474
2, JUNE 2005
Influence of Excitation System Control Modes on
the Allowable Penetration Level of Distributed
Synchronous Generators
Walmir Freitas, Member, IEEE, Jose C. M. Vieira, Student Member, IEEE, Andre Morelato, Member, IEEE, and
Wilsun Xu, Senior Member, IEEE
Abstract—This paper investigates the impacts of different exci-
tation system control modes on potential factors that can limit the
maximum allowable number of synchronous generators connected
to power distribution systems. Excitation systems acting as either
a voltage regulator or a power factor regulator are examined. The
impacts on steady-state voltage, angle stability, short-circuit cur-
rents and voltage stability are determined. Simulation results show
that the usage of the excitation system as a voltage regulator can in-
crease the maximum penetration level of synchronous generators
in distribution systems.
Index Terms—Distributed generation, excitation system, short-
circuit, steady-state voltage, synchronous generator, transient sta-
bility, voltage stability.
I. INTRODUCTION
T HE USAGE of distributed generation has increased
worldwide driven by market deregulation and continuous
demand rise [1]–[3]. Despite the fact that considerable attention
has been paid to new generation technologies, e.g., fuel cells
and photovoltaic arrays, nowadays, most distributed generation
sites employ synchronous machines [1]–[3]. Although such
technology is well known, there is no consensus among dif-
ferent utility practices on what is the best mode of controlling
the excitation system of synchronous generators connected
to distribution systems [2]. Typically, there are two different
modes of controlling the excitation system of distributed
synchronous generators. One aims to maintain constant the
terminal voltage (voltage control mode) and the other one aims
to maintain constant the power factor (power factor control
mode) [1], [4]. This decision depends on the operational rules
adopted by the utility.
In view of these facts, it is important to understand the im-
pacts of different excitation system control modes on factors
that can potentially limit the number of synchronous genera-
tors connected to a typical distribution system, i.e., the max-
imum allowable penetration level of distributed synchronous
Manuscript received September 29, 2003. This work was supported by the
National Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC) and
by the Fundacão de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP),
Brazil. Paper no. TEC-00275-2003.
W. Freitas and W. Xu are with the Department of Electrical and Computer
Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2V4, Canada (e-mail:
walmir@ieee.org; wxu@ee.ualberta.ca).
J. C. M. Vieira and A. Morelato are with the Department of Electrical Energy
Systems, State University of Campinas (UNICAMP), C.P. 6101, 13081-970
Brazil (e-mail: jcarlos@dsee.fee.unicamp.br; morelato@dsee.fee.unicamp.br).
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TEC.2004.841526
0885-8969/$20.00 © 2005 IEEE
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ENERGY CONVERSION, VOL. 20, NO.
generators. This paper presents research results considering dis-
tinct scenarios and technical factors. The factors analyzed are
steady-state voltage profile, angle stability, short-circuit currents
and voltage stability. Simulation results have shown that the
usage of the excitation system as a voltage regulator is the best
strategy to increase the allowable penetration level of distributed
generation.
The paper is organized as follows. In Section II, the network
component models adopted in this study are described. The im-
pacts of the excitation system control on the steady-state voltage
are analyzed in Section III. Section IV investigates the influ-
ences on the transient stability. In Section V, the short-circuit
currents supplied by synchronous generators under both con-
trol modes are determined. The impact on the voltage stability
margin is addressed in Section VI.
II. DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM COMPONENT MODELS
In this work, all network components were represented by
three-phase models. In the steady-state voltage and stability
studies, the network variables were represented by phasor
models, as it is usual in transient stability simulations. Whereas
electromagnetic transient simulation was employed in the
