Ecological Management and Business – 2527106 – Module I

ECOLOGY

Meaning:
Ecology is a branch of science which deals with the study of interrelationship between biotic
and abiotic components of nature as well as relationship among the individuals of the biotic
components. Ecology has been defined in a number of ways by different scientists and
ecologists.

Ernest Haeckel (1866), a German biologist, for the first time defined ecology as “the body of
knowledge is concerning the economy of the nature the investigation of the total relation of
animal to its inorganic and organic environment including above all its friendly and animal
relations with those animals and plants with which it comes directly or indirectly into
contact.” The term Ecology’ was derived from two Greek words, OIKOS (means house) and
LOGUS (means study of) to denote the relationship between the organisms and their
environment.

According to Woodbury (1954), “Ecology is a science which investigates organisms in

relation to their environment’. E.P. Odum (1969) defined ecology as “the study of structure
and function of nature”. R Margalef (1968) treated ecology as “study of ecosystems”.

In 1985, Charles Krebs proposed the most accepted definition of ecology which may be
defined as follows: “Ecology is the scientific study of the interactions that determine the dis-
tribution and abundance of organisms”.

Thus, modern ecologists have broaden the definition of ecology considering all the
fundamental aspects in the subject. Anyway, ecology is primarily a biological science in as
much as it deals with the inter-relationships of organisms with their environment.

Ecology plays a significant role in our day to day life. It is concerned with agriculture,
horticulture, conservation of soil, wildlife, forest, water resources, etc. Its domain is so vast
that it cannot be confined with limited discussion. However the study of ecological principles
provides background knowledge for understanding the problems of forests, soil, surface
water etc.

An ecosystem is a segment of nature consisting of a community of living beings and the

physical environment both interacting and exchanging materials between them.

The two components of nature, organisms and the environment are not only highly complex
and dynamic but also interdependent, mutually reactive and interrelated. Ecology deals with
the various principles which govern relationships between organisms and their environment.

According to the French Zoologist, IsodoreGeoffroy St. Hilaire, the term ecology is used for
the study of the relations of the organisms within the family and society and community.

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At about the same time the English naturalist, St. George Jackson Mivart coined the term
hexicology, and defined as the study of the relations which exist between the organisms and
their environment with respect to the nature of the locality, the temperature and the amounts
of light, and their relations to other organisms as enemies, rivals, or accidental and
involuntary benefactors. Thus, ecology is literally the study of organisms and their
relationship with environment.

Objectives of Ecology:
The importance of ecology lies in the comprehensive understanding of its objectives.

The important concepts discussed below throw light on various aspects of ecology:

(i) The local and geographical distribution and abundance of organisms (habitat niche,
community, bio-geography).

(ii) Temporal changes in the occurrence, abundance and activities of organisms (seasonal,
annual, successional, geological).

(iii) The inter-relationship between organism in population and communities (population

ecology).

(iv) The structural adaptations and functional adjustment of organisms to their physical
environment.

(v) The behaviour of organism under natural conditions (ethology).

(vi) The evolutionary development of all these inter-relations (evolutionary ecology).

(vii) The biological productivity of nature and its relations with mankind.

(viii) The development of mathematical models to relate interaction of parameters and predict
effects (systems analysis).

(ix) The conservation and management of natural resources and pollution (applied ecology).

Classification of Ecology:
Broadly speaking, the important sub-divisions of ecology are animal ecology and plant
ecology. It is also classified as autecology and synecology. Autecology deals with the
ecological study of one species of organism. Synecology deals with the ecological studies of
communities or entire ecosystems.

However, we can classify ecology into following branches:

(i) Habitat Ecology:

It deals with ecological study of different habitats on planet earth and their effects on the or-
ganisms living there.

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(ii) Community Ecology:

It deals with the study of the local distribution of animals in various habitats. Also, it is re-
lated with the recognition and composition of community units, and succession.

(iii) Population Ecology:

This is also known as demonology. It deals with the study of the pattern of growth, structure
and regulation of population organism. The population ecology also deals with interactions
between populations of different species in a community.

(iv) Evolutionary Ecology:

It is concerned with the problems of niche segregation, and speciation.

