IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 41, NO.
1, JANUARY/FEBRUARY 2005
Transient Stability of Small Plant Generators
Connected to a Weak Utility
System—A Case Study
J. C. Das, Senior Member, IEEE
Abstract—Small generators connected through a large
impedance and operating in synchronism with a weak utility
system are more likely to pull out of step on a large perturbation,
i.e., a fault in the utility’s system. Under an incident impact,
which will be distributed unevenly among various machines, every
machine will be retarded or accelerated, and undergo damped
or divergent oscillations. This paper demonstrates that the small
machines are more vulnerable and may fall out of step. This may
plunge the entire process plant into a complete power outage on
system separation. A case study of two small generating units
and the improvements in the transient stability by fast system
separation and load shedding is demonstrated.
Index Terms—Excitation systems, generator and load modeling,
natural frequency, synchronizing forces, transient stability.
I. INTRODUCTION
T HE purpose of a transient stability study for an industrial
generating facility is to study and implement necessary
cost-effective changes so that the plant generators can ride
through disturbances in the power system. A power system is
highly nonlinear and continuously experiences disturbances.
From a stability point of view these can be classified into two
categories: 1) contingency disturbances due to lightning, short
circuit, insulation breakdowns, and incorrect relay operations
(these may be called large perturbations or event disturbances)
and 2) load disturbances because of random variations in
the load demand. There are many definitions of the power
system stability in the literature, however, with respect to the
fault disturbances and an initial (prefault) steady equilibrium
point (SEP), it explores whether the post-fault trajectory will
settle down to a new equilibrium point in an acceptable steady
state. The definition of the final steady state is important. The
post-fault state may have periodic oscillations, which cannot be
accepted. Even small fluctuations in the voltage and frequency
are not desirable and cannot be accepted in the post fault state.
Nor subsynchronous resonance, which may occur due to con-
version of mechanical energy into electrical energy associated
with subharmonic mode [5] and electromagnetic oscillations
(due to interaction between magnetic fields) can be tolerated.
Paper PID-04-26, presented at the 2004 IEEE Pulp and Paper Industry Con-
ference, Portland, ME, June 21–26, and approved for publication in the IEEE
TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS by the Pulp and Paper Industry
Committee of the IEEE Industry Applications Society. Manuscript submitted
for review July 1, 2004 and released for publication August 26, 2004.
The author is with AMEC E&C Services Inc. Tucker, GA 30084 USA
(e-mail: jay.das@amec.com).
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TIA.2004.840973
0093-9994/$20.00 © 2005 IEEE
155
Instability occurs when the post fault trajectory of a power
system does not approach steady state. The oscillations in rotor
angle last typically one second or less and the transient stability
is decided in this interval. The dynamics of excitation systems,
underfrequency load shedding, automatic voltage regulators and
speed governing systems are all active in this time frame [1]–[3],
[26].
Dynamic stability studies cover longer time intervals, some-
times up to 30 s. These studies are aimed to obtain a larger
system response, though the attention may be focused on
a single unit or plant. The breakup of a large system can be
studied, and much effort is concentrated on undamped or poorly
damped oscillations. Conditions for oscillations between major
subsystems may depend on many variable factors, such as load
levels, generator loading, and voltages, all of which are difficult
to predict with precision. The subharmonic frequencies are
classed as inter-area oscillations, local machine-system oscilla-
tions, inter-unit mode oscillations, and torsional oscillations [4],
[5]. Power system stabilizers (PSSs) are used to eliminate and
substantially reduce the incidence of spontaneous oscillations.
For the pulp and paper mill environment the largest size of the
generator integrated in 13.8-kV distribution is around 100 MVA
(mostly connected through generator reactors) No PSSs have
been used in these installations. The dynamic characteristics of
a synchronous generator change with the torque angle and the
regulator gain and the stability of the excitation control system
is reduced. When a PSS is not applied, a fast acting or wider
bandwidth excitation system has a greater chance of destabilizing
local-machine system oscillations. The National Electric Regu-
latory Council (NERC) recommends a PSS for generators that
exceed 30 MVA or a group of machines that exceeds 75 MVA.
Time-domain methods of power system stability analysis
have been in extensive use. The model for stability analysis of
a power system may consist of many differential and algebraic
equations, depending upon the complexity of the system under
study, and the stability analysis programs are based upon
step-by-step numerical integration to simulate system behavior
relative to a given disturbance. [1], [2], [6]–[8].