short-circuit current studies, i.e., the network variables were
represented by instantaneous values. Distribution feeders were
modeled as series RL impedances. Three-phase transformers
were simulated taking into account the core losses (T circuit).
Loads were represented by exponential voltage-dependent
models [5], [6]. In the calculation of steady-state voltage pro-
files, the active and reactive components of loads were assumed
as constant power. Otherwise, in the calculation of short-circuit
currents and stability studies, active power loads were repre-
sented by constant current models and reactive power loads
by constant impedance models, as recommended in [5] for
dynamic simulations.
A. Synchronous Generator
In the electromagnetic simulation studies, the dynamic be-
havior of synchronous generators was represented by an eighth-
order three-phase model in the dq rotor [6]. In the transient sta-
bility simulations, such representation was reduced to a sixth-
order model, i.e., the stator transients were neglected. Usually,
distributed generators do not participate in the frequency regu-
lation of the system and, therefore, they operate in constant ac-
tive power mode. Thus, the mechanical power was considered
constant.
FREITAS et al.: INFLUENCE OF EXCITATION SYSTEM CONTROL MODES ON DISTRIBUTED SYNCHRONOUS GENERATORS
Fig. 1. Generic excitation system.
Fig. 2. Single-line diagram of the system 1.
B. Excitation System
A functional description of excitation systems acting as a
voltage or power factor regulator is provided in [4]. Therefore,
only the basic concepts of these regulators are presented in this
section. Furthermore, in [4], the steady-state effects of different
excitation control modes on nodal voltages of a transmission
system is analyzed. Here, dynamical simulation analysis is ap-
plied to distribution systems in order to investigate the impacts
of different types of excitation control modes on the allowable
penetration level of distributed generation.
The general structure of an excitation system is presented in
Fig. 1, which consists of measurement and signal processing cir-
cuits, a regulator and an exciter. A determined error signal, ob-
tained comparing the reference value with the measured
signal is provided for the regulator. Then, the exciter field
voltage is adjusted based on the regulator output. The reg-
ulator is normally equipped with over and underexcitation lim-
iters, which limit the maximum reactive power injected or con-
sumed by the generator [7], [8].
Voltage Regulator: in this case, the measured signal is
given by (1), where is the terminal voltage phasor, is the
terminal current phasor, is the operator and is the
compensation reactance. Reactive droop compensation (posi-
tive ) is adopted to share the reactive current among gener-
ators connected to the same bus. Line drop compensation (neg-
ative ) is used to regulate the voltage at a remote bus, usu-
ally the transformer high-voltage bus. In this work, the reactive
current compensation was neglected . In this case,
the terminal voltage is directly compared with the voltage ref-
erence. The usage of reactive current compensation
should not be confused with power factor regulators [4]
(1)
Power Factor Regulator: in this case, the measured signal
is the power factor. The field voltage is adjusted to maintain
constant this power factor. Such type of regulator is often used
for excitation control of synchronous motors [4]. In the case of
475
distributed generators, this control strategy is usually adopted by
independent producers to avoid penalties due to excessive reac-
tive power consumption [1]. In consequence, unitary or capaci-
tive power factor operation is adopted. Otherwise, such strategy
of control may also be required by regulatory agencies to mini-
mize the steady-state voltage rise in the presence of distributed
generators [2]. In this situation, inductive power factor opera-
tion is required. Thus, the generator can operate in unitary, in-
ductive or capacitive power factor, depending on the regulatory
operating rules. Therefore, in this study, the following different
values of power factor reference were simulated: unitary power
factor, 0.95 inductive power factor and 0.95 capacitive power
factor.
III. STEADY-STATE VOLTAGE
One of the factors that can limit the number of distributed