(v) Taxonomic Ecology:

It is related with the ecology of different taxonomic groups of living organisms.

(vi) Human Ecology:

It is mainly related to population ecology. It studies the inter-relationship between man and
man along-with the environment. Effects of human beings on the biosphere and the
implications of these effects for mankind is the subject matter of human ecology.

(vii) Applied Ecology:

It is an important subdivision of ecology. It deals with the practical aspect of ecology. Mainly
the application of ecological concept to human needs is the field of this study. We find wild-
life management, forestry, conservation, insect control, animal husbandry, aqua-culture,
agriculture, horticulture, land use, population ecology etc. as the application of ecology in
practical life.

(viii) Eco-system Dynamics:

It deals with the ecological study of the process of soil formation, energy flow, productivity
etc.

(ix) Production Ecology:

It examines the gross and net production of different eco-systems like fresh water, sea water,
agriculture, horticulture etc. Production ecology attempts for the effective management of the
eco-systems so as to maximise the production.

(x) Ecological Energetics:

It deals with energy conservation and its flow in the organisms within the eco-system.

(xi) Physiological Ecology (Ecophysiology):

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The factors of environment have direct relation with the functional aspects of the organism.
The eco-physiology deals with the survival of the population as a result of functional ad-
justment of organisms with different ecological conditions.

(xii) Chemical Ecology:

It is related with the adaptation of animals of preferences of particular organisms like insects
to particular chemical substances.

(xiii) Ecological Genetics:

An ecologist recognised the kind of genetic plasticity in the case of every organism. In any
environment only those organisms that are supported by the environment can survive. Thus,
genecology deals with the study of variations of species based on their genetic potentialities.

(xiv) Palaeo Ecology:

It is the study of environmental conditions and life of the past ages.

(xv) Geographic Ecology (Ecogeography):

It focuses light on the study of geographical distribution of animals and plants.

(xvi) Space Ecology:

It is concerned with the development of partially or wholly regenerating eco-systems for sup-
porting the life of man during long space flights.

(xvii) Pedology:

It deals with the study of soil, especially their acidity, human contents, mineral contents, soil
types, etc. and their influence on their organism.

(xviii) Radiation Ecology:

It studies the gross effect of radiation and radioactive substances over the environment and
living organisms.

(xix) Ethology:

It studies the animal behaviour under natural conditions.

(xx) Sociology:

It is the study of ecology and ethology of mankind.

(xxi) System Ecology:

It deals with the analysis and understanding of the function and structure of eco-system
through the use of applied mathematics, advanced statistical techniques, mathematical models
etc.

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Scope and Importance:

Taylor (1936), in an attempt to define ecology, has very rightly pointed out that scope of
ecology by stating that ecology is the science of all the relations of ecosystems, all organisms
to all their environments.

Ecology plays an important role in agriculture crop rotation, weed control, management of
grasslands, range management forestry, biological surveys, pest control, fishery biology, and
in the conservation of soil, wildlife, forest, water supplies, water bodies like rivers, lakes and
ponds,

Ecosystem is defined as a dynamic entity composed of a biological community and its

associated abiotic environment. Often the dynamic interactions that occur within an
ecosystem are numerous and complex.

Ecosystems are also always undergoing alterations to their biotic and abiotic components.
Some of these alterations begin first with a change in the state of one component of the
ecosystem, which then cascades and sometimes amplifies into other components because of
relationships.

EVOLUTION OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

The concept of “sustainability” and “Sustainable Development” is a catch word for the policy
makers both at the national and international arena that are not self-evident. The concept
sustainability originates from the Latin word “sustinere” which means “to hold up”, “to
endure”. Webster’s New Collegiate Dictionary1 describes sustainability as “to give support”
to “to keep up”.

Sustainable Development is defined as using living resources in a manner that ‘does not
exceed their natural capacity for regeneration’ as using natural resources in or manner which
ensures the preservation of the species and ecosystem for the benefit for future generations.
Sustainable development means “Development that meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs”.