For a large system, the stability analysis in the time domain
means solving thousands of nonlinear differential and algebraic
equations. The direct methods in contrast integrate only the fault
on the system and determine without integrating the post-fault
system whether or not the pre-fault system will remain stable
after the fault is cleared. This is done by comparing the system
energy, when the fault is cleared to a critical energy value. There
are several methods for determining the critical energy value,
156 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 41, NO. 1, JANUARY/FEBRUARY 2005

i.e., the closest unstable equilibrium point (UEP) and potential

energy boundary surface method (PEBS) [9]–[14]. The Electric
Power Research Institute (EPRI) program for the direct method
is in [15].
For industrial power systems, a stability study is not gener-
ally carried out, because of the cost, unless some problems are
experienced afterwards. These are mainly due to frequent faults
or disturbances in the utility system. This means that any system
modifications to improve the stability have to be carried out
after the installations are in place. Computer programs for in-
dustrial systems are invariably in the time domain and may have
limited computational capability. Some of these commercially
available programs may have enhanced capabilities to simulate a
number of generators, excitation system, governing system, and
turbine models with user-programmable interfaces. In an indus-
trial plant the loads are well defined and their dynamic models
are important for accuracy of results. Some programs may lack
in this respect.

II. STABILITY PROBLEM OF SMALL GENERATORS

Consider an incident impact in a multimachine system. This
will be unevenly distributed among various synchronous ma-
Fig. 1. A group of synchronous machines striving for some mean retardation
chines on a large incident impact, through individual oscillations.

(1)

where is the incident impact and is the

share of the individual machines in the overall impact.
Considering that the machines are connected through negli-
gible impedances, the initial angle of impact is the same for
all the machines
(2)
where are the synchronizing power of indi-
vidual machines, and is the overall synchronizing power
brought out by the incident impact.
Rigid machines with high synchronizing power take a large
share of the impact and the softer machines a smaller share of
the impact. Under this impact every machine is retarded or ac-
celerated
(3)
where is the initial retardation and is the natural frequency
of the machine. Thus, the initial retardation under the impact
differs if the natural frequency differs. The natural frequency is
given by
(4)
rpm
where is the synchronizing power, is the moment of
inertia in - , and is the system frequency in hertz.
The synchronizing forces thus brought into play cause all ma-
chines to strive for some mean retardation, Fig. 1. Each machine
undergoes further individual oscillations to accomplish this.
After decay of oscillations the smaller machines are more re-
tarded than they were under the initial impact and are loaded to
Fig. 2. Explanation of the progress of oscillations of a synchronous machine,
in a multimachine system on an incident impact.
a higher degree. The larger machines are less retarded than ini-
tially and are relieved of their overload. The final torque angle
may be larger or smaller than the initial angle of impact, de-
pending upon the ratio of the natural frequency of the machine
to the natural frequency of the entire network.
Fig. 2 shows that is the initial torque angle, which swings to
, given by the initial impact angle and the machine produces
its share of synchronizing power in the impact. All massesstrive to
attain same retardation, and this changes torque angle to . This
ultimate value is achieved only after some damped oscillations, in
which torque angle swings to , given by
(5)
where isthesystemhypotheticalnaturalfrequency,basedupon
the total synchronizing power and the moment of inertia. A gener-
ator of large synchronizing power, a rigid machine, will have high
natural frequency, greater than the system frequency. If it is two
times the system frequency, , i.e., the initial im-
pact angle for this machine was too large and reduces. A generator
DAS: TRANSIENT STABILITY OF SMALL PLANT GENERATORS CONNECTED TO A WEAK UTILITY SYSTEM
Fig. 3. Oscillations in a multimachine system on an incident impact and
instability of smaller softer machines.
ofsmallsynchronizingpowerhasalownaturalfrequencyanddoes
not contribute much to the system natural frequency. If it is 1/2 of
the system frequency, then . For this machine, the initial
impact was too small and increases to four times its original value.
Themachinemaybethrownoutofsynchronism,Fig.3.Thepower
impacts in the network are most disturbing for small machines,
with small synchronizing power.
The above scenario considers a power impact, i.e., a sudden
demand of power at some point in the interconnected system.