generators connected to distribution systems is the steady-state
voltage rise [2], [9], mainly during low demand intervals. Be-
fore installing (or allowing the installation of) a distributed gen-
erator, the Distribution Network Operator requires that the worst
operating scenarios be analyzed to ensure that the network volt-
ages will not be adversely affected due to the presence of the
generators. Typically, these scenarios are [9]:
• no generation and maximum demand;
• maximum generation and maximum demand;
• maximum generation and minimum demand.
In this work, it was considered that the minimum demand cor-
respond to 20% of the maximum demand. Moreover, the allow-
able steady-state voltage variation was adopted equal to
(0.95/1.05 pu).
The single-line diagram of the system used in this section is
shown in Fig. 2. Such network consists of a 132-kV, 60-Hz, sub-
transmission system with short-circuit level of 1000 MVA, rep-
resented by a Thévenin equivalent (Sub), which feeds a 33-kV
distribution system through one 132/33 kV, transformer.
The feeder X/R ratio is 4.3. The substation transformer tap was
adjusted to maintain the nodal voltage in all buses within the
476
Fig. 3. Voltage profile considering different control modes of the excitation
system.
allowable range for minimum and maximum demand consid-
ering the case without generator . Assume that
an independent producer wishes to install six 5-MW, 0.90 power
factor, synchronous generators at bus 8 through dedicated trans-
formers. For this situation, simulation studies were carried out
to verify what control mode of the excitation system allows such
installation.
The nodal voltage profile for the maximum and minimum de-
mand cases is shown Fig. 3. In this figure, the allowable values
of nodal voltage (0.95/1.05 pu) are represented by horizontal
dotted lines. In this case, it was simulated that the six generators
were injecting nominal active power (5 MW) into the network.
It can be seen that some nodal voltages will violate the superior
limit during minimum loading if capacitive or unitary power
factor control mode is adopted. Whereas, if inductive power
factor control mode is implemented, then some nodal voltages
will be below the inferior limit during maximum loading. On the
other hand, if constant voltage control mode is employed, then
the nodal voltages will remain within the allowable range for
both demand cases. If voltage control mode is chosen, the ma-
chine power factor will vary from 0.9731 inductive to 0.9981
capacitive for the minimum and maximum demand values,
respectively.
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ENERGY CONVERSION, VOL. 20, NO. 2, JUNE 2005
TABLE I
ALLOWABLE PENETRATION LEVEL OF SYNCHRONOUS GENERATORS FOR
DIFFERENT EXCITATION SYSTEM CONTROL MODES CONSIDERING
STEADY-STATE VOLTAGE ISSUES
TABLE II
VOLTAGE INDEX (V )
TABLE III
VOLTAGE INDEX (V )
To determine the maximum number of synchronous gen-
erators that can be installed without voltage violations, the
nodal voltages were calculated for each generator added in
an one-by-one basis (from 1 to 6 generators). The results
are presented in Table I. It can be seen that only the voltage
control approach allows all the six generators to be installed
without steady-state voltage violations. In the other cases, there
will be voltage violations. The third column in Table I shows
what will be the problem if a new generator is installed. The
most restrictive cases are related to the constant inductive and
capacitive power factor control modes.
A. Steady-State Voltage Variation Due to Generator Tripping
Another issue on steady-state voltage variation is to deter-
mine the impact on the voltage profile when synchronous gen-
erators are suddenly tripped off. It is desirable that this variation
be as small as possible. To examine this issue in quantitative
terms, the following global voltage index can be used:
(2)
where is the total number of buses, is the nodal voltage
of bus in the presence of distributed generators, and is the
nodal voltage of bus without distributed generators. The re-
sults obtained, considering that the six generators are tripped
off during maximum and minimum demand, are presented in
Table II. It can be observed that the unitary power factor case
FREITAS et al.: INFLUENCE OF EXCITATION SYSTEM CONTROL MODES ON DISTRIBUTED SYNCHRONOUS GENERATORS 477