An eminent environmentalists Dr. M. S. Swaminathan defines “Sustainable Development

implies a future in which standard of life isimproved would wise through economic
development where localenvironment and biosphere are protected and science is mobilized to
createnew opportunities for human progress.”

Abdul Kalam remarks“Sustainable Development does not imply absolute limits to growth
and it isnot a new name of environmental protection. The concept leads a uniquemeaning to
development and sets an integrated target for the measurementof development which has a
combination of parameters including economicstatus, poverty, education, health, women
empowerment, harmony, physicalconnectivity and environmental aspects.”

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Raymond defines “the most object and potentially measurable criteria forSustainable
Development are the preservation of the productivity and the full functioning ofthe resource
base”.

In sum,

“Sustainable Development “ensures continuing growth and progress forhumankind, whilst

arresting and changing those processes which causeirreversible damage to the environment
(... )over all, it exposes a concernwhich focuses on human need rather than human want”.

Critical objectives for environment anddevelopment policies reflected in the concept of

Sustainable Development:

 Reviving growth and changing its quality,

 Meeting essential needs for job, food, energy and sanitation
 Ensuring a sustainable level of population,
 Considering and enhancing the resource base,
 Reorienting technology and managing risk and
 Merging environment and economics in the decision making.

There are many dimensions of sustainability; such as,

1. Geographical Sustainability

2. Biological Sustainability

3. Ecological Sustainability

4. Social Sustainability

5. Cultural Sustainability

6. Demographic Sustainability

7. Economic Sustainability

Let us examine economic, social andenvironmental sustainability in detail.

Economic Sustainability

Economic sustainability depends upon the relationship between benefits and costs.It is more
easily measurable than social sustainability because it can be defined innumerical terms,
primarily units of currency. Economic sustainability is conditionedmainly by the availability
and cost of inputs. The resources of an economic process are to be used in ways that do not
damage the environment. The imperative to reduce costsmust not be an excuse to affect the
long term economic as well as ecological sustainability. Economic sustainability is

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constrained by anything that upsets a viablebalance between benefits and costs. In reality,
national policies play a predominant role inachieving economic sustainability.

Social Sustainability

Social sustainability reflects the relationship between development and current socialnorms.
It is also significant that we live in a world of fast moving social and economicchange. If any
social sustainability will arise or which would breach existing social valuesthe people will
oppose or resist that activity. This leads clearly to the question of how todefine the social
limits that must be respected to achieve sustainability. These socialnorms are based on
religion, tradition and custom. However, a social limit is hard todefine, measure and evaluate.
Social sustainability is impossible to be codified in law,and social limits. For this type of
development to become a reality at the global andregional level action and respect of all
states is required.

Environmental Sustainability

Environmental Sustainability is presented as the priority goal of the concept ofSustainable

Development, and is distinguished from economic and social sustainability.The effect of
deterioration of resources is seriously threatening the life supportingsystems and often causes
conflict to security including environmental security both atthe time of peace as well as
warIrrespective theconservation of resources, environmental sustainability is now widely
recognized as amandate in an international arena. It should maintain, recover and restore the
naturalresource base, as finite resources. Sustainable Development described as one of
themeans for reaching that goal. An environmental sustainability means it must not
degradethe diversity and biological productivity of ecosystems nor ecological processes and
vitalsystems. Environmental sustainability challenges the environmental security that has
alsobeen equated with national security.” Two distinct features of environmentalsecurity are:

 The environmental causes of conflict, i.e. environmental factors behind potentially

violent conflicts; and
 The impact of environmental degradation on overall political economy, health and life
of the people.

Origin and Development

Until the late 19th century, there was no evidence to qualify any trade anddevelopment which
led to the destruction of resources areas beyond national jurisdiction. In the late 1940s, the
formation of UN on the one hand the GATT on theother help the state to exploit their
resources to carry out trade and developmental activities with limited restrictions. Similarly,
in the early 1960s, the UN in its General AssemblyResolution conferred an unfettered
freedom and sovereignty over natural resources evenbeyond the territorial limit. For the first
time, in the early 1970s,environmental issues began as a growing part of public international
law; in the late1980s the concept of Sustainable Development has emerged in the

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contemporary history ofcivilization. Todemarcate the development and the conservation of

resources, in the early 1980, WorldCommission on Environment and Development was set
up.