Under a fault condition, there will be excess power, as the
voltage collapses and the load demand may reduce. Thus,
the machines will accelerate rather than de-accelerate. Also,
the internal voltage of the machines is considered to remain
unchanged during the power impact. Practically, the excitation
system and machine characteristics will alter this simplified
picture of the complex phenomena of stability in a multima-
chine system. However, the vulnerability of smaller machines
to fall out of step is well illustrated [16].
The factors affecting stability are as follows:
• short-circuit ratio of the generator;
• inertia constant ;
• transient reactance of the generator;
• interconnecting system impedance;
• speed of relaying;
• excitation system types and response;
• fast load shedding;
• auto-reclosing.
In an industrial distribution system experiencing stability
problems, some of these parameters may not be possible to be
changed easily. Auto-closing is avoided in industrial facilities,
so that induction motors are not subjected to high transient
torque and inrush current in case the power is switched in
phase-opposition to the motor residual voltage. Synchronous
motors are, generally, not suitable for auto-transfer of power.
The short-circuit ratio of a generator is defined as shown by the
equation at the bottom of the page.
SCR can, therefore, be considered an inverse of saturated syn-
chronous reactance and is a measure of the stiffness of the ma-
Per-unit excitation at normal voltage on open circuit
SCR
157
chine. A generator with higher SCR has a relatively higher field
magnetomotive force (MMF) and operates at a smaller torque
angle compared to a generator of identical rating, but of lower
SCR. Modern generators tend to have lower short-circuit ratios
compared to their predecessors, of the order of 0.5 and the in-
crease in the stability limit is achieved through high response
excitation systems. A user may have little choice with respect to
specifying higher short-circuit ratio due to manufacturing con-
straints. SCR will impact all the other generator reactances and
also its short-circuit contribution to a system. Modifications to
relaying systems, faster system separation, fault isolation, and
load shedding are some of the measures that can be considered
to improve the stability limit. Existing excitation systems can be
replaced, the excitation systems with voltage response time of
0.1 s or less are termed high initial response excitation systems
[17].
III. A CASE STUDY WITH SMALL GENERATORS
Fig. 4 shows an electrical distribution system for a paper mill
facility. The power is received at 44 kV, and the stability of
the two small generators of 5.0 and 3.125 MVA connected to
4.16-kV bus is of concern, for faults in the utility system. The
mill load is approximately 28 khp of induction motors mainly
connected to the low-voltage distribution system. The induc-
tion motors and their power factor improvement capacitors are
shown lumped together on each equivalent load bus, connected
through transformers of equivalent impedances. The implica-
tions of this lumping are further discussed.
A. Statement of the Problem and Study Objective
The utility tie represents a weak system. The three-phase fault
current and single line-to-ground fault current at the 44-kV plant
bus is 3 kA and 2.5 kA rms symmetrical, respectively. There
are other consumers served from the same 44-kV bus in the
utility’s substation and a fault in the utility system causes severe
voltage dips pulling out both the generators out of synchronism,
plunging the whole mill into dark. A tap to other consumer from
the same 44-kV line to mill was removed, improving the situa-
tion slightly. It is desired to maintain stability of the generators
when a system separation occurs at utility’s 44-kV breaker and
maintain the essential loads of 5-khp supplied from the two gen-
erators.
B. Data for Study
The data required for the study can be divided into the fol-
lowing categories.
1) System Data: A converged load flow study is required
as the starting point. Data for dynamic representation of syn-
chronous and induction machines, excitation, automatic voltage
regulator (AVR), turbine/speed governing system models need
to be accurately established [1], [2]. Static load data and power
capacitors data are required as applicable.
-
158 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 41, NO. 1, JANUARY/FEBRUARY 2005
Fig. 4. An equivalent distribution system for study of transient stability of
small generators G1 and G2.
2) Disturbance Data: Initial switching status, fault type,
protective relay operating time, fault location and fault removal,
clearing time of associated breakers, and load shedding data is
required.
3) Relaying Data: There is no incoming breaker at the point
of the utility’s connection with the plant distribution and an up-
stream 4-kV utility breaker trips for faults in the 44-kV line and
the plant distribution system. This breaker is provided with dis-
tance relays looking into the 44-kV line and plant distribution
as follows.