Fig. 4. Single-line diagram of the system 2.

leads to the smallest voltage variation for maximum and min-

imum demand. On the other hand, the capacitive power factor
case implies in the largest voltage variation for both the loading
situations.

B. Steady-State Voltage Regulation

It is desirable that the voltage regulation, i.e., the difference
in the voltage profile between the maximum and minimum
demand cases, be as small as possible. The following global
voltage index can be employed to quantify this issue:

(3)

where is the nodal voltage of bus for maximum demand

case and is the nodal voltage of bus for minimum demand
Fig. 5. Dynamic behavior of the rotor angle.
case. The results are shown in Table III. It can be verified that, in
the presence of the distributed generators, the inductive power
factor mode implies in the worst voltage regulation (maximal
variation). On the other hand, the voltage control mode leads to
the best voltage regulation (minimal variation).

IV. ANGLE TRANSIENT STABILITY

Fault clearance time in distribution systems may be very long.
Additionally, the inertia constant of distributed generators is
typically low. In consequence, angle stability issues can limit the
amount of active power injected by synchronous generators. In
this section, the angle transient stability of distributed generators
is analyzed using the system presented in Fig. 4. Such network
comprises a 133-kV, 60-Hz, subtransmission system with short-
circuit level of 1500 MVA, represented by a Thévenin equiva-
lent (Sub), which feeds a 33-kV distribution system through two
132/33 kV, transformers. A synchronous generator with
Fig. 6. Dynamic behavior of the field voltage.
capacity of 30 MVA is connected at bus 6, which is connected
to the network through a 33/0.69 kV, transformer. This
machine can represent an equivalent of various generators in a the excitation system is to control the power factor not the ter-
thermal or small-hydro generation plant. minal voltage.
In order to verify the transient stability of this system, a three- In the case of capacitive power factor control mode, although
phase-to-ground short-circuit was applied to bus 4 at , the field voltage also decreases during the fault application, the
which was eliminated at 250 ms by tripping branch 2–4, when system is stable. This occurs because, in this case, the pre-fault
the synchronous generator was injecting 25 MW into the net- rotor angle is much smaller than it is in the other cases. Thus,
work. The rotor angle responses for different excitation control even though the rotor acceleration increases due to the behavior
modes are presented in Fig. 5, where the results were split into of the excitation system, the rotor angle does not reach the crit-
two graphs for better visualization. If the unitary or inductive ical value during the transient time interval. The values of the
power factor control modes are chosen, the system is unstable. pre-fault rotor angle for all cases are shown in Table IV for com-
This happens because the machine rotor field voltage decreases parison. A brief explanation on why these pre-fault rotor angles
during the short-circuit interval, as shown in Fig. 6. This be- are different from each case can be seen in Appendix.
havior of the field voltage affects the system dynamic adversely, The system is stable under the voltage control mode, as shown
contributing to accelerate the rotor angle, since the objective of in Fig. 5. In this case, the rotor field voltage rises fast, reaching
478 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ENERGY CONVERSION, VOL. 20, NO. 2, JUNE 2005

TABLE IV
PRE-FAULT ROTOR ANGLES

Fig. 7. Dynamic behavior of the terminal voltage.

TABLE V
MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE PENETRATION LEVEL OF EXPORTED ACTIVE
POWER DUE TO TRANSIENT STABILITY ISSUES

the maximum value during the contingency, since the objec-

tive of the excitation system is to control the terminal voltage.
The dynamic behavior of the generator terminal voltage for the
stable cases is shown in Fig. 7.