The early growth of international environmental issues is reflected in the largebody rules of
customary law which apply bilaterally, regionally and globally.Subsequently, the custom has
characterized and accepted as a source. The environmentalissues also reflect international
interdependence. The conditions which have contributed tothe emergence of International
Environmental Law are twofold:

1. Environmental issues are accompanied by recognition that ecological interdependence

does not respect national boundaries, and
2. Issues previously considered to be matters of domestic sovereign concern have
international implications: The implications which may be bilateral, sub regional or
global can frequently only be addressed by international law and regulation.

Modern International Law on Environmental Protection

The judicial decision on the one hand and the UNCHE (United Nations Conference on the
Human Environment) on the other remark thatthere are legitimate instances where trans
boundary harm is permitted, because many harmsthat occur every day resulting from
ordinary economic and other social activity occurs byan accident, often unrelated to fault.
This can help not only protecting the sovereigntybut also resolving conflicts between
generations to share in the earth’s limited resources.

The UN Charter describes that no state is to violate the sovereignty of another state. Realising
the need for conservation of common resources between generations theprominent
contribution MEAs focuses on various strategies, such as planning,management. At the turn,
early in the century, there were relatively few multilateral orbilateral international
environmental agreements were concluded to protect commercially valuable species.
Environmental agreements are also facilitating navigation andguaranteeing fishing rights. It is
also interesting to note that, the subject-matter ofinternational environmental agreements has
expanded significantly.

Today there are agreements to address environmental issues and effectiveconservation of

resources in all media; such as conventions relating to whaling practices, fisheries, birds, oil
pollution in oceans, and agreements governing international liability for nuclear damage, oil-
pollution casualties, to civil liability for oil-pollution damage, Convention on oil pollution in
the North Sea, marine pollution, long rangetrans boundary air pollution, protection of the
ozone layer, climate change, biodiversity, desertification, trade in endangered species of wild
fauna and flora,trans boundary movement of hazardous wastes and their disposal, industrial
accidents,wetlandsand so on.

TheModern system on environmental management dates to the 1972 UNCHE held

inStockholm 5-16 June 1972. UNCHE attracted 103 affirmative votes, 12 abstentions andnot
a single negative vote. The 7 universal truths and 26 principles were adopted in theUNCHE.

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The UNCHE was a magnificent achievement which brought the attention onenvironmental
issues which is a classic concern to conserve the resources for present andfuture generation
with global approach. During the debate of UNCHE it was described“the declaration is an
important milestone in the history of the human race” and that it was“starting point in the task
of making the planet a fit place for future generations”. The Stockholm Declaration also
describes that the present generation has a duty toknow an environmental quality but also
have a “solemn responsibility to protect andimprove the environment for present and future
generations.”

Principle 1 of the UNCHE emphasized the fundamental right to adequateconditions of life for
present and future generations. Principle 2 of the declarationemphasized that the natural
resources must be safeguarded for the benefit of present andfuture generations. Principle 8
emphasized that, economic and social development isessential for ensuring a favourable
living and working environment for man that arenecessary for the improvement of the quality
of life. Principle11 stresses the statescommitment to make appropriate environmental
measures. Principle 21 is a classicexample for customary principle of international law with
regard to state responsibility inconservation of resource. Principle 22 of UNCHE urged the
states to developthe international law regarding liability and compensation for the victims of
pollution andother environmental damage caused by the activities within the jurisdiction or
control ofsuch states to areas beyond their jurisdiction.

The UNCHE, basically have two conflicting approaches. The first approach is theprimary
concern of control of pollution and conservation of natural resources. The secondapproach is
social and economic development. The two seemingly opposite approacheswere as two sides
of the coin that are inseparable from each after. The declaration does nottell us how these
aims, which may be mutually incompatible, are to be achieved.

CONCEPTS OF ECOSYSTEM
An organism is always in the state of perfect balance with the environment. The environment
literally means the surroundings.

The environment refers to the things and conditions around the organisms which directly or
indirectly influence the life and development of the organisms and their populations.