• Approximately 80% of the 44-kV line is protected in the
first zone of protection. Settings for phase and ground fault
relays are identical. The breaker interrupting time is 3 cy-
cles and, therefore, the fault in this zone is cleared in ap-
proximately 4 cycles
• The second zone of distance protection for phase and
ground faults extends to the remaining 20% of the 44 –kV
line and partially looks into the utility tie transformers
(T1, T2, and T3 in Fig. 4) winding faults also. The second
zone faults are cleared in 18 cycles. This includes breaker
interrupting time, relaying time, and the second zone
distance timer.
• An underfrequency relay set at 59.6 Hz with a time delay
of 14 cycles supplements the distance protection.
• Referring to Fig. 4, breakers A and B at the 4.16-kV buses
are provided with time-delayed directional overcurrent re-
lays (device 67), looking in to the utility’s system. How-
ever, for a fault in the utility’s system, these relays are slow
and will not clear a ground fault in the utility’s system as
the primary windings of all utility tie transformers, T1, T2,
and T3 are delta connected.
C. Study Parameters
These parameters identify, the data to be monitored and
plotted, duration of study, and integrating time interval.
D. System Models
The accuracy of the models of excitation systems, generators,
synchronous and induction motors, and speed governing sys-
tems has a profound impact on the accuracy of the results. The
models should be based upon the manufacturer’s data, as far as
possible. For older plants all the data may not be easily avail-
able. The assumptions should have a firm base. It may be pos-
sible to derive model parameters from field test measurements
[18], [19], though it may be time consuming and sometimes dif-
ficult to implement in a continuous process plant.
1) Generator Models: A synchronous generator can be
modeled with the following: an equivalent circuit model (1),
which uses an internal voltage behind the armature resistance
and quadrature axis reactance. This is the classical simple
generator model, used for simplified stability simulations or to
represent external system connection, i.e., a utility connection.
In this model (2), saliency and transient effects and the satura-
tion effects are considered. In this model (3) in addition to the
saliency and transient/subtransient effects, the direct axis and
quadrature axis damper circuits are modeled, usually for large
machines. Further details of synchronous generator models for
the stability studies are provided in [20].
The circuit model (2) was used for the 5- and 3.125-MVA
generators.
The reactive capability curve of the generators should be con-
sidered and the actual operating megawatts and not the rated
megawatt output with constraints of reactive power, lagging and
leading, from the reactive power capability curve of the gen-
erator should be modeled. The 5-MVA generator operates at
2.7-MW active power output and the 3.125-MVA generator op-
erates at 2.0 MW.
2) Induction Motors: The rotating load models affect the
transient stability limits of the plant generators. Fig. 4 shows
that all the induction motor loads are lumped together on equiv-
alent transformers and an equivalent circuit model, with a single
inertia constant is used. There are some errors inherent in this
method of representation [21], as the motors will have different
torque–speed characteristics and, will be driving loads of dif-
ferent inertia and load characteristics. However, it will be im-
practical to dynamically model each and every motor and its
load, and an equivalent machine model is an acceptable choice.
If the behavior of one particular motor is required, it can be dis-
cretely modeled.
An induction motor can be represented with a model similar
to that of a synchronous machine in the transient state, i.e., by a
Thévenin equivalent circuit of voltage behind stator resistance
DAS: TRANSIENT STABILITY OF SMALL PLANT GENERATORS CONNECTED TO A WEAK UTILITY SYSTEM 159

Fig. 5. Generator terminal voltage for a phase-to-phase fault in the utility’s system. Solid lines show fault cleared in the first zone of distance protection in 4
cycles and the dotted lines show fault cleared in 18 cycles in the second zone of distance protection.

Fig. 6. Generator terminal frequency for a phase-to-phase fault in the utility’s system. Solid lines show fault cleared in the first zone of distance protection in 4
cycles and the dotted lines show fault cleared in 18 cycles in the second zone of distance protection.

and transient reactance, calculated based upon the motor input
parameters of stator and rotor resistances, leakage reactances,
magnetizing reactances, and slip-load characteristics.
There are no synchronous motors in the distribution. If
present these can be modeled as synchronous generators with
negative active power, and generally with fixed excitation
system.
