c›? / wš =:b8 9C0P
/ 3 Æ Y tR? ` .(3 . ³1 =A =BCA) $-"W ,? =$ š =:b8 tB1 $ BA -3 =:b8 5$ V @ =A Â B{? NP A b - RC " 3 !X# - «= »
. ,? 3 RB ƒA- e
- $ s =$ {1 U$ v _ B ,::b; U A ³{$ b1 / [ BP 3 t@ A = tA _ žB1 -3 - t1W ,b:@ 9$ = ] V {1 3 B A b V $ x{1 3 -
.[ 13 A - 3- s A ,$ SCA ,b:@ Ž/- / ,³b = ] 13
. 13 A - 3- s A ,$ SCA ,b:@ Ž/- / ,³b = 13 - $ s =$ {1 U$ v _ B ,::b; U A ³{$ b1 / V {1 3 B A b V $ x{1 3 -
. BP 3 t@ A = tA _ žB1 -3 - t1W ,b:@ 9$ V {1 3 B =0 $ êV$P
2 $ {1 = 9P 3 V @ê $ A =Bd; . 13 - $ s =$ {1 U$ v ... ³{$ b1 / BP 3 t@ A ...9$ = V {1 3 B A b V $ x{1 3 -
. 13 A - 3- s A ,$ SCA ,b:@ Ž/- / ,³b - X?
. ,? ³B 3 [ $ b1 ,? U =A UxtBC? M d; = ] - 3 . 7 :š -
. ,? ³B 3 - t1W S 1 7 :š . $ b1 ,? U =A UxtBC? M d; 3 . -
7) Complex Compound
Compound =A - Complex Ńb@ , $ . 3 ,? ƒA- =A ƒA- ! # A - A"3 " $W ,? 3 8 A ƒA- ,A " =:b8 "3 3 P Decomplex ` , `
. ,? ³B 3 - t1W S 1 7 :š " $ b1 ,? U =A UxtBC? M d; 3 . :¬ m? . ,? c$ d
8) SAE (,$N¦ - B{`)
=:b8 - Bs @ c$ d
. ,? ³B 3 [ $ b1 ,? U =A UxtBC? M d; = ] - 3 . 7 :š -
. ,? ³B 3 - UxtBC? M d; A 3 . 7 :š (PP) -
. ,? ³B 3 - UxtBC? M d; =A 7d:? 3 . 7 :š (M2) -
101
9) Movement (,$ xA 8)
` :8 VW V3 A ,š -3 ,š / ce # < 3 Æ - / BC1 B1 ` . 3 ,b1 Æ - =:b8 , ? " 3 P xA 8 1 ,? / / ? -3 e
. 1 [1 =A - 0 ³$3 ,? xA 8 1W " ,?
(,š -3 ,š PP = ) .9 š k e" =A B{$- Í/Ë 2- e =A ,d t? =;S;/ Uš µ -3 tP -3 •¾…Ë ¬ -3 -
(9 P c$ d M3 =A PP 5$) .9 š k e" =A Uš µ tP -3 B{$- Í/Ë 2- e =A ,d t? =;S;/ •¾…Ë ¬ -3 -
::;2 <=>
-3) Q Æ =:b8 -3 VW «€1 <PP ,$ xA 8 ç -3 9 Uab? .( ?¬ BQ A t1W ) -" u •e ? -3 ³? < a1 3 RB Uab? # - B{` U$ /
.9 =B. { š RT2 3- ? lS8 PP .(9 ©s ¬ bB# “À% ,$ xA 8
(On the table) The flowers are (on the table) beautiful on the table. . BC d$/ S ? "- t:`
The flowers on the table are beautiful. . BC d$/ BC S ? "- =Q ,$ t:`
which are
. RC A tB ? 9C e Y"3 =:b8 -3 PP
10) NP RC
. Q ,? ` :8 c . Q " «=Q» Q / - B{` U$
:beR j>d
. $- X` ,? (RC BA ) «=Q» 8 " 3 Q - ˆ? $ - ˆ? =A c$ d - c . " 3 Q !X# - «=Q»
. B. ` š[0 ž 2 Ml Q / Á-SA t³ <ž ] ,? ³ V 3- Q -
(- ˆ? = ŽS$- <- ˆ? = V3 Q ŽS$-) . B. ` š Q / Á-SA t³ Ml Y ³ V 3- Q -
: e0 j>d
=A " P Y „3 ,t NP A c . - ˆ? 9; # U$ -3 . 3 ,b1 _ 8 ¬" caP ³$3 (, - . -3 «=w1W <S v» cm?) P A ,t «=Q» / cde NP `
.3 P ,? c$ d
. P 8 «1 · =A 1? . - B 3 . P 8 [ 3 A 3 3 - B 3 «1 · =A 1 ? . =Q ] =w1W -
.3 d1 ¬ € ? Ž-3 A / b# =B s .3 d1 ¬ € ? [ 3 A =B s Ž-3 A / b# =Q ] Sv -
102
11) ADV Compound S
.7a@ A " ªQ ? =:b8 =A e =:b8 c$ d
.3 P ,? _ C›? Complex e =:b8 $/ <9 Complex Compound - B{` =@ bx? $/ - B{` U$
. 13 1 =? 3 3 s R =A t1W < $- A ,? =A / [3 A P / „W =BPX` ªP / =Q ] ,1 - A <>HMDE q `R -
. 13 1 =? 3 3 s R =A t1W ŠMR Dm . $- A ,? =A / <3 A P / „W =BPX` ªP / =Q ,1 - A -
12) RT6B
¬" c . " Q ,? / / A .9 P !X# that Y"3 NP / cde 3 B. =Q ,e R <3 A (Expressive) ,1 A ¬" c . NP V NP V - Bs -3 `
.3 P ,? RC NP2 VW / 7š " 3 P ,? ,B . ‰ "3
.(«˜ v» =A - š -3 =1) 9 RC V {ž š « ˜ - S v =v » « š -3 -3 =Q ,; . :,1 A ¬ . -
. - ,b1 ¬S ? =A ¼Q - A =Q 9P 3 3 €B@ ˜9P 3 3 €B@ - S v =v
(.9C 1 ,1 A 7š <9 «˜3- s v» - š U$ ) .3 P =Q 3- s ˜3- s - S v =v
- Expressive Verbs: say, tell, state, mention, note, express, explaine, illustrate, describe, declaire, announce, think, believe, offer,
suggest, hold, maintain, recommend, wish, hope, hear, …
:<=>
. BC ,1 A «UBP 3 3 €B@ <V3 A €B ?» ? A t maintain " hold t: .
V3 A €B ? (… V3 Q - S` A (‚ UBP 3 =³1 (• : Hold
V3 A €B ? (‚ V3 Q - t³1 <V3 Q ±R# (• : Maintain
They announced the poor people could receive subsidies. . - =1 - $ Q 9. $-3 1 ,? €. 3 . =Q 13 Q YN@ t1W
that
She held the paper in the box should be discarded. (ƒ:„).3 P =Bs 1 -"3 $ A =Q =d 8 -3 X„ Q 9P 3 =³1 "
that (=d 8 3 s =1) .3 P =Bs 1 -"3 $ A =d 8 cs 3 X„ Q =Q 3 A €B ? "
103
13) Expressive Verbs PP

. Q ,? 3 - =:b8 " Q ,? !X# - (,1 A c . / A) «=Q» z$ " c . z$ =. u ! # " ` =A ,1 A ¬ . c$ d
.9 3 A 9e =A - Ž- š t; š 3 A ?W t1W =1 s =A /" $3 =Q Cš <ž 0 ž 2 lLŸK r H -
. ... /" $3 =Q Cš V} A - ˆ =A -
... U? 3 €B@ =A ... =Q Y €B ? U? -
: lD=J lL=^0 D;_p |Rl e =m^ lL=^0 ISRLG

.0Ld :=} jY+ < IMD <_./ -•
(Compounding) ( A ƒA- - VP "3 $ =:b8 "3 = ) ƒA- e $ ƒA- ! # (•
$ A 1 ,? =:b8 ,: c . / 7š S v"3 t
(Complexing) e lS8 $ ¬ ? (‚
.3 9d› d A " 9.- 3 8 =1 s =A /" $3 Æ

[ .9 - b A Ž-3 A = ] 9R` UC#
(9 - / $ A c . / 7š Z . 3- ? "3 / „Sv ) .f^R )_ƒ D l |`D^ -‚
( $- 3 {# = $ e =$ š =:b8 -3 , $ ) {# = $ e =A !X# -•
< $3 ` !- B? # / « A - S` / 3 t1 =: .- U$ A = , - -3 ) ( / / ? -3) ,:de =:b8 V"-3 =A ¬ €B1 -‚
(.3 c€B ? =:b8 tB1 =A - RC V ,? ¬ €B1 - B{` ®$ ¦ /
( ³$3 =:b8 5$ =A V3 c$ d " UBC0P) Decomplexing -…
13 - $ s =$ {1 U$ v V {1 3 B A b =Bd; _ B ,::b; U A ³{$ b1 / (,1 3 B A b ) V $ x{1 3

(9C 1 =BCA " =:b8 – =A = 9 NP 5$ , $ {1 <3 P !X# RC ` ) [ . 13 A - 3- s A ,$ SCA ,b:@ Ž/- / ,³b = ] , $ {1 (•
(3 P c€B ? / V"-3 =A $ A " 3- 1 3 8" {# = $ e) [ . BP 3 t@ A = tA _ žB1 -3 - t1W ,b:@ 9$ = ] V {1 3 B A b =Bd; (‚
104
=:b8 ¬3 -3 - PP " !X# - «= » (‚) $ (9C 1 § {e ,: s) P BA - / A c . " NP $ A (•) $ - / Decomplexing -3 (…
. $/ CA c . VW =. u ! # / " 3 A =:b8 ¬3 -3 - PP < 01 !X# - «= » („) $ $ dA
13 - $ s =$ {1 U$ v _ B ,::b; U A ³{$ b1 / V $ x{1 3
. ... ,b:@ 9$ = 13 3 Y x1 ,1 3 B A b - - 0 $ t1W =Bd; -
. BP 3 t@ A = tA _ žB1 -3 - t1W ,b:@ 9$ V {1 3 B =Bd; -
. 13 ,? , b - U$ -3 - t1W BP 3 t@ A = tA _ žB1 -3 - t1W ,b:@ 9$ <n V {1 3 B =Bd; -
5$ t1W =: . =0 $ =1) .3 P -3 dB? U ê =A t1W Ä d - [1 5$ -3 = PA - €1W $ A _TR jY+ `R s.n jY+ e |lR `R 0D; <_TD+ -„
.( P A «Y3»
.f\H t^Dm2 <_./ rDMD] l0 jY+ :nR K -•
( 01 3 x$ -3 ? - ˆ›1 = ,¦ P =A) Extraposition (•
Decomplexing (‚
Complex Compound (…
SAE (‡
NP RC (“
.f\H beRI=2 ^lD+ l0 ( URL=2 |DKLn lDH\ |D e) Im_ lDH\ V•./ `R |0D1=^R -•
=:b8 3 ` 9 ô0? =:b8 sW V v <( 1 P ,? Bs U $ š µ 1 =A " P k" P † A µ 1 /)9 V B. ds 2Nb8 § W
=1 ` • ? ,³ W= ) 3 ,? ƒA- =A Complexing " Compounding Ž"- "3 =A - 2Nb8 =1 ` U$ .3 ` ,? 2- =B0 $ A ,; B?
.3 P ,? 3 RB Decomplexing " Decompounding / :A 2Nb8 A"( ,? 3 x$
105
.( $ A $ A / 3 $/ =: . A «= » "3 ,B#) f\H t^Dm2 ^lD+ l0 «<n» e0 `R ŒH :nR K -¡

. ,? =b8 «= » - ,: . ƒA - " = 2 d - e lS8 . ,? =b8 «= » - RC NP " RC=M5 x{1 3
Decomplexing (•
Complex Compound (‚
SAE (…
NP RC (‡
(=:b8 ƒ " -3 ƒA- ! # UBP X` " e lS8 UBP 3 A) ADV Compound S (“
( ,1 A c . / A «=Q» !X#) RT6B (Ë
Expressive Verbs PP (Ý
@ 7š < B. ,? Z R M3 $ M2 3- ? -3 2 . u •A © .9 SAE VW c# - .f^R )_ƒ ^lD+ l0 (Ip `R ŒH | \n) VD+DzR - D‘K -¤

. 1 c$ d cA e " 1 - Bs
V $ ,?N - tb8 ,B{ s 1 5e -3 ³B 3 -
.9P 3 ®: V $ ,?N - tb8 =A = ,B{ s 1 =A ®: B? 5e -3 =A Ä A ? ³B 3 -
.( ,? !X# - {# V A/ " {# = - 0 ) $? . - 33 s ,š -3 ,š " V C0$ / " V `µ " `- 0A / :(k ) variety jTR -¥
( / bu) Pronominalization (•
(•8 ? 2 - d@) co-refrence terms (‚
.3 {1 3 RB ,©$ P – 9› ,ˆˆž 2 #N© A :(!3 B? / 3 RB ) synonymy (… - 0 V `µ "
{# = $ e =A !X# (‡
( make " take ,t ¬ . ) Dummy Verbs (“
Variety c
SAE (•
/
Movement (‚ - 0
106
( =. # | ˆž? ) † A 9 . ‰ =A ¬ . 9 . ‰ Æ (…
: / bu
.9 P !X# P 2-" u =A ; = 3 A « " » $/ < ,b1 ¬ de - « "» V BC³ .
.3- 3 9$3" ›? «" » bu / 3 RB
:•8 ? 2 - d@
. ... " = ; - {? < P 3 $ 3 . < 3 d? 1 < [1 3- ? 3 . <- X? ¥žP <" <UC# :9 ,0$ V { 8 ? ,;" BC 1 bu
:,t ¬ .
. BC ¬ b ? make " take ƒ€. " 1 P ,? 3 RB ,©$ P 5$ -3 " 2- 1 =A get, do, go
: † A 9 . ‰ =A ¬ . 9 . ‰ Æ
A - 8 5$ < P A 5$ ,: . 9 . ‰ ` 7š . $W ,? =. u ! # A " 9 NP2 VW 3 / ? NP <,B . ‰ 5$ VW , - . " 3 A ,B . ‰ "3 ,: . `
.3 P ,? c$ d NP =A " 3 P ,? !X# =. u ! # VW $ ³A ,B . ‰ "3 c .
.(9 š k e" =A) 1 / ; - Uš µ tP (-3) B{$- Í/Ë 2- e =A ,d t? =;S;/ •¾…Ë ¬ -3 :¬ m?
.(,C :³1 -3 " , - . -3 ) Im=\H t^Dm2 |0D1=^R R vD2R§K ) l { p e IHG u / -¦

.9 ƒ:„ "3 / 3 RB . 1 P ,? 3 RB V3 3 ƒA- A complexing " Compounding
. 13 3 =? 3 3 s R =A t1W ( ? ) < $- A ,? V - A (=a1W „- =A) =v ` -
. 13 1 =? 3 3 s R =A t1W (U$ A A) < $- A ,? V - A =a $ x1W / -
.f^R {“p j DG 8f^R ^lD+ lIŸ2 :^R DM S D; q <MD] <ž kž 2 l0DŸ2 l0 lIŸ2 Œ… -•¨
- ˆ? «žA = V3 3 <,A @ =$ š «žA = b :V3 3 b -
- ˆ? «žA = V3 Q 8,A @ =$ š «žA = z aR :V3 Q z aR -
, - . =$ š «žA = «P Q <Ž/-" :V3 Q «P Q <V3 Q Ž/-" -
107
( = + ,u ? UA = ,; R? 9R ) .f^R )_ƒ <mM G reI e rD2` jY+ rRLmS < ( ULY12 f1T) 1Te </e `R |0D1=^R -••
9.- " 3- s , $ .9.- = - ? =A " 3- s - «$ X„ ,:@
3"- ,? " 3i- s ,? , $ .3"- ,? " " " "
9.- ,? " 3- s ,? , $ .9.- ,? " " " "
9.- s " 3- s s , $ .9.- s " " " "
9 =B.- " 9 3- s , $ .9 =B.- " " " " `
{# = $ e =A !X# 3 A =B.- " 3 A 3- s , $ .3 A =B.- " " " " "
P A =B.- " P A 3- s , $ . P A =B.- " " " " "
.f^R )_ƒ ^lD+ l0 ( S •LŸ… ) < DyH D; D ` VR0R `R |0D1=^R -•‚

(... e lS8 <¬ ? <ƒA- ! # <=. u ! # :, $ 2 3 ).9. ` ¿ e ³$3 t1 A/ / V ,? - « e " 9R <c . < » ƒ€.
.9 å› „- =A . « „-» " 9 =. u ! # «,:@» : „- ,:@ -
.9 å› «®d¦ A» $ «¬ =A A» .9 $ ! # ¬ :¬ † ,:@ -
7:xb; ,. <Ua ; <Ua; <(Y x1 ) s† A < † •? < ; •? <cˆ.NA <=: .NA -
( $-"W ,? =Q / cde =A - « -» ) .f^R )_ƒ jY+ `R IY « Rl » -•„

. 3 P ,? ‰c ./ A « -» P A =BP 3 RC=M5 bP NP2 ` -
3 Q V" A =1 s / 9P 3 :A e =Q Rl Cš b# .3 Q V" A =1 s / Rl 9P 3 :A e =Q Cš b#
108
: .^R |e rel0 ŒMR Me
.(,C :³1 7a@ A) 9C 1 Ž/- Sï # , - . -3 2 R ,; ª :beR |ISDG

. Q xA 8 1 ,? 3 d1 ª; 8 M2 ,; 8 U$ A A
. Q =b8 M3 / cde 1 ,? - M2 < Q ,b1 - M3 M2 BC U•b©? ,Be" : e0 |ISDG

Young smart Tehran university students
V t ³{1 3 V 8 Ž A V $ x{1 3 V 8Ž AV t ³{1 3 V $ x{1 3
: L^ |ISDG
=b8 M2 2- Â " 3 A / A - tBR VW 7· . Q !X# ,:Q =A - t1W 1 ,? BP 3 - «- €?» $ «3 » µ " =Q ,$ b1 9 bQ -3
.3 P ,? c$ d •b8 =A <3 A Ž- bP cA e t1W ` . Q
B{ A d$/ V Bs3 d$/ Bs3 B{ A 3 -
3 $/ tA BQ _ BQ 3 $/ 3 -
109
:(Impersonalization) `D^ Ÿ…d Hƒ

ƒ » =A V {ž š" P A =BP 1 by … =Q † d =A ¬ . U$ .(¬ tx? c . A ,abQ c .) $- 3 (Auxiliary Passive Verbs) Aux PV - Bs z$
tB ? 3 P ,? Y : ? c . .3 Q ,ˆžP „ - c . " 3 Q =b8 VW / cde « -» z$ , $ .3 Q 3 RB @ e U$ / V ,? P A 3 S ?3W « ˜,CQ =v
( .3 P ,? ,ˆžP ( 1 < $ < $ <3 < <Y) = P A c . , - . -3) .,ˆžP „
This point can be explained in an easier way. (3 S ?3W ƒ ). 3 ,P"- =A 3 P å$ { 1 ,? =Ba1 U$

NP1 AuxPV PP (,Q ƒ ) .3 Q å$ { 3 ,P"- =A V ,? - =Ba1 U$
This system must be organized in a new fashion. (3 S ?3W ƒ ). $ 8 P =A 3 P , 1 ?/ $ A BC U$

.3 Q , 1 ?/ $ 8 P =A $ A - BC U$
The problem may be clarified using such techniques. .,$ ta a U v / 3 RB A 3 P UP"- 1 ,? ca{?
NP1 AuxPV PP .3 b1 UP"- ,$ ta a U v / 3 RB AV ,? - ca{?
The stones can be corroded in the river. (=1 s3"- _W ƒ ) .=1 s3"- -3 1 P 3 . 1 ,? t³
( ? Y/† c . / 3 RB ) .=1 s3"- -3 A $ «$ . 1 ,? t³
:(Y : ? =A (c R ?) ¬ tx? c$ d ) Passive Active

$ 3 01 9 P c . -3 =1† . c@ . = 3 P ,? 3 RB ,1 ?/ (c R ? , $) Passive ,C :³1 -3 ,;" <9C 1 Y : ? «:@ . , $ ¬ tx? , - . -3
=b8 Y : ? 2- Â - =:b8 1 ,? <3 P ,? Y : ? by, via, or through … ƒ c@ . ,Be" U$ A A . P A t? VW c@ . / ¬ R? V P Y x1
The door was unlocked by Ali. .,:@ 9 A P / A -3 .3 / A - -3 cRe ,:@ .
•u ? •e ? ,: s " 9C 1 - © $ , - . -3 =0 ; # -3 9 •u ? / „W •u ? ,C :³1 -3 .3"- ,? U A / =:b8 -3 = 3 P- ˆ 9 U0b?
.3 P ,? xA 8 •u ? M B •u ? Æ A V 1 s •e ? .(3 P 1 sM B V" A ` ) 3 ` ,? - e 3- ? Y"3
.3/ ? -§P .3/ - § P ? :¬ m?
110
:(,: •R ) The Comparative …, the Comparative… lD=J
. P A ,? « ... < ... =v » VW =b8 .9 P !X# however e lS8 <3 A the comparative 1 P 8 / ? A = =:b8 "3 ¬" `
@ e U$ P d1 =:b8 ¬" ` ) $ A =:b8 ¬" $A= 9 NP3 $ NP2 8 , ` ,;" 9C 1 ,:0{? P A NP1 8 the comparative ` :=B01
.(9C 1 - `/
The Comparative …, the Comparative…
.9 ,: •R Y"3 =:b8 3- ? ¾¾% -3 P A ,: •R ¬" =:b8 ` -
more adj more adj VW ,A3 - B{` < ?W ,ˆˆž ,C :³1 =A 2 A3 / - B{` U$ V v -
However less adv less adv
to be c . t =1 U$ A A . ? = $ e =A !X# :cm? 1 ?W VW b
adj-er adj-er
adv . 1 bA ,: •R 9bCe ƒ€. " 3 P !X# 1 ,? NP =0:A
The sooner, the better. . BtA < 3"/ =v
ADV S
The bigger (the boat) (is), the safer (the cruise) (will be). .3 A s U? ,$ $-3 R < P A B`-SA ®$ e =v
However M2 NP2 NP1 VII M2 NP2 NP1 VII
The more expensive car you have bought, the less quickly you can sell it.
However NP2 NP1 VII adv NP1 VII NP2
. P" RA 1W 1 ,? $3 < P A $ s V ` U P ? bP =v
The larger the particle size, the longer it takes to eliminate this residual pore; the benefit of small particle size … .
However adv NP adv NP1 VII NP2 APP
. !X# - 1 b e A (XR ?) R# U$ = { ,? ¬ ¦ B{ A VW <( P A) B`-SA -ê / 1 =v

The more I see you, the less I like you. . $W ,? P s bP / Bb < A ,? - bP B{ A =v
111
:(=? 3 ) IHG u /
` . PA 1 ,? S 1 (R) ¬ ? $ e lS8 ( ?W Ńde VW =b8 "9 ¥ ž{ cA e ,`3 =A) P A 1 ,? ƒA- e =0 $ A "N@ however
2" R t1W =b8 ¬ # U$ A .9 ª ? e lS8 ´ ©e $ 1 to ` " ( s ,? NP " 9 =. u ! # V v) 9 ª ? R ´ ©e $ A to VW / cde
. P A ,? «- e <=v »" ,b1
However - e <=v
adv Whether . ,b1 ,e . =b8 -3 P A =v < 1 ?W c ©BC? -3 = 3- ? - tv -
R Whoever = ,C provided that book cm? =01W ³? 9 e lS8 3- ? ¾¾% -3 < ?W that A ` provided -
Whatever = =v
. P A =BPX` c . ( - _ B VW 3 .)
provided (that) =01W Ä P =A . $W ,b1 that A providing -
adv providing =01W A Ä" {?
incase .9C 1 ¬ tx? = =:b8 V v . $ ³1 dBP RT5 $ RT2 A - providing " Provided -
once .( P =BR` Ńde) 3 P ,? e lS8 < $ A or A Whether -
Whatever we told her, she rejected. (ª ? adv ) .3 3- " <" =A BR` ? = =v

Whatever we told her was useless. (ª ?R) .3 A $ . ,A " =A BR` ? = =v
Whatever book … = ,A B
(RT5) Provided you study hard, you can pass my exam. . 1 -X³A 9 €. ? A ? V ›B? 1 ,? = ; ©? 9ž =01W Ä P =A
You can pass my exam, (RT2) providing you study hard.
Once I went to my uncle’s home. . $ b@ ¬S ? Y3 A =B.- /"-
3 d1 ,0$ 3 A ,0$ <,1 ?/ < - `/"- < /"-
adv I saw her just once. .Y $3 - " - d0$ ƒ€. U?
Once =d ? 5$ <= . 0$ <- d0$ I studied this book once. .Y 1 s - d0$ - _ B U$ U?
adv =01W / 7š <(=01W / 7š , ? A) =0 ? ³ Once you finish your homework, you can watch TV.
. P b V $S$ : 1 ,? $3 Y b - V BR ; 0 bP (=01W / 7š) =0 ? ³
Once you answer my question, you can leave the class. . Â - MN 1 ,? $3 3 ? « š- š (=0 ? ³ ) =01W / 7š
112
: Grammatical Jokers
etc (et cetra) . 1 P ,? k 1 V b / $ A =v A , $ 1- 3 - / A Z-" -3 Joker «€1 V b - B 3 -3
and so on
Abbas, Taghi, and Jafar and so on.(NP) .9 « „ " » =b =b8 . ... " 1 P ,? NP $ A NP A `
and so forth
and bla bla bla In the park, at home, in the office, etc. (PP) (V - ab " , $ et al) .and , $ et V v 3- 1 and =A • B# etc t
and the like Carefully, optimistically and so forth. (adv)
Studied, analized and bla bla bla. (verb)
:(Interrogative Sentences) -J^ ] V•./
Yes-No Aux S (Aux NP VP) . õWö? Wh ö{ š =b: A õ9 Yes-No 2- =A õ < õ- 3 ö{ š =:b8 k 1 "3 c -3
: Yes-No Question
Sint
. õ-"Wö? =:b8 ¬" =A 3 8" 2- -3 - (Aux) ö0b c . ö{ š =:b8 k 1 Uõ UBs ÷ A
Wh Aux S
Wh 3 A ?W c . öõNA " ö? ö; • Do A õ- 1 ö0b c . öBe"
Wh VP (NP1 =?) 2- Â c . " (3 Pö? Did õ Does) õ-"Wö? Do <(3 A =BPX` õ 3 A =B. ` ¥žP Y s)
. õWö? 3
:<./ K el
.3 Pö? =. u VW ÷ BA =A « õW»
Ali can plays the piano well. .3/ A _ s - 1 š 1 ö? ö:@
Can Ali play the piano well? ˜3/ A _ s - 1 š 1 ö? ö:@ õW
Ali plays the piano well. .3/ 1ö? _ s - 1 š ö:@
Does Ali play the piano well? ˜3/ 1ö? _ s - 1 š ö:@ õW
113
:Wh Question
3- ? žA =:b8 NP1 =w1 v . ö? =. u VW ¬" Wh 5õ 7· ö? ö; • Yes-No 2- =A - =:b8 BA <ö{ š 2 b: / 3 RB ÷ A
.(9C 1 ö8 B# ... " Aux =A) õ- X`ö? «õ 8 - ö{ š =b: " 3 !X# - NP1 t <(3 P š NP1 / ö{ š =b: )3 `- e¬ •
:<./ K el
. ö? =. u VW ÷ BA =A - ö{ š =b: <=:b8 =b8 / 7š
Ali plays the piano well. .3/ 1ö? _ s - 1 š ö:@
How does Ali play the piano? (well) ˜ - 1 š 3/ 1ö? ö:@ =1 ³v
What does Ali play well? (the piano) ˜_ s 3/ 1ö? ö:@ - S v=v
What does Ali do well? (plays the piano) ˜_ s 3ö? Y x1 ö:@ - ÷- =v
Our four computers calculated the necessary amount of public subsidy quickly in the research center last year.
.=BPX` ¬ 2 € €› S ? -3 - öB;"3 =1 - õ Y/† V S ? 13 =d ›? ? ·? - tv
Where did our four computers calculate the necessary amount of public subsidy quickly last year? (in the research center)
When did our four computers calculate the necessary amount of public subsidy quickly in the research center? (last year)
How did our four computers calculate the necessary amount of public subsidy in the research center last year? (quickly)
What did our four computers calculate quickly in the research center last year? (the necessary amount of public subsidy)
How did calculate the necessary amount of public subsidy quickly in the research center last year? (our four computers) ˜ ... 3 =d ›? ÷S v =v
How many computers calculated the necessary amount of public subsidy quickly in the research center last year? (four)
How many of our computers calculated the necessary amount of public subsidy quickly in the research center last year? (four)
Whose four computers calculated the necessary amount of public subsidy quickly in the research center last year? (our)
114
The four computers calculated our five errors in the research center last year.
.=BPX` ¬ 2 € €› S ? -3 - ? ÷ ©s “ 13 =d ›? ·? - tv
Where did the four computers calculate our five errors last year? (in the research center)
When did the four computers calculate our five errors in the research center? (last year)
What did the four computers calculate in the research center last year? (our five errors)
What did the four computers do in the research center last year? (calculated our five errors)
What calculated our five errors in the research center last year? (The four computers)
How many computers calculated our five errors in the research center last year? (four)
How many errors did the four computers calculate in the research center last year? (five)
How many of our errors did the four computers calculate in the research center last year? (five) ... 13 =d ›? ·? ‡ Uõ - ©s 3 =v
Whose five errors did the four computers calculate in the research center last year? (our)
how many ) ª ? õ (what, where, …) 3 1 ö? Ubu -3 . ö? ¬ • ³õ3 ÷ NP / õ {1ö? NP1 ÷ 8 õ <3- 1 B{ A - "3 Wh -
. P A (errors
:3- 1 ö; • =:b8 =A ö©A- What if -
What if Ali did not answer my question. . 1- š ?¬ • ö:@ ` 3 Pö? =v
115
:<.UDs2 ¯lL°K
:9 P c 0{ õ/ «žA - tv / =b; 0?
Questions -•
Answers -‚
Conversation
(... " 9› ˆ1 <ö1 ž :cm? . ö? 9d› =A k" P bP <3 Pöb1 bP / ö; • ) Lectures & Narrations -…
(3" ›? " 1 ÷ ={ : ... " 9 :C <ö s-X@ < 0{ cm? ._ 8 =1 1 ¬ • =1 <ö1 A/ ÷ 3 - ) Language Functions -‡
. 9d› " BCõ A õ P A _ 8 " ¬ • õ A =b; 0? MN Y b " 3 ³A 3 õ - ö; • =:b8 9s õ A ƒ€. < ? ` -3 x{1 3 Uõ A A
.9 3-"W - ö1 A/ ÷ 3 - ÷ ={ : Function of Language _ B
:‡ Y ÷ B›?
:3 Pö? õ/ 3- ? c? P " 9 9@ “À / « A .3 Pö? - S` A - d0õ ¬ ‡ ö1 t8 Y 8 cm? =b8 U. Y- tv Y
÷ =. # «õ õ" -•
÷ =. # =b8 -‚
=b8 €1 -…
«õ õ" €1 -‡
Writing -“
öC :³1 =A ö - . =b8 -Ë
116
: MDmY2 ŒMR Me
:<2I*2
=b8 = 9 Uõ V {. # < õ `ö? ! sS? =Bs ?W õ `ö? = ³{1 3 ös A . ö? ö[R:; 9› =b8 =A Y 0›? - ? ÷3 õ/ @
unconscious knowledge V A/ «1 3 < P =BR` 5õ Y -3 = - ¦V b .9 P 3- = 9 ¬ ‚À Ńb@ ( Grammer translation) «- B 3 ÷ d? A»
.9 `W3 s 1 ö õ
1 öb1 ˜ v ·A bP/ öC ` . A unconscious «1 3 =A < õ P master VW -3 " 1 žA ¬ •“ - ö?"3 V A/ =0 õ õ < õ- 3 - "3 bP
U ê -3 = ÷- B 3 ö? @3 " 9 U b < B. ö? bP U ê -3 = öe R õ `ö? ö0C? v .9C 9 -3 bP =b8 =0 õ A < õ-" A c ;3
.9 U? - B 3 < B. ö? Z R ( `W3 s 1) bP
. õ-" A c ;3 " k .3 1 ö? " ö? S ; 1W ´€ e3 ÷- B{` =b8 -3 = ö; #-3 < õ- 1 3 s =BR` ÷ A ö@ .3 `W3 s 1 9; #-3 :• ö`}õ"
= ö; #-3 <3 =b8 V ö? unconscious 2- Â VW < P master VW -3 1 s - V A/ VW ¬ •“ õ A `W3 s 1 9; # =A V - ÷ A :‚ ö`}õ"
. conscious 2- Â VW < -ö? 1 s öC :³1 ¬ •“ = ÷3 . «1 3 =A ( AV ? 2- Â) 9@ ¾À 2 ?-3 <=Bs ?W MN -3
öBs õ/ =:b8 (..." c . <= ) «õ õ" ÷ - B{` / ös A / 3 RB A"9 9s õ/ =0:A <9C 1 =b8 / õ =B. ` 3 õ = ÷S v Uõ ö;"
.9 ƒ:„ õ ³A 1 öb1 ÷ # " 3 RB 1W 1 ö? " ö? öBs "- =:b8 =A cõ d - (9žõ-öA)
=b8 ) meaning translation =A öõ ? «õ õ" / 3 RB A Uõ A A . d:¦ö? öõ ? «õ õ" <9 =b8 = btR1 " 1 žA 1W öC =01W ÷ A
. -ö? =BR` V ; 1 s = (- ›? ?
öõ ? «õ õ" ô›A öBe" . 3ö? 3 õ - - ›? ? =b8 " õ3 - =b8 ö1† ¦ - tB ? < BC 1 - B 3 ÷ d? A =b8 3¼õ" 7š
. 1 =b8 ÷ A= V A ÷- ¦ 1W sö? " 1 s - =:b8 ö õ .9 ? ô›A <3 Pö? Ù ©?
117
:3- 3 - õ/ =õ† = t1 A/ Y b -3 DmY2
1. Semantics (ö P ?) =:b8 5õ å© -3 2 b: ö1 ? ª / c #÷ ?ö - A
Meaning 2. Pragmatics (ö P- [ ?) (9C 1 [1 ? ÷ ‰÷ ?) =:b8 5õ V A / õ `/ Cõ 1 [13- ? ÷ ?
3. Discourse (V bBR`) ö1 A//ö0õS . 9. A -3 =:b8/ õ `/ Cõ 1 [13- ? ÷ ?
(3- 1 UB? =A k 8- " 9C 1 Ä A ? UB? =A) S ; 1W 1W " tA - UB? / =:b8 5õ ö õ :ö P ? -•

.9 =:b8 5õ å© -3 / A :(ö P3 A- )ö P- [ ? -‚
:¬ m?
1- Did Ali find this book?
2- Can you climb that high mount?
3- Must she study hard?
4- Can you pass the salt?
Ń (Can you pass the salt) Y- tv =:b8 ö;" .3"-ö? t1W / s/=:A - š - [B1 " 9 Yes-No Question (Aux S) ‰ -3 Z . 2Nb8 - Bs
. P Aö? I am sorry õ of course, here you are VW - š"9 « A UbA - 5b1 Uõ ´R©;» VW ÷ ?"9 9 s-3 " 9C 1 ¬ •
5õ <(UB? V3 A V" A) =:b8 U b V A / ? - [ ? ö õ .9 (request) 9 s-3 5õ Pragmatic [1 / ö;" 9 ö; • =:b8 5õ Semantic [1 /
.9 9 s-3
«V3 ?» ö ? =A ÙN© 5õ pass the river ? .9 «9PX` =1 s3"- / /" õ3 ö:@» VW Semantic ÷ ? Ali passed the river yesterday =:b8 -3
.9 ? [1 ? VW Pragmatic ÷ ? < P A «3 ? /" õ3 ö:@» ? - [ ? ` " 9
.9C 1 ? [1 ? 2 b: ª / c #÷ ‰÷ ? =0 õ ÷ A <9 Pragmatic ÷ ? =b <2 #N© ö1 ? 7š
118
:=B01
õ A <3- žA UB? =A "3 ` =0 õ ÷ A .3 Pö? Ù ©? Pragmatic ={ b =Bd; <9C 1 Pragmatic ={ b V P÷3 8" 9:@ < BC :tš"3 = ö Nb8
.9C v ª:©? Uõ / Cõ 1 - [ ? õ3
:V bBR` -…
You should not park your car near the bank. . Â- š =1 s3"- c# /51 A 5õ3S1 - 3 s ÷"-3 s õ d1 bP
U›; " s <" A 9; # ) V A " tv | s 9; # 5õ A Ńm? .9C 1 c›? 5õS . ƒ€. ö0õS . 9. A =Bd; .3- 3 VW ö0õS . V 0? =A ö³BCA Z . =:b8
.9 ö:@ V3 A Z B; e =:b8 ‰ !Ns A V - [ ? " Ali is a nice man õ ³A (| s
.9 P V A öõ dõ/ 9õ t1-3 = P Aö? ÷3N ? •Ë•Ë ¬ -3 ·C0P «- S M ; 8» =? {õ b1 <ö1 A/ 9. A ÷ A ¬ m? Uõ BtA
- ¦=A " bt.ö? - = •e - S - 3 ." U ?/N? / ö0õ ö1 B1 - ? . 1/ 1 ö? «1 bP3 V3 ` - cBe " =B{ - " ÷ =•¦ -3 - S M ; 8 U ?/N?
" =A . 1 žA (hymn) = ç ? P C8 ÷† A = sö? / 8 ö1 B1 - ? .3 A `=•¦ U ?/N? =B 3 M " A. ö? - - t1W €BC? „
. 13 A 3 3 ÷/ 1 /8 öv =A " P ö s V-A <ö ¼ {B? - •. " ö1SA öu @ ! # =b: 5õ ` õ `ö?
.but Brootus is a very nice man : õ `ö? VW / A =: .NA < õ `ö? = --S 9dm? ÷ - / 5õ ö1 B1 - ?
= •e V bt. Y3 ? 9õ t1-3 .(3- 1 ö©A- Ń )9 öA s ö: s Y3W M " A ? 3 -- Uõ bP ÷ A - S õ `ö? ö " ö? - 0 - €1W
. B{ - M " A " 9C v
Y : ? <3 P - 0 ö VW <3- 1 ö©A- Ń = V bBR` 5õ-3 ö;" <= A s ö: s Y3W M " A ö õ Pragmatic [1/ " Semantic [1/ =:b8 Uõ
. Brootus is a person who killed caeser = 3 Pö?
:-±DmY2 Œ±R ±e ISRLG

. BC «õ õ" @ e ÷ 5õ ÷ - 3 V A/ öõ ? ÷ =õ† / Y
119
:Semantic ²‘^ l0 -±DmY2 Œ±R ±e ISRLG

:(-±DmY2 ¯D;H ±e) Semantic Features .•
(öõ "W ÷ t `}õ") Phonetic Features =A - "W " 1 ?W V {1 "- . ... <h2 <hø <h_ <" <÷ <W <g <h <i ö õ <9 "W YN # " Uõ B0v BR`ö? ö1 ?/
<9 (labial) öd;"3 ÷ "W 5õ p BR` . 0Pö? Ž3 s / B0v ö`}õ" = =A - hø <9 hø # " Uõ B0v õ ³A =0 õ ÷ xA BR`" . 13 cõ d
ö õ <9 voicedless " 3 Pö? •- s " 3 `ö? 2- ÷- xR1 A " 3 Pö? 3" C? Ń? •" s Y ³ V õ 8 ö õ <9 (stop) ÷3 C1
.9 +voice < b = ö; #-3 ( öb1 M C# - "W 9 # < õ- X³A :` ÷"- 9{³1 ±R: •e ? ` ) öb1 9 # VW ; •e ? "W-
.h3 " h2 cm? <3 Pö? 3 xõ =m; -3 3 C1 ö õ õ- X³A (÷ m;) alvealar < labial ÷ xA `
P B T D
labial + + alveolar + +
stop + + stop + +
voiced - + voiced - +
¬ C`-SA " X? <Y3W <- 1 8 =A V ö? - man BR` < ¿ . ? # " Uõ B0v - Semantic Features ` " 13 ? A -- Ub U@
.9C0P
ö " RB? ö1 ? ÷ =B 3 V @ =A (words) µ " ? . 1 Pö? =BR` 2- Uõ A ö1 ? Uõ " BC ö1 ? c? # t1 A/ õ `ö? V ; 1s
=b8 ÷ A « 1" `» µ " "3 / - d8 =A 7š < P A =BP 3 - ö1 ? Uõ =b = 9C 1 ÷ µ " ö - . -3 ? <3- 3 3 8" öC :³1 -3 ox Ńm? . BC
.( P d1 ÷ =b: 5õ ¬3 ? ¬ d13) 3 =b8 µ " 5õ A - µ " 5õ ´bB# = 3 Pöb1 Ń Uõ A A . ö? 3 RB
.« 1- 3- s A ÷ Bb öõ dõ/ / = ö1 Bs3» 3 Pö? less beautiful girls =b: "3 =b8 Ńm?
= 9 Uõ 9 t? = ÷S v .70 ; A " 3 Pö? ? µ " 3 A µ " 5õ ö ` .3- 1 3 8" ? -3 V `µ " 3 U A 5õ=A5õ =©A -
. V A V A/ "3 -3 - Semantic Features
120
Man boy girl woman ox
animate + + + + +
human + + + + -
male + + - - +
adult + - - + +
cow +
:(- D ´Re ) Rel) Lexical Relation .‚

:=? €?
ö0õ öõ ? ÷ t `}õ" A < 1 `ö? - e A Ä d - -3 ö1 `µ " ƒA "- =: A µ"÷ 5õ =0:A < 1 Pöb1 sê U ê -3 V Pö1 ? A µ " =b
ö1 `µ " ƒA "- .VN. 3 Pö? t1W =b öõ ? ö`}õ" " ö? ¥ž{? - !3 B? ÷ µ " Ńm? .( {# @eM A) 1- · ö? U ê =A - t1W /
.9 ?W õ/ -3 = 3 Pö? =õ " öõ ? ¬ bP <3 • <!3 c? P
:({0R K) Synonymy ‚.•

9. A =A =BCA ... " V3 - ? / <V3 9. <V3 ¬" <V3 c ? <V3 ! / V3- s ÷ 8=A Ńm? . ö? ÷3 õ/ 3 RB !3 B? ÷ µ " / «õ õ" -3
<V3 9. / 3 A =1 ? @ <V3 ¬" / 3 A 9Æ;±R; ö: s <V3- s / 3 A ÷3 @ <V3 c ? <V3 ! / 3 A öA3 9. A ` . ö? 3 RB UB?
. ö? 3 RB V3 db; <V3 - ? /
.9 «õ õ" ÷ - SA Uõ dõ/ / ö0õ Uõ A A " k - SA 5õ Synonymy
121
÷ {0õ3 / t 3 B .9C 1 ÷ {0õ3 -3 3 B ƒ P =BR` ö1 ? V v <9 Y _ s ÷ {0õ3 šö? ´† b ? x{1 3

=0:A <9C 1 ¬S ? ö#" ÷ {0õ3 -3 P=BP 1 µ " = 1 A .3- X`ö? 9Æ; VW ÷ 8=A Ž3 s " =B. ` - Y tR? < ö? 3 RB öC :³1 =AöC :³1
. _ žB1 µ " UB? M A " / # VW -3 <9 öõ ? / #
.V3 3 RB =Bž . - CA ÷ µ " / ö; b ? UB? 5õ ÷ A ö õ Overeditting
ö;" <÷S v =A V3 A ?=eN@ ö õ "3 keen on " interested in Ńm? öC :³1 -3 . ö? Z . A ö0d " ÷3 A- á ›;=A ´† b ? Synonym
Intrest <9 ƒ:„ I am interested in Ali. =:b8 . 3 A- ö`}õ" ö õ Uõ . õWöb1 70 ; A ö;" õWö? interested ÷ 8=A Keen . 1"-öb1 - =A ÷8
UB? 5d =A =8 A UB? 5õ -3 - V3 - ? / " V3- s ? .9 å› (Y ?=eN@ ö:@ =A U?) I am keen on Ali. =:b8 " 3"-öb1 - =A Y3W ÷ A
.ö0d ö`}õ" ö õ V3 3 RB
. 01 3 RB =1 ? @ „ UB? -3 - crazy " fool 9e w ö;" 1 ö ? crazy " fool A silly, stupid ÷ µ " ö0d á ›; =A
V P š A ? V P š 7š . ö? 3 RB U: 3 " 5 @ < N ÷ A - put on t1W = ö - -3 <3 Pö? 3 RB M d; ÷ A ö - . -3 V P š
. ö? Z . ÷3 A- á ›;=A t1W
.9 A ö: s t1W / ö0õ ö;" <- 3 A Y / 9 3 ö ? =A < 1 ö ? õ/ =:b8"3
.9. ` 3 õ 3 õ/ Uõ b " 3 õ/ V P A õ A - 3 A-
:(0DµK) antonomy ‚.‚
((lI2) gradable ‚.‚.•

(j.s2 ¯D f1/) complementary pairs D± ((lI2 Hƒ) non-gradable ‚.‚.‚
(-=;/) directional ‚.‚.„
. ö? 3 RB B0v / " õ- 1 - Á-SA Bb = less big apple cm? •- ? 3 • ‚.‚.•
122
" 3 ? 3 •B? µ " "3 -3 ö;" 3 3 RB / V ö? Y ` " 3 -3 Ńm? . =. u VW =A 1 öb1 « » = 9 ÷3 • •- ? „ 3 • ‚.‚.‚
5õ =b8 •e ? 1 ö? Uõ A A . 1 cb0? 9R8 U b ÷ A <9 ÷ ³õ3 9dm? <ö0õ öR ? Uõ -3 . õ- 1 « » =BCA " / A < 1/
õ `ö? (9 S 1 ugly) She is ugly ÷ 8=A Ńm? .3 3 RB VW 70@ öR ? / <3- 3 cb0? 9R8 = µ"
.9C 1 1/ ³õ3 õ `ö? " S š ö? ö V3 ? / ö - . -3 õ She is not so beautiful
/)9 ¥ž{? VW 9b "9 öBt8 t1W 3 • ö;" < 1 3 •B? V õ s " UBs" . .9C 1 ÷ ³õ3 9dm? ö ? =A S` ö0õ öR ? ‚.‚.…
.70 ; A " öBs" . = 9C 1 ö ? Uõ =A S` ÷ õ ž1 ` <(70@ A õ - õ s =A P" .
V ?W " UB.- - (borrow)UB. ` ¿ e " (lend) V3 3 ¿ e
Iran finally sold it’s oil to US. : õ- 3 2- Uõ A ÷ ds 70: 5õ Ńm?
. õ s - V õ 9R1 Y x1 0õ ? . ›B? 2† õ =A - «BR1 9s" . Y x1 V õ
s† A - CA ö1Sõ - A V õ ö õ ö;" -3 . õ3 ¿ @ 1W (¿ .« š) presupposition ƒ€. 9C 1 ƒ:„ =b8 .9 ö0õ "3 ö ?
.9P 1 V õ 9R1 õ s S8 ÷ - v = P 9žA A V v 0õ ? ö õ ö?"3 -3 . P" RA - 3 s 9R1 9C1
I borrowed Ali’s book.
.3 3 ¿ e U? =A - «A B ö:@ .( ... õ M bB; A) Y3 ¿ e - ö:@ _ B U?
ö - . -3 = 9 ö 9Æ; • b:õ3 .( =b8 9Æ; =A 9Æ; U P ? cm?) 9C 1 • b:õ3 8 B? = 9 _ s öõ 8 ÷ A =b8 Uõ
. õ-"Wö? -3 ÂSõ t / < =b8 U @ =A U @ - - ds ` ÷- S` ds cm? öõ 8 -3 . Pö? 3 RB õ e
:(-±DmY2 bL.d) hyponymy ‚.„

.3 P c? P ³õ3 µ " 5õ ÷ ? -3 ÷ µ " 5õ ö õ
123
Creatures
(2 e :ž?)
animate inanimate
animals insects humans plants
dog cats horses
poodles German chepred mare pony
/ •e "-3 .«3 A V A s =A Ž3 ` ÷ A - «³ » õ `ö? 9C 1 t? § V3 A ¬3 š ` “He was walking with poodle on the street.” =:b8 -3
«P š - 3 s =@ bx? õ/ =b V v < õ `ö? (cover term) ö{P š ÙN© VW =A " ö? 3 RB =b8 ÷ A (superordinant) öõ† A ÙN©
.«9.- x1W =A «d A- » õ `ö? “He went their on his pony.” =:b8 -3 U wb . 3ö?
. õ ` subordinant - ö õ š ÙN©
124
. 3ö? V {1 - s k 1 õ/ ¬ m? .3- 3 3 8" S 1 ?/"- ÷ tB ; . =A Ä A ? ÷ µ " / ÷- CA -3 <9C 1 U w õ 2 e :ž? 3- ?-3 t
Laughter
( s)
smile giggle belly laught
grin
öA žd; : smile
(V ` S P"3 cm?) V õ s ÷3 ž1 : giggle
=t€te < 0P 9 # A b s : belly laught
9 9b Sï # 3- ? ös A -3 . P A -"W- 8S1 " A " 9dm? 1 ö? .3- 1 ö - . ¬3 ? . 3ö? V {1 - t1 13 = öõ öA žd; : grin
. V A 1W 9; # =
She grinned at me. .3/ žd; U? =A "
He grinned at the boy. . P V õ b1 Ž S•b{? ÷ t1 13 = 3-"W ª; =A öBP/ žd; V v
.9 P 3 RB grin µ " öõ ? ÷ t `}õ" / Z . =b8 -3
125
:(<±Dmn) metonymy ‚.•
(jn < u /) part-whole ‚.•.•

({e ¶2 e { ·) container-content ‚.•.‚
(< DJ e 0D. ) symbol-representation ‚.•.„
Ńm? . ö? 3 RB =õ Vb / = õ- 3 Y"3 V A/ -3 - VW U @ ` <9 c V ?- [ ? " 1/ö? ¬ m? - öïS8 5õ 9e" ö: s ‚.‡.•

-3 1W U @ ?" 3 3 RB c d? / =õ - V ? . ö õ on the wheel 2- d@ “Ali was on the wheel yesterday.” =:b8 -3
U v - «. t? öR€ Y 3 1s÷ A BC1 s† A» =:b8 ` ? .«3 A V ? . 9{š /" õ3 ö:@» õ `ö? " õ- 3 ö - .
/ =õ € ö - .-3 .÷ õ ž1 - õ3 " ÷ õ s € v= 1 sö? =€te 9:? “I was finally to provide a roof … ” =b8
÷ A BC1 s† A » õ ³A " 3 RB (Synonymy) !3 B? µ " / õ A õ < õ- 1 1W U @ öC :³1 -3 V v " 9 =1 s
t? ÷ =1 s Y 3 1 s ÷ A BC1 s† A » õ ³A " 3 RB (metonymy) =õ / õ A õ " «. t? ö š Y 3 1s
«.
“Ali ate the whole bowl” õ ³A ` .«3- s - = =b ö:@» õ `ö? Ńm? .9 !" [? V ?- [ ? " õ `ö? - ! ‰ 9e" ö: s ‚.‡.‚
õ ³A " 3 3 RB !" [? / õ A õ .3- 1 3 8" öC :³1 -3 =õ Uõ . 3- s - = v= ö? ªx 1 P/ 1 s
=:b8 -3 " .«3- s - ! ‰ VW cs 3 ÷ X„ =b ö:@» õ ³A " 3 3 RB öõ ? ÷ t `}õ" / õ A õ " «3- s - X„ =b ö:@»
V õ/ -3 ` .« { - ={ P =b =wA» õ `ö? < õ- 3 ö - . -3 - =õ U @ V v “The baby drunk the whole bottle.”
. ö? =b8 - !" [? <! ‰ ÷ 8=A =1 `" ö? 3 RB V b / < õ- 3 - =õ V b U @ Y"3
-3 7š .7 :³1 =0:? ÷ A 9 ÷3 b1 • öC :³1 -3 Ńm? .9 | s S v 5õ =1 {1 = ö? 3 RB - ÷3 b1 5õ 9e" ö: s ‚.‡.…
.« ... 3 YN@ 7 :³1 =0:?» õ `ö? =0:A «... 3 YN@ • » õ `öb1 “The Crown yesterday announced that … “ =:b8
. «... 3 YN@ /" õ3 R ä » õ `ö? - “White house yesterday announced that …” Ńm? . õ- 3 1W U @ 3- ? ös A-3
9d› U? A /" õ3 ¬3SA VW» õ `ö? “The yellow was talking to me yesterday.” : õ- 3 Y3W =A Ä A ? " =1 ? @ V B? -3 Ńm?
.(9 M / =õ 3-/ ) «.3 ö?
126
:Pragmatic ²‘^ l0 -±DmY2 Œ±R ±e ISRLG
(¯L€ ¯D lD=}D^) Syntanctic structures .•
Idioms .‚
Expression .„
(|lDY=^R) Metaphores .•
(<HkJK) Similes .•
(jc.UR¸ z) Proverbs .¡
( ¹ VD._n) Saying .¤
Symbol .¥
:(¯L€ ¯D lD=}D^) Syntanctic structures .•

=:b8 A “Can you pass the salt” =:b8 ‰ =0 õ „ :@ Ńm? .3 =b8 1W Y tR? õ A " 3 Pö? 3 RB ³õ3 ÷ - [ ? =A ö ` ÷- Bs
Uõ A A . õ A-3 9 s-3 2- Â ö - . -3 õ A " 9 9 s-3 5õ <3- 3 - s_=:A ö; • =:b8 - Bs "9 ö0õ “Can you climb the tree?”
.«÷ A U? =A "- 5b1 « s ={ ?» õ « A U? =A - 5b1 ´R©;» :3 Pö? =b8
:Tag guestion
. BC Aux NP ‰ -3 §
.(˜ ... ={ ?) 3ö? 9 s-3 ö ? " 9 will you ={ b ? =:b8 §
.«˜ö€. ?» ÷ ? =A <9 shall let’s =b §
Ali studied English yesterday, didn’t he? (˜9C 1 - © õ ) ˜=1 =³? < 1 s öC :³1 /" õ3 ö:@
Go to the door, will you? ˜-3 9b ÷ A ´R©; ={ ?
Close the window, will you? ˜÷ dA "- x š ={ ?
Let’s study physics, shall you? ˜ 1 žA 5õS . ö€. ?
Let’s go cinema, shall you? ˜b õ A ö€. ?
127
:-kEYK V•./
. 3ö? ödx ÷ ? ={ b - Bs Uõ .9 NP1 ÷ 8 ö; R? bu V ?W <ödx 2Nb8 =1 {1
Me close the window! !Y dA - x š U?
Me come to : õ ³A x{1 3 ` " “Come to the board.” : õ `ö? x{1 3 =A 3 B Ńm? .3 Pö? 3 RB S1÷ é 2Nb8 ÷ A - Bs Ub / ?
.=1 õ bt. 9 -3 - 3 B - [? 1 A sö? <«˜ A V BB? s U? = 9 Uõ V - [ ? õW» ö õ the board.
: Idioms & Expressions .„e‚

/ «õ ? Idiom ö;" 9 (transparent) ! RP VW 9s ö õ <9 š «õ ? ÙN© ‰ / Expression = 9 Uõ V {e . < 1 ÙN© "3
.9 (opaque) - VW 9s " 9C 1 ¥ž{? Ž ‰
.! RP =v PA- =v < BC 1 Symantic meaning Y 0w < BC Pragmatic meaning Ńb@ 2 #N© Yb
:Idiom ¬ m?
She ran out of gas.
II
NP1 V NP2
Z . =:b8 ÷ ? 7š <9 «V3 Y b » ö ? =A ÙN 5õ run out <3- söb1 3-3 =A " «/ ` / V" A õ"3» ö õ Z . =:b8 Symantic ÷ ?
« - « õS A 3 Y b " » :3 Pö?
:Expression ¬ m?
She ran into me on the street.
I
NP1 V PP PP
«3 3- s A U? A V A s-3» :3 Pö? Z . =:b8 ö ? .9 «V3 3- s A» ö ? =A run into sb
:Metaphores & Similes .•e•

. BC 1 öb:@ V B? -3 " BC öA3 V B? -3 t tõ
Ńm?.9 = d{ 2 3 t1W Uõ t? " BC 1 - B -3 t1W / "3ö0õ = ö; #-3 < BC (simile) = d{ -3 =Aú=d{? " =d{? <= d{ 2 3 <= d{ =8"
.9 9ž - = d{ =8" " 9 like = d{ 2 3 < P = d{ ox =A she < She was working like an ox. =:b8 -3
128
. õ- 3 - «V3 - s cm?» ? . õ- 1 - = d{ Uõ ö - . -3 ? ö;" «3 ö?- 1 " ` cm? " » õ `ö? Z . =:b8
. ö? = d{ 3 Acm? õ ª cm? ö - . -3 ö;" P = d{ Ž ` s =A V õ"3 She was running fast like a rabbit. =:b8 -3
They were stupid like a donkey. : 1 ? . 1 cm? = d{ 3- ? / ö: s
. s ö `" 3- 3 3 8" U @ V A/ "3 -3 ö ` (Metaphore) - B 3- ? -3

She extended the hand of courtesy toward her. (9 - B ö - . -3 _3 9 3) .3 / -3 " ÷ =A _3 9 3
The labirant of my heart is … .
. ö? 3 RB «... U? ª:e ÷ -3 =1 s» / «... U? ª:e V"S:#» ÷ 8=A Z . =:b8-3
(9C 1 « A ö0õ ÷ 8 <¬3 9 ö³ =1 s ... 9C 1 «õ"-3 ¬3 -3 <9 "3 e ; S8)
/ =õ V bv " .9C 1 - B t1W ÷ A ? ÷ - B V v< 3öb1 _ 8 ö[R:; 9› =b8 « öb1 Ubv c ? v U? V bv " » 3- ?-3
. õ- X`ö? U? =A c ? <Ubvc ? ÷ 8 =A " 3öb1 öõ ? U v x1W = ö; #-3 9 :A e- õ
Why isn’t my tall beloved incline to with me?
:Proverbs & Sayings .¤e¡

¥ž{? Ž ‰ / «õ ?Proverb ö;" 9 (transparent) ! RP VW 9s ö õ <9 š «õ ? ÙN© ‰ / Saying = 9 Uõ V {e .
.9 (opaque) - VW 9s " 9C 1
V A V ?3 s V A/ Saying A õ - Saying .3 Pö? 3-"W 3 õ =A VW õ ` ö? b@ V ê -3 / ´† b ? " =BR` ö`-SA = 9 ÷SÆ1 - BR` Saying
. ö? cõ d Proverb =A P A =BP 3 ` õ " ö? Ž =b8 õ ö?
The bigger the boat is, the safer the cruise will be. . U? öõ õ-3 R < B`-SA ®õ e =v
Knowledge is power. ((ö "3 .) 3 A 1 3 = 3 A 1 ) .9 2- e «1 3
What goes up, was come down. (3 P V ³1 <3 P :A V v - .) .9 ÷3" . - ÷/ .
.9 ¥ž{? " 3 Pö? 3 . t1W / ? Ń? V v < 1 (Saying) SÆ1 - BR` Z . 2Nb8
129
It’s like look in a gift horse in the mouth. .ö{ « š ª V 3 -3 V3 ³1

=BR` 1W = 3 Pöb1 3-"W 3 õ =A öˆžP " 3öb1 ? ö{ « š ª V 3 -3 V3 ³1 ? ‰ -3 õ/ <9 (Proverb) cmb; _ u Z . =:b8
. PA
: ö? =b8 õ/ ÷ tB; # =A Saying " Proverb 7š
: P =b8 ´ @" ?W ö - . =A ´ s = õ/ cmb; _ u cm? . ö? Ž =b8 ´ @ < õ- 1 1W ¬3 ? ` -•
It’s like look in for a needle in haystack. . - d1 -3 V/ ¬ d13 UB{`
.70 ; A " ö? cõ d Proverb =A - Saying -‚
In for a penni, in for a pound. (˜3- 3 öe . =v) . 1 š 5õ ÷ A öBR A V 1/ =A õ ö š 5õ ÷ A öBR A V 1/ =A
.ª8" =v ª8" 5õ =v <9PX` / = _W
The problem doubled. . P A A"3 c0{?
.9CAö? «?3 =A "- 8 <9.-öb1 ä - Ž ?
They buried the hatchet but left the handle sticking out. . BP X` V" A Â s / - Ž =B 3 ? V3 U.3 - d t1W
. BP X` - - 2 .NBs ´ ‰ t1W
: Symbol .¥
( 1 wš" A M-3 3 B {1 9e") . xA 8 Metaphore A 1 ö? ´€ e3 " 3- 1 3 RB 3 õ/
130
Cohesion Discours ²‘^ l0 -±DmY2 Œ±R ±e ISRLG
Coherence
Propositional Analysis
3-"W - «Y xC1 <ö³B š» =b8 2- d@ "3 ÷ A <M P®# b›?ö:@ B 3 # ? .9 P öR:Bž? ÷ =b8 Z . 2- d@"3 ÷ A -
"9 ö³B š Cohesion õ `ö? (=Bs ?W B 3 cm?) ³õ3 ös A " ö³B š ÷ ³õ3 " 9 Y xC1 Cohesion õ `ö? ös A .9
. õ ³A 3 õ öC :³1 ö? V b =A " õ {1 ÷/ A Uõ 3- " Ń . 1 3ö? Y xC1 - Coherence
- UB? sW ¬" / öBe" ö;" .UB? sW õ Aö? 2X; 3 s «õ õ" / " ö? «õ õ" " =b8 ! ` - š =A ! ` - š 2- Â - UB? 3- ? ös A -
.9 {1 9õ @- Cohesion = 9 Uõ 9:@ .9C 1 õ P s < 1 sö?
2" RB? V A/ "3 -3 Binding ¬ Ubu-3 . 1SA § ; =:b8 < 01 9õ @- - Cohesion ` ö ` " 9C 1 V C0õ :Bž? V A/ "3 -3 Cohesion ¬ -
.3 P UP"- 1 s÷ A 3 - P VW =A õ A Y"3 V A/ -3 = P A =BP 3 öˆž{? ö õS`•8 ? û d? V A/ -3 =:b8 " 9
. õ- 1 ö©sÍ =:b8 ö - . -3 = ö; #-3 <9 ¬" B? (ö©sÍ) :A =:b8 öC :³1 -3 .9 2" RB? t1 A/ -3 =:b8 ¬ -
bP = 3 Pöb1 c ;3 " P A 3 01 9õ @- Cõ 1 9 U0b? < BC U@= ö• A < BC 1 U @ V A/ "3 «õ õ" @ e 7š -
. 01 9õ @-
:(-y=^LH]) Cohesion
(ö1 ?/ ö@ 8- 2- d@) time deixis
(ö1 0? ö@ 8- 2- d@) place deixis Deixis (deictic expressions: -SD/lR VRlDkS ) .•
(÷3 . ö@ 8- 2- d@) person deixis
Conjunction .‚
Co-refrence terms (-/ 2: VRlDkS) .„
Cohesive links (DmY2 ) lIHG) .•
Tense trend (Š=2 - D2Ì el) .•
131
:Deixis (deictic expression) .•

- =:b8 " 9 ö1 0? ö@ 8- 2- d@ « x1W-3» <3- 1 3 8" ö: UB? -3 = ö? =. u « x1W-3» VW ÷ BA -3 " ö? =b8 - ÷ =:b8 9e" 5õ *
. 3ö? 1 š cde =:b8 =A
Last Monday I decided to go to ministry of education. I hppen to be able to talk to the man who …
. 9d› 3 A ... ¬ •C? = ÷3 ? A BC1 é R /"- VW-3 .Y" A Ž-" š " Ž/ ?W 2- /" =A B. ` bˆ « š =d P"3
.9 ö1 ?/ k 8- «/"- VW-3 » 2- d@ Z . =:b8 -3 *
. õ 3 3 RB ÷3 . ö@ 8- 2- d@ / « ...:9R` U? =A B.3 VW Y B›? ¬ •C?» Cõ A ` He told me … cm? ÷ =:b8 -3 *
.9 öõ ? «õ õ" «b " P A =BP 3 3 8" =:b8 -3 =01W V" A < =. u =:b8 =A 3 . õ V 0? <V ?/ ÷ A ö@ 8- 2- d@ õ/ x? ? 7š -
:Conjunction .‚
.( P A ¬" =:b8 A 3 • -3 Y"3 =:b8 = ö - -3) « ? » A õ ö? c " =A «"» A - 9 =©€1 t1W U A = =:b8 "3
:Co-refrence terms .„
.9 cde =:b8 -3 VW •8 ? ö õ < õ-"Wö? (which / A) P !X# = NP1 õ it ÷ 8=A - «=u e A » õ « [1 3- ? U ?» Ńm?
.9 ?W «=bs3» cde =:b8 -3 V v < ö? 3 RB «! ž? 5õ- Z » / there ÷ 8=A õ
:Cohesive links .•
. ..." ¬ #Uõ A <( P A =x B1 Y"3 =:b8 öBe") Uõ A A <=Bd; .( P A ¬" =:b8 A 3 • -3 Y"3 =:b8 öBe") ö? =. u «Uõ 3 8" A» ÷ =:b8 ÷ BA Ńm?
.IHms |0D1=^R |Dk=dR D;=m2
132
:Tense trend .•
Ńm? .3 Pöb1 9õ @- V ?/ ö; <öBC 1 ·? ÷ t1 B 3´ ˆs V B? ös A -3 .3 Pö? =BR` öv2 A3 = " ƒ€. < õ A Y x1 3 söb1 bP
.3 Pö? ! sS? ö: s <3 P 3 RB VW ¬3 ? V ?/ / =b8 -3 öBe" .c? =BPX` "9 c? ¬# <=BPX` -3 õW <9 õW
. ö? Cb - =:b8 V ?/ 9; # Uõ -3
.3 Pö? 3 RB öBC 1 ·? V B? -3 ƒ€. " 3 Pöb1 3 RB ö A3 UB? -3 V v .3 Pöb1 3 3 M-3 ô›A Uõ
:( DE\ R) Coherence
The ability of the speaker and listener to fill the gaps between the sentences of text
UB? 5õ 2Nb8 U A üs V3 š öõ 1
.3 Pöb1 ‰ UB? 3 s -3 ö õ <9 UB? Cõ 1/ 1 s -3 " 9C 1 UB? -3 Ń Coherence
. õ ` Background Knowledge U ê -3 «1 3 Uõ =@ bx? =A < õ- 3 ö{1 3 5õ ÷S v / bP

/ ÷ =@ bx? ö õ bhP .3 Pö? C€ :Bž? (schema) ÷ bhP =A = ?/« š «1 3 Uõ
. ... " UB.- V - B - <UB.- Y b# <V3/ UR: Ńm? .| s k u ? 5õ = A •8 - = ?/« š «1 3
3 Pö? ¬ . bP U ê -3 VW / ö{žA < õ `ö? ÷ =:b8 ÷3 . öBe" öõ bhP -3
Script < õ ³A - cï C? =b õ ` 9C 1 Y/† ³õ3 " bt.ö? VW A bP " õ `ö? script VW =A =
. õ- 3 Â B{? = ?/« š «1 3 õ ` A bP V v
= B.- ö1 bBs =A /" õ3» 2- Â - «Y3- s 5 B V - B - -3 /" õ3» =:b8 5õ Ńm?
Schema
«... " 9. `ö? X„ Ž- R " 9P 3 V - ` Y 1 =A R1 5õ " 9P 3 ö; " S ? " Á-SA U;
Background Knowledge . V A õA
133
: Cõ 1ö? - õ/ Á ; õ3 study of languge _ B -3 « õ •- 8» ÷ eW

A: Honey, that’s the phone. Please pick up the receiver and answer the phone.
B: I’m in the bath. I can’t come out like this and answer the phone.
A: OK. I understood and I pick. I answer the phone myself.
ö0õ õ ` = ?/« š «1 3 A V B 3 Uõ / bP = ?/« š «1 3 V v ö;" <3- 1 =A ö©A- – ‰ -3 = 9 =:b8 - š = Z . Á ; õ3

. ö? š - õ ` (impliciture) ö bu - P = - =:b8 Uõ U A üs " ö? 3 RB VW / bP < 3 A
. A _ 8 " - 3 A - öP ` ´R©; " 1/ö? §1/ UR: ö õ . -ö? bP U ê =A UR: V3/ §1/ 9·õ 0 " ö R: =b; 0? ÷ bhP ¬" © V P A
.3 Pö? =BR` ¬" 9bCe ƒ€. " 3 Pöb1 =BR` =:b8 Uõ Y b = ö; #-3
. A - UR: _ 8 " õ A V" A 9 u" Uõ A 1 öb1 ö õ < õWö? U ê -3 öõ {B 3 =A Ä A ? 9·õ 0 Y"3 =:b8 V P A
. 3ö? _ 8 " Y- 3ö? A - öP ` Y3 s " Y bt. ö õ Y =:b8
õ P- b 5õ ƒ " ` Uõ A A . 3ö? - e 8 5õ -3 - =b † # . 13 A 8 / V v <öõ {B 3 bath " 3 A Y b# bathroom õ e -3 -
.( söb1 Y b# ") 3- 3 öõ {B 3 ö õ “I need to go to the bathroom.” 9R` öC
: õ/ Á ; õ3 1?. =b8 1W õ- dx? <3 d1 ö0õ Cõ 1 " bP backround knowledge ` ÎÎÎÎÎÎÎÎÎ’ÎÎÎ?

A: I’m having the party on Thursday night.
B: I have my math exam on Friday.
A: What a pity.
= ö; #-3 < õ A bP = 9C 1 ö ? Uõ =A Ń ¬" =:b8 ö - . -3 =0 õ ÷ A .9 ƒ:„ ö - . -3 < Cõ A 2- Ub =A - Z . Á ; õ3 `
.9C 1 ? = ?/« š «1 3 -3 Uõ = ö - -3.öõ A ö? 2 @3 / ö õ Y- 3 ö1 bt? U? =0 õ =0:A . A õ `öb1 Ń öC :³1 -3
«. õ-" A õ { ` Y Pö? ¬ ›P s <Y- 3 ö1 bt? =d {x š» : ö? =b8 - © õ Uõ A A
«.Y {A 3 ?W = b8 öu õ- V ›B? ÷ A õ A < R éB?» : ö? =b8 - © õ Uõ A A . 1 žA M-3 { A õ A = 9C 1 ö ? Uõ =A Y"3 =:b8
134
:(Propositional Analysis) R |lR f\sd
"9 - S` 9C0P ,$ ? «$ $" - U$ d$/ .9 öõ ? «õ õ" ª:©? c ¬3 ? 9 b [1 / " 9 öõ ? «õ õ" ô›A Uõ t? " Uõ sW
.9C 1 ,C - =Bd;
_B b# » =:b8 Ńm? .ª ? " ƒ CA :9 k 1 "3 - S` .3 {1 =b8 VW / « A " P A =BP 3 =:b8 c0P = öõ ? # " Uõ B0v : - S` õ
.«3 A S? e b# _ B » " «3 3 ? =A - «A B b# » :3- 3 - S` "3 «3 3 ? =A - ŽS? e
ADV ADV they are

Because no people can be truly happy though under the greatest Enjoyment of civil liberties if abridged of the freedom of their consciences,
adv adv they are adv
as to their religious and worship; And Almighty God being the only lord of Conscience, father of lights and spirits and the author as well as
adv who is
object of all divine knowledge, faith and worship , who only enlighten the minds, and persuade and convince the understanding of
RC=M5
people , I do hereby grant and declare that no person or persons, inhabiting in this province or territories, who shall confess and
RC NP2 who are RC=M5
acknowledge one almighty God, the creater, upholder and ruler of the world; …
3 /W / 1 P Y" ›? t1W ` ,1 ? t$3 /W / ? tA U$ B{ A 9› BC t1W =v ` P A ¬ ›P s ´ e " 1 ,b1 70w =01W ªd =A

< :@ =b k u ? S 1 " k d? " t#"- " t $ P"- - š -" A " 1 ? . t 9C = ¬ B? s " V P ,d X? -" A " V b$ | ˆs -3 V {$ -" A
3 .– = ,? YN@ " å$ ˆ =: $ A U? - 3 . Â-3 ,? @ €B? " ,? ª „ " - U ê ,? UP"- t = ,t; «$ B " V b$
" - V t8 #" 1- t³1 " ®; s , $ - # " s 5$ ,? ®$ ˆ " ,? V @ê = U ?/ " " b:e U$ -3 BC U = 3 . $
.9 0; ? $ 3 . Z €# " 1 ` - e ß d " - /W 3- ? $ d1 ,1 ? 9;"3 9› Y -W ,` 1/ =A 1 P t B? = V P3 s $ Ž3 s ,? YN@
" C$ 1 ,? 1W ?W " š e =:b8 BA V v . $-"W ,? -3 - ,: - S` ¬" . 3 ,? - S` 9C0P < P A :A ,: s =:b8 ,Be"

. 1 ,: - S` $/ - S` . C$ 1 ,? - =$ š =:b8 7·
135
[" š =:b8] (•) P A ¬ ›P s ´ e " 1 ,b1 70w …

[=$ š =:b8] (‚) ,? YN@ " å$ ˆ =: $ A U? ‡
. ,? «$ $" - - S` =:# ? U b -3 . ,? š - ³$3 - S` ¬ #

( BC - 3 s A ,1 ? t$3 /W U$ B{ A / t1W =v ` ) ,1 ? t$3 /W / ? tA U$ B{ A 9› BC t1W =v ` (•)
,d X? -" A " V b$ | ˆs -3 €@ 3 /W / t1W ` ) V P ,d X? -" A " V b$ | ˆs -3 V {$ -" A 3 /W / 1 P Y" ›? t1W ` (•)
( 1 P Y" ›? V P
.9 ,t; «$ B " V b$ <Y :@ =b k u ? S 1 " k d? " t#"- " t $ P"- - š " -" A " 1 ? . t ¬ B? s " (•)
ªd " ,? UP"- - V ê ¬ B? s t ") - 3 . Â-3 ,? @ €B? " ª „ " - V ê ,? UP"- t ¬ B? s " (•)
(.33 ` ,? 3 . V P @ €B? " Â -3
" 1- t³1 " ®; s , $ - # " s 5$ ,? ®$ ˆ " ,? V @ê = U ?/ " " b:e U$ -3 BC U = 3 . $3 .– (‚)
,? ®$ ˆ " V @ê V t8 #" 1- t³1 " ®; s " # " s 5$ 3 8" =A = U ?/ " " b:e U$ -3 U 3 . $3 .– ) - V t8 #
(
t B? Y -W ,` 1/ =A V P3 s ,? YN@ = 3 . $3 .– ") Y -W ,` 1/ =A 1 P t B? = V P3 s $ Ž3 s ,? YN@ " (‚)
(. 1 P
9;"3 9› 9 0; ? $ 3 . Z €# -3 ß d " - /W 3- ? $ d1) 9 0; ? $ 3 . Z €# " 1 ` - e ß d " - /W 3- ? $ d1 ,1 ? 9;"3 9› (‚)
(. 1 ` - e ,1 ?
< ,? š - =:b8 Ä d - .9R` Aª ?ª =A - Y"3 = $ ¬" - tv $ 9R` ,0$ ,0$ - Z . - S` V ,? ¬ #

³$3 A Y $3 $ A) 3 3 ƒA- =A ,€© ? ¬ "- 5$ M A = = $ "3 "3 V ,? ,B# . BC ³$3 2Nb8 =x B1 =:b8 ,s A
.(9 Y €?
-V ê = 9 " t "9 ,t; «$ B " V b$ <Y :@ =b k u ? S 1 " k d? " t#"- " t $ P"- - š " -" A " 1 ? . t ¬ B? s (•
3 P Y" ›? Ž ,d X? -" A " V b$ | ˆs -3 €@ 3 /W / ,C ` ¬ # 33 ` ,? 3 . V P @ €B? " Â -3 ªd " ,? UP"-
136
,? YN@ " å$ ˆ =: $ A U? U$ A A P A ¬ ›P s ´ e " 1 ,b1 =8" – =A P A - 3 s A ,1 ? t$3 /W U$ B{ A / =v `
®$ ˆ " V @ê V t8 #" 1- t³1 " ®; s " # " s 5$ 3 8" =A = U ?/ " " b:e U$ -3 U 3 . $3 .– 2- ˆ $ -3 =
.3 ` - e ,1 ? 9;"3 9› 9 0; ? $ 3 . Z €# | ˆs-3 ß d " - /W 3- ? $ d1 ,? t B? Y -W ,` 1/ =A - 3 s " ,?
-V ê = 9 " t "9 ,t; «$ B " V b$ <Y :@ =b k u ? S 1 " k d? " t#"- " t $ P"- - š " -" A " 1 ? . t ¬ B? s (‚
.33 ` ,? 3 . V P @ €B? " Â -3 ªd " ,? UP"-
S` / A P A - 3 s A ,1 ? t$3 /W U$ B{ A / =v ` 3 P Y" ›? V P ,d X? -" A " V b$ | ˆs -3 €@ 3 /W / 3 . ` ¬ #
. P A ¬ ›P s ´ e " 1 ,b1
9;"3 9› 9 0; ? $ 3 . Z €# | ˆs-3 ß d " - /W 3- ? $ d1 3 . $3 .– = ,? YN@ " å$ ˆ =: $ A U? U$ A A
.3 ` - e ,1 ?
,` 1/ =A - 3 s " ®$ ˆ " V @ê V t8 #" 1- t³1 " ®; s " # " s 5$ 3 8" =A " P A U ?/ " " b:e U$ -3 U `
. $ b1 t B? Y -W
137
amir.r1388@gmail.com ÎÎÎ? ƒ P=t

. P A ®. ?
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