“Ecosystem is a complex in which habitat, plants and animals are considered as one
interesting unit, the materials and energy of one passing in and out of the others” –
Woodbury.

Organisms and environment are two non-separable factors. Organisms interact with each
other and also with the physical conditions that are present in their habitats.

“The organisms and the physical features of the habitat form an ecological complex or more
briefly an ecosystem.” (Clarke, 1954).

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The concept of ecosystem was first put forth by A.G. Tansley (1935). Ecosystem is the major
ecological unit. It has both structure and functions. The structure is related to species
diversity. The more complex is the structure the greater is the diversity of the species in the
ecosystem. The functions of ecosystem are related to the flow of energy and cycling of
materials through structural components of the ecosystem.

According to Woodbury (1954), ecosystem is a complex in which habitat, plants and animals
are considered as one interesting unit, the materials and energy of one passing in and out of
the others.

According to E.P. Odum, the ecosystem is the basic functional unit of organisms and their
environment interacting with each other and with their own components. An ecosystem may
be conceived and studied in the habitats of various sizes, e.g., one square metre of grassland,
a pool, a large lake, a large tract of forest, balanced aquarium, a certain area of river and
ocean.

All the ecosystems of the earth are connected to one another, e.g., river ecosystem is
connected with the ecosystem of ocean, and a small ecosystem of dead logs is a part of large
ecosystem of a forest. A complete self-sufficient ecosystem is rarely found in nature but
situations approaching self-sufficiency may occur.

Structure of Ecosystem:

The structure of an ecosystem is basically a description of the organisms and physical

features of environment including the amount and distribution of nutrients in a particular
habitat. It also provides information regarding the range of climatic conditions prevailing in
the area.

From the structure point of view, all ecosystems consist of the following basic components:

1. Abiotic components

2. Biotic components

Abiotic Components:

Ecological relationships are manifested in physicochemical environment. Abiotic component

of ecosystem includes basic inorganic elements and compounds, such as soil, water, oxygen,
calcium carbonates, phosphates and a variety of organic compounds (by-products of organic
activities or death).

It also includes such physical factors and ingredients as moisture, wind currents and solar
radiation. Radiant energy of sun is the only significant energy source for any ecosystem. The

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amount of non-living components, such as carbon, phosphorus, nitrogen, etc. that are present
at any given time is known as standing state or standing quantity.

Biotic Components:

The biotic components include all living organisms present in the environmental system.

From nutrition point of view, the biotic components can be grouped into two basic
components:

(i) Autotrophic components, and

(ii) Heterotrophic components

The autotrophic components include all green plants which fix the radiant energy of sun and
manufacture food from inorganic substances. The heterotrophic components include non-
green plants and all animals which take food from autotrophs.

So biotic components of an ecosystem can be described under the following three heads:

1. Producers (Autotrophic components),

2. Consumers, and

3. Decomposers or reducers and transformers

The amount of biomass at any time in an ecosystem is known as standing crop which is
usually expressed as fresh weight, dry weight or as free energy in terms of calories/metre.

Producers (Autotrophic elements):

The producers are the autotrophic elements—chiefly green plants. They use radiant energy of
sun in photosynthetic process whereby carbon dioxide is assimilated and the light energy is
converted into chemical energy. The chemical energy is actually locked up in the energy rich
carbon compounds. Oxygen is evolved as by-product in the photosynthesis.

This is used in respiration by all living things. Algae and other hydrophytes of a pond, grasses
of the field, and trees of the forests are examples of producers. Chemosynthetic bacteria and
carotenoid bearing purple bacteria that also assimilate CO2 with the energy of sunlight but
only in the presence of organic compounds also belong to this category.

The term producer is misleading one because in an energy context, producers produce
carbohydrate and not energy. Since they convert or transduce the radiant energy into
chemical form, E.J. Kormondy suggests better alternative terms ‘converters’ or ‘transducers’.
Because of wide use the term producer is still retained.

Consumers:

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Those living members of ecosystem which consume the food synthesized by producers are
called consumers. Under this category are included all kinds of animals that are found in an
ecosystem.