3) Excitation System: Complete modeling of excita-
tion and automatic voltage regulator systems is necessary
for the transient stability studies. The manufacturer’s data
should be used for accuracy. References [22]–[24] provide
IEEE recommended types and [23] provides typical transfer
function parameters, block circuit diagrams, Bode plots, and
time constants for various types of excitation systems, i.e., DC1,
DC2, DC3, ST1, ST2, ST3, AC1, AC2, AC3, AC4, AC5A,
etc. However, there can be variations in the generalized model
parameters given in this standard and the manufacturer’s
specific data.
5- and 3.125-MVA generators, Fig. 4, have dc commutator,
continuously acting, rotating exciters, which are modeled as
IEEE type 1, with the following parameters:
. Reference [19] may
be seen for the definition of these symbols and the control circuit
block diagram for the type-1 excitation system.
4) Governor and Turbine: The model should be derived
based upon the manufacturer’s data. Reference [25] provides
IEEE dynamic models. A simplified model of the steam turbine
in terms of speed regulation (droop), lead and lag time con-
stants, dead band, and minimum and maximum turbine power
output was used.
160
Fig. 7. Active and reactive power transients in generators, phase-to-phase faults.
Fig. 8. Field current and field voltage transients on the generators.
IV. STUDY RESULTS AND INFERENCES
A. Three-Phase Fault in the Utility’s System Cleared in the
First Zone of Distance Protection
The interrupting time of the 44-kV breaker is three cycles.
Thus, the fault is cleared in approximately 4 cycles. No other
switching action takes place. The 4.16-kV generator bus suffers
a voltage dip of 83%, which improves to approximately 50%
after fault clearance and then decays fast. The induction motors
rapidly slow down, heading toward a lockout condition. The
generator torque angles swing to 360 within 3 cycles of fault
occurrence and do not recover.
Load shedding does not improve the situation. Referring to
Fig. 4, breakers A and B are rated on the 8-cyle “TOT” basis
(prior to 1964 basis). Consider that a fiber-optic link is estab-
lished between the utility’s system and the plant breakers A and
B, Fig. 4, are tripped with simultaneous load shedding. Enough
loads are shed so that the net load on the system is slightly
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 41, NO. 1, JANUARY/FEBRUARY 2005
less than the generator output. (This is necessary, so that fre-
quency recovers.) Considering a 10-cycle delay to implement
these switching actions, the stability cannot be maintained. The
generators torque angles do not recover. A replacement of the
existing excitation systems with static excitation systems, type
ST1 had no appreciable effect on the stability situation.
B. Three-Phase Fault in the Utility’s System in the Second
Zone of Distance Protection
A fault in the second zone of distance protection is practically
of the same magnitude and is cleared in 18 cycles (second zone
distance timer plus breaker interrupting time and relay operating
time). Thus, the stability cannot be maintained for three-phase
faults in the utility system.
Criteria for a three-phase fault is often used because if the sta-
bility can be demonstrated for a three-phase fault, then the sta-
bility on unsymmetrical fault need not be investigated. However,
DAS: TRANSIENT STABILITY OF SMALL PLANT GENERATORS CONNECTED TO A WEAK UTILITY SYSTEM
Fig. 9. Transients in the equivalent induction motor retained in service.
Fig. 10. Slip recovery of the equivalent induction motor retained in service, showing stability.
to design a system to be stable for three-phase faults may be eco-
nomically prohibitive. A bolted three-phase fault is a rare occur-
rence. Almost 70% of the line faults are single line-to-ground
faults. After a three-phase fault, in order of decreasing severity
for stability, the other fault types are:
• double line-to-ground fault;
• phase-to-phase fault;
• single line-to-ground fault.
The stability is obtained for these faults provided that the fol-
lowing occur.
• The generation is separated in 18 cycles based upon ap-
propriate frequency and undervoltage relay settings.
• All nonessential loads are shed, leaving approximately
5-khp essential loads in service, simultaneously with the
isolation of generation from the utility’s source.
Figs. 5 and 6 show the voltage and frequency profiles on the
generator bus for a phase-to-phase fault cleared in the first and
second zones of distance protection. Fig. 5 shows that the gen-
erator terminal voltage is 0.66 pu (voltage dip of 34%) at 9 cy-
cles, for a fault cleared in the first zone of protection. However,
161
the frequency has dipped to 58 Hz at the time of fault clearance
and continues its downward trend after the fault clearance. The
lowest frequency is 55.75 Hz shortly after the generation is iso-
lated and the load is shed at 18 cycles.