A. Critical Power Fig. 8. Phase-A stator current of the synchronous generator.

Another issue that deserves investigation is the influence of
the excitation control mode on the maximum active power (crit-
sequence, this issue can limit the maximum allowable number of
ical power) that a distributed generator can inject into the system
synchronous generators connected to a determined network. In
without provoking transient stability problems. Several simula-
this section, the impact of different excitation control modes on
tion studies were carried out considering different fault clear-
the short-circuit currents supplied by synchronous generators is
ance times and excitation control modes. The results are sum-
investigated. The system analyzed is the same shown in Fig. 4.
marized in Table V. It can be seen that the voltage and capacitive
All simulations were obtained using electromagnetic transient
power factor control modes lead to the highest values of critical
analysis. Different short-circuits were applied during 300 ms,
power. Otherwise, inductive power factor control mode can limit
from to , and cleared without line trip-
significantly the generator output. Observe that if the fault clear-
ping. The dynamic behavior of the phase-A stator current sup-
ance time is smaller than 15 cycles, both the voltage mode and
plied by the synchronous generator for a three-phase-to-ground
the capacitive power factor mode have similar impacts on the
short-circuit applied at the middle of branch 4–5 is shown in
critical power. However, if the clearance time is larger (18 cy-
Fig. 8. It can be observed that the current responses are dif-
cles, for example), then the voltage control mode presents a su-
ferent depending on the adopted control mode. In Table VI,
perior performance. This can be explained by the facts observed
the numerical value of the phase-A stator current of the syn-
in the simulations showing that if the field voltage remains low
chronous generator for four different faults is presented. The
for a long time, when capacitive power factor control is adopted,
types of faults simulated were a three-phase-to-ground fault or
then the system becomes unstable even if the pre-fault angle is
a phase-A-to-ground fault applied at bus 5 and in the middle of
small.
branch 4–5. The peak value of this current is shown in the first
column. In the remaining columns, the root-mean-square (rms)
V. SHORT-CIRCUIT CURRENTS values of the current are presented at different instants after the
It is well recognized that extensive usage of distributed gener- fault application. It can be noted that the highest values of peak
ation may increase the values of short-circuit currents. As a con- current occur when capacitive power factor control is adopted.
FREITAS et al.: INFLUENCE OF EXCITATION SYSTEM CONTROL MODES ON DISTRIBUTED SYNCHRONOUS GENERATORS
TABLE VI
PHASE-A SHORT-CIRCUIT CURRENT PROVIDED BY
SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR (P.U.)
TABLE VII
PRE-FAULT TERMINAL VOLTAGE (P.U.)
On the other hand, the lowest values are obtained when induc-
tive power factor control mode is employed. This fact can be ex-
plained considering the pre-fault values of the terminal voltage
shown in Table VII. The higher the value of the pre-fault ter-
minal voltage, the higher the maximum value of the stator cur-
rent.
The magnitude of the pre-fault terminal voltage is funda-
mental to determine the maximum value of the short-circuit cur-
rent, however, the dynamic behavior of the field voltage deter-
mines the sustained response. Such fact can be verified by ana-
lyzing the rms value of the short-circuit current along the time.
It can be seen that after 12 cycles of the fault application, the
voltage control mode leads to highest values of short-circuit cur-
rent. In the inductive power factor case, the generator is practi-
cally unable to supply sustained short-circuit currents. This is
an important fact because, in this case, the generator protection
system may not be able to detect the fault in the network.
VI. VOLTAGE STABILITY
Normally, the installation of synchronous generators can
enhance the voltage stability of distribution networks. How-
479
Fig. 9. PV curve of bus 4.
ever, the amount of voltage stability margin improvement will
depend on the excitation control mode chosen. In order to
investigate this issue, the PV curves of the system shown in
Fig. 4 were determined. Usually, distributed generators are not
rescheduled by the system operator. Thus, the PV curves were
obtained varying the active and reactive loads and keeping con-
stant the active power injected by the synchronous generator at
the nominal level (30 MW). The PV curve of bus 4 is presented
in Fig. 9. It can be seen that the presence of the generator
increases the system voltage stability margin, independently
of the control mode chosen. However, the largest gain of the
voltage stability margin is obtained when the excitation system
acts as a voltage regulator. Whereas the smallest gain of the
margin occurs when the excitation control is operating in
inductive power factor mode. In the case of voltage control
mode, the generator can operate using its reactive power limit
dynamically, improving the performance of the system voltage
stability. On the other hand, if the power factor control mode is
adopted, then the generator cannot dynamically supply proper
reactive power support, limiting the beneficial effect of the
generator installation on the system voltage stability.
VII. CONCLUSIONS
Among the various factors that can determine the penetration
level of synchronous generators in distribution networks, the ex-
citation system control mode is one of significant importance.
Therefore, in this work, the impacts of excitation systems acting
either as a voltage regulator or as a power factor regulator on the
allowable penetration level of distributed synchronous genera-
tors were investigated with respect to steady-state voltage, angle
stability, short-circuit current and voltage stability issues. Based
on simulation results, obtained using dynamical models, it can
be concluded that the voltage control mode for the excitation
system is the most advantageous strategy to increase the allow-
able penetration level of distributed synchronous generation in
typical distribution networks.
480 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ENERGY CONVERSION, VOL. 20, NO. 2, JUNE 2005

• Generator operating in inductive power factor :

the numerical value of increases, consequently, in-
creases.
Therefore, it is necessary to increase the generator internal
angle if it is desirable that synchronous generators consume
reactive power from the network.