There are different classes or categories of consumers, such as:

(a) Consumers of the first order or primary consumers,

(b) Consumers of the second order or secondary consumers,

(c) Consumers of the third order or tertiary consumers, and

(d) Parasites, scavengers and saprobes.

Primary consumers:

These are purely herbivorous animals that are dependent for their food on producers or green
plants. Insects, rodents, rabbit, deer, cow, buffalo, goat are some of the common herbivores in
the terrestrial ecosystem, and small crustaceans, molluscs, etc. in the aquatic habitat. Elton
(1939) named herbivores of ecosystem as “key industry animals”. The herbivores serve as the
chief food source for carnivores.

Secondary consumers:

These are carnivores and omnivores. Carnivores are flesh eating animals and the omnivores
are the animals that are adapted to consume herbivores as well as plants as their food.
Examples of secondary consumers are sparrow, crow, fox, wolves, dogs, cats, snakes, etc.

Tertiary consumers:

These are the top carnivores which prey upon other carnivores, omnivores and herbivores.
Lions, tigers, hawk, vulture, etc. are considered as tertiary or top consumers.

The parasites, scavengers and saprobes:

The parasitic plants and animals utilize the living tissues of different plants and animals. The
scavengers and saprobes utilize dead remains of animals and plants as their food.

Decomposers and transformers:

Decomposers and transformers are the living components of the ecosystem and they are fungi
and bacteria. Decomposers attack the dead remains of producers and consumers and degrade
the complex organic substances into simpler compounds. The simple organic matters are then
attacked by another kind of bacteria, the transformers which change these organic compounds
into the inorganic forms that are suitable for reuse by producers or green plants. The
decomposers and transformers play very important role in maintaining the dynamic nature of
ecosystems.

Function of Ecosystem:

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An ecosystem is a discrete structural, functional and life sustaining environmental system.

The environmental system consists of biotic and abiotic components in a habitat. Biotic
component of the ecosystem includes the living organisms; plants, animals and microbes
whereas the abiotic component includes inorganic matter and energy.

Abiotic components provide the matrix for the synthesis and perpetuation of organic
components (protoplasm). The synthesis and perpetuation processes involve energy exchange
and this energy comes from the sun in the form of light or solar energy.

Thus, in any ecosystem we have the following functional components:

(i) Inorganic constituents (air, water and mineral salts)

(ii) Organisms (plants, animals and microbes), and

(iii) Energy input which enters from outside (the sun).

These three interact and form an environmental system. Inorganic constituents are
synthesized into organic structures by the green plants (primary producers) through
photosynthesis and the solar energy is utilized in the process. Green plants become the source
of energy for renewals (herbivores) which, in turn become source of energy for the flesh
eating animals (carnivores). Animals of all types grow and add organic matter to their body
weight and their source of energy is complex organic compound taken as food.

They are known as secondary producers. All the living organisms whether plants or animals
in an ecosystem have a definite life span after which they die. The dead organic remains of
plants and animals provide food for saprophytic microbes, such as bacteria, fungi and many
other animals. The saprobes ultimately decompose the organic structure and break the
complex molecules and liberate the inorganic components into their environment.

These organisms are known as decomposers. During the process of decomposition of organic
molecules, the energy which kept the inorganic components bound together in the form of
organic molecules gets liberated and dissipated into the environment as heat energy. Thus in
an ecosystem energy from the sun, the input is fixed by plants and transferred to animal
components.

Nutrients are withdrawn from the substrate, deposited in the tissues of the plants and animals,
cycled from one feeding group to another, released by decomposition to the soil, water and
air and then recycled. The ecosystems operating in different habitats, such as deserts, forests,
grasslands and seas are interdependent on one another. The energy and nutrients of one
ecosystem may find their way into another so that ultimately all parts of the earth are
interrelated, each comprising a part of the total system that keeps the biosphere functioning.

Thus the principal steps in the operation of ecosystem are as follows:

(1) Reception of radiant energy of sun,

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(2) Manufacture of organic materials from inorganic ones by producers,

(3) Consumption of producers by consumers and further elaboration of consumed materials;

and.

(4) After the death of producers and consumers, complex organic compounds are degraded
and finally converted by decomposers and converters into such forms as are suitable for
reutilization by producers.

The principal steps in the operation of ecosystem not only involve the production, growth and
death of living components but also influence the abiotic aspects of habitat. It is now clear
that there is transfer of both energy and nutrients from producers to consumers and finally to
decomposers and transformers levels. In this transfer there is a progressive decrease of energy
but nutrient component is not diminished and it shows cycling from abiotic to biotic and vice
versa.

The flow of energy is unidirectional. The two ecological processes—energy flow and mineral
cycling which involve interaction between biotic and abiotic components lie at the heart of
ecosystem dynamics. The principal steps and components of ecosystem are illustrated in Fig.
1.1

ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
Pollution

Pollution is explained as any substance introduced into the environment that adverselyaffects
the usefulness of resources.

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Pollution can be in the form of solid, liquid or gaseous substance. Pollution causes damageto
human, plant and animal life. The nature and concentration of pollutant determine the
severityof effect of pollution.

Pollution is defined as the excess discharge of any substance into the environment
whichaffects adversity quality of environment and causing damage to humans, plants and
animals.

Types Pollutants

Ecologically, pollutants can be divided into three types

1. Degradable or non – persistent pollutants

2. Slowly degradable or persistent pollutants

3. Non – degradable pollutants.

Degradable or non – persistent pollutants: The pollutants that can be rapidly decomposed by
natural processes is called degradable or non-persistentpollutants.

Slowly degradable pollutants: Some pollutants remain in environment for longer time
because they decompose very slowly bythe natural processes.

Example: plastics, pesticides, etc.

Non-degradable pollutants: Some pollutants cannot be decomposed by natural processes are

called non-degradablepollutants.

Example – Lead, mercury, nuclear wastes etc.

Classification of pollution

The pollutants that pollute the environment is divided into following types

1. Air pollution

2. Water pollution

3. Soil Pollution

4. Marine pollution

5. Noise pollution

6. Thermal pollution

7. Nuclear hazards

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Air pollution

It is defined as the undesirable contamination of gas, smoke, dust, fume, mist, odour,
orchemical particulates in the atmosphere which are injurious to human beings, plants and
animals.

Causes of air pollution

 Industrialization
 Urbanization
 Vehicles emission
 Deforestation
 Population

Types of air pollutants

Air pollutants can broadly classified into two types-

1. Primary pollutants

2. Secondary pollutants

Primary pollutants: Pollutants that are emitted directly from either natural events or from
human activities arecalled primary pollutants. The natural events are dust storms; volcano etc.
and human activitiescan be emission from vehicles, industrial wastes.

About 90% of global air pollution is constituted by five primary pollutants. These are

1. Carbon oxides (CO and CO2)

2. Nitrogen oxides

3. Sulphur oxides

4. Hydrocarbons

5. Particulate matter

Secondary pollutants: Primary pollutants when reacting with each other or from basic
components of air; forms a newpollutants called secondary pollutant. For example: sulphuric
acid, nitric acid, carbonic acid etc.

Degradable pollutants

The pollutants that can be rapidly decomposed by natural processes are called degradable or
non-persistentpollutants. Example – domestic sewage, discarded vegetable etc.

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Slowly degradable pollutants

Some pollutant remains in environment for longer time because they decompose very slowly
bythe natural processes.Example – Plastics, pesticides, etc.

Non – degradable pollutants

Some pollutants cannot be decomposed by natural processes are called non –

degradablepollutants. Example – Lead, mercury, nuclear wasters etc.

Water Pollution

Any physical, biological or chemical change in water quality that adversely affects
livingorganisms or makes water unsuitable for certain use is referred as Water pollution.

When the quality or composition of water changes by means it becomes unsuitable for
anypurpose and is said to be polluted.

Water pollution Sources

Water pollutants are categorized as point source pollution and non-point source pollution.

1. Point source pollution

Point source pollution is defined as any single identifiable source of pollution from
whichpollutants are discharged.

Example: Industrial discharge, factory smoke stack, municipal sewage etc.

Point source pollution sources are discrete and identifiable and hence easy to monitor
andregulate.

2. Non-Point source of pollution

When a source of pollution cannot be readily identified i.e, sources are scattered or
diffusethey are called Non-Point source of pollution.

Example: run off from farm lands, construction sites, parking lots, agriculture logging,
animalwaste.

Causes of Water Pollution

a). Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD): The sewage and other organic matter discharged to
a water body are degraded by oxygen –requiring microorganisms. The amount of oxygen
consumed by the microbes is the BiochemicalOxygen Demand (BOD). Although some
natural BOD is always present, BOD is oftenindication of the presence of sewage and other
organic waste. High levels of BOD can depletethe oxygen in water.

b). Nutrients: A Nutrient is a substance required for life, it promotes growth. But remember
that nutrientacquires more suspicious face at high concentrations. Synthetic fertilizers are

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composed ofnutrients. When discharged to water, the nitrogen and phosphorous they contain
becomeavailable to water organisms. Nutrients are also discharged as organic matter, which
containsnutrients that become to water organisms as the organic matter degrades.

c). Suspended solids / Sediments: Suspended solids are physical pollutants. They are always
naturally present in water tosome extent and as usual, it is an excess that is deleterious. Fine
particles from soil runoff canremain suspended in water and increase its turbidity or
cloudiness. This can stunt the growth ofthe aquatic plants by limiting the amount of sunlight.

d). Oil and grease: Oil spills are a major problem in near-coastal waters and can kill or
adversely affect fish,other aquatic organisms and birds and mammals. Spills can kill or
reduce populations oforganisms living in coastal sands and rocks, and may kill the worms
and insects that serve asfood to birds and other animals.

e). Bacteria, Viruses and protozoa: The concern associated with micro-organisms infectious
disease. Micro-organisms arenaturally found in water and elsewhere in the environment and
can cause infection. However, themicrobes causing the greatest concern are usually
associated with human activities. Nonpointsources include run-off from livestock operations
and storm water runoff especially thatassociated with combined sewer overflow. Poorly
performing municipal sewage treatment plantare point sources of pathogenic micro-
organisms.

Soil

Pollution

Soil pollution is defined as the contamination of soil causing adverse effects on

livingorganisms in it.

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Causes of soil degradation

1. Soil erosion

Soil erosion can be defined as the movement of topsoil from one place to another. Soilerosion
is a natural process due to wind, flood and due to human activities like-
construction,overgrazing, farming and deforestation.

2. Industrial wastes

Various pollutants exist in environment from industrial wastes. Discharge fromChemical

industries, Fertilizer Company and pharmaceutical companies are highly polluting.

3. Urban wastes

Because of modem life style and eating habits the urban wastes are becoming verydangerous
to the human beings. Urban wastes include both which is a non-degradablematerial and
harmful to the society in long run.

4. Agricultural practice

Use of strong fertilizer, pesticides and inorganic chemicals for increasing productivity.

5. Biological agents:

Human and animal excreta wastes enter the soil pores and decompose pathogenicbacterial
present in those wastes spread infection.

Marine pollution

Marine pollution is defined as discharge of substances to the marine environment resultingin

adverse effects such as hazards of human health, obstruction in marine activities, marine
waterand coastal land zones.

Sources of marine pollution

1. Municipal waste and sewage from residues and hotels in coastal cities are
directlydischarged into sea.

2. Dumping of industrial effluents e.g. acids, pesticides etc.

3. Oil spills by oil refinery companies (oil exploration)

4. Wastes of ship yards and shipping companies.

5. Solid wastes – Garbage, trash, explosive, radioactive waste.

Noise pollution

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No one can escape the unwanted sound that is called noise-a disturbance to our
environmentescalating so rapidly that it is becoming one of the major threats to the quality of
human life.

Noise pollution is defined as – unwanted, unpleasant sound that causes discomfort of

humanbeings. In homes, especially in developed countries, but also in big cities of
developing countriesmore and more power gadgets constitute additional sources of noise. The
effect of these multiplecauses of noise can be cumulative. Noise exposure at work is added at
home during leisureactivities. Slowly, insensibly man seems to accept noise-and the
physiological and