When the fault is cleared in 18 cycles in the second zone of
distance relaying, the frequency stays high, not dipping below
59.6 Hz., however, the voltage is 0.60 pu (40% voltage dip) after
8 cycles of fault clearance and continues its downward trend. It
is 0.43 per unit when the generation is isolated and the load is
shed after 18 cycles of fault occurrence.
Thus, the system separation and the load shedding is imple-
mented as follows:
• an underfrequency relay set at 59 Hz, time delay setting of
2 cycles;
• an instantaneous three-phase undervoltage relay set at
60% voltage in conjunction with a timer, time delay of 4
cycles.
The outputs of these relays are AND gated to shed load and
simultaneously effect system separation.
162 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 41, NO. 1, JANUARY/FEBRUARY 2005
A hardwired load shedding system cannot continuously
monitor the load/generation balance and the appropriate load
to be shed under varying load conditions. Thus, in a hard-
wired system, either too much or too little load may be shed
depending upon the selected load trips. However, this is not
much of a disadvantage in the distribution system under study,
as practically all the load is shed, except essential generator
auxiliaries and instrumentation loads. A power-line-controller
(PLC)-based system can intelligently shed the load with trend
analysis and continuous load monitoring and can supplement
the hardwired load-shedding logic.
Fig. 7 shows the active and reactive power transients and
Fig. 8 shows the field circuit transients of the generators for
phase-to-phase faults. Figs. 9 and 10 show equivalent induction
motor transients retained in service.
V. STABILIZING MOTOR CONTACTORS
Severe voltage dips occur for faults in the utility’s system. En-
suring stability of the generators is important, however, it is also
important that the essential service loads do not drop out during
this fault voltage dips. Motors controlled through NEMA E1
and E2 starters with three-wire control may trip on voltage dips.
The low-voltage contractors have even a lower tolerance for the
voltage dips and may drop out on 20%–70% of the voltage dip in
the first cycle (depending upon the trapped residual magnetism).
Stabilizing the contractors serving essential loads for 1 s is,
therefore, essential. This brings about other considerations.
During the voltage dip the induction motors slow down. Fig. 10
shows that the equivalent induction motor slip increases from
1% to approximately 4.5%. On voltage recovery there will be an
inrush current spike, as all motors will accelerate together (Fig. 9).
This simultaneous inrush current of the motors may cause further
voltage dip and stall the quick recovery of the voltage, depending
upon the system impedance’s and the groups of connected motor
loads. This is clearly shown in Fig. 9.
VI. CONCLUSION
Relatively small machines connected to a weak electrical
system are more liable to pull out of step on a system distur-
bance. This becomes of importance as much emphasis is being
placed now on embedded generation. The case study shows
that the transient stability of generators was improved, with
least changes to the existing distribution system by fast load
shedding and system separation based upon the undervoltage
and underfrequency relays. These relays were set based upon
the results of the study.
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J. C. Das (SM’76) received the B.A. degree in math-
ematics and the B.E.E. degree from Panjab Univer-
sity, Chandigarh, India, in 1953 and 1956, respec-
tively, and the M.S.E.E. degree form Tulsa Univer-
sity, Tulsa, OK, in 1982.
He is currently Staff Consultant, Electrical Power
Systems, AMEC E&C Services Inc., Tucker, GA.
He is responsible for power system studies, in-
cluding short circuit, load flow, harmonics, stability,
grounding, and also, protective relaying. He conducts
courses for continuing education in power systems
and has authored or coauthored more than 40 technical publications. He is
the author of Power System Analysis (New York: Marcel Dekker, 2002). His
interests include power system transients, harmonics, power quality, protection,
and relaying.
Mr. Das is a Member of the IEEE Industry Applications and IEEE Power
Engineering Societies. He is a Member of TAPPI and of CIGRE, a Fellow of
the Institution of Engineers, U.K., a Life Fellow of the Institution of Engineers
(India), and a Member of the Federation of European Engineers (France). He
is a Registered Professional Engineer in the States of Georgia and Oklahoma, a
Chartered Engineer (C.Eng.) in the U.K., and a European Engineer (Eur. Ing.).