Fig. 10. Single-machine system.
APPENDIX
PRE-FAULT ROTOR ANGLE CALCULATION
The values of pre-fault angle are different when using distinct
excitation control modes due to the reactive power injected by
the generator for each case. It is important to remember it is
not possible to neglect the - coupling in distribution systems
due to high X/R ratio. This fact can be verified by analyzing
the single-machine system presented in Fig. 10. Such system
consist of a synchronous generator, which is represented by a
voltage source behind an impedance, connected to a system bus
through a line. It is possible to show that, neglecting the rotor
saliency, the steady-state internal angle of the generator is
given by [6, pp. 101]
(4)
REFERENCES
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Generation, 1st ed. London, U.K.: IEE, 2000.
[2] (1999) Dispersed Generation. CIRED Working Group 4. [Online].
Available: http//www.cired.be
[3] “Impact of Increasing Contribution of Dispersed Generation on the
Power System,” CIGRÉ Working Group 37.23, 1999.
[4] J. D. Hurley, L. N. Bize, and C. R. Mummert, “The adverse effects of
excitation system var and power factor controller,” IEEE Trans. Energy
Convers., vol. 14, no. 4, pp. 1636–1641, Dec. 1999.
[5] IEEE Task Force on Load Representation for Dynamic Performance,
“Load representation for dynamic performance analysis,” IEEE Trans.
Power Syst., vol. 8, no. 2, pp. 472–482, May 1993.
[6] P. Kundur, Power System Stability and Control. New York: McGraw-
Hill, 1994.
[7] “Recommended models for overexcitation limiting devices,” IEEE
Trans. Energy Convers., vol. 10, no. 4, pp. 706–712, Dec. 1995.
[8] “Underexcitation limiter models for power stability studies,” IEEE
Trans. Energy Convers., vol. 10, no. 3, pp. 525–531, Sep. 1995.
[9] C. L. Masters, “Voltage rise: The big issue when connecting embedded
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pp. 5–12, 2002.
Walmir Freitas (M’02) received the B.Sc. and M.Sc. degrees from Sao Paulo
State University (UNESP), Sao Paulo, Brazil, in 1994 and 1996, respectively,
and the Ph.D. degree from the State University of Campinas (UNICAMP),
Campinas, Brazil, in 2001, all in electrical engineering.
He is currently a Post-Doctoral Fellow at the University of Alberta, Ed-
monton, AB, Canada. His research interests are in power system stability and
control, distributed generation, and power electronic applications.

where , , is the generator

stator resistance, is the feeder series resistance, is the Jose C. M. Vieira (S’97) graduated in electric engineering from the University
generator synchronous reactance, is the feeder series reac- of Uberlandia (UFU), Uberlandia, Brazil, in 1996, and received the M.Sc. degree
tance, is the magnitude of the terminal current injected by in 1999 from the State University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas, Brazil,
where he is currently pursuing the Ph.D. degree.
the generator, is the magnitude of the nodal voltage of the From 1999 to 2003, he was with FIGENER as a Consulting Engineer. His re-
system bus, and is the angle between the phasors and . search interests are distributed generation, optimal power flow, energy markets,
Multiplying the numerator and denominator of in (4) by , and power system control and dynamics.
the generator internal angle can be computed by
Andre Morelato (M’89) graduated in electronics engineering from the Instituto
(5) Tecnologico de Aeronautica (ITA) in 1970 and received the Ph.D. degree in 1982
from UNICAMP, Campinas, Brazil.
He is currently a Full Professor of Electrical Engineering at UNICAMP.
During late 1991–1992, he was with Hitachi Research Laboratory, Hitachi,
where is the active power at the receiving-end Ltd., Japan. His general areas of research interest are power system control and
bus and is the reactive power at the re- stability, distributed generation, and parallel processing applications.
ceiving-end bus. Theoretically, the generator internal angle
varies from 0 to 90 degrees. Consequently, the internal angle
increases when the numerical value of increases and vice Wilsun Xu (M’90–SM’93) received the Ph.D. degree from the University of
British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada, in 1989.
versa. Thus, the following analysis can be carried out. From 1989 to 1996, he was with B.C. Hydro as an Electrical Engineer. He
• Generator operating in capacitive power factor : joined the University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada, as an Associated Pro-
fessor in September 1996, and is presently a Full Professor of Electrical Engi-
the numerical value of decreases, consequently, de- neering. His research interests are power quality, power system stability, dis-
creases. tributed generation, and distribution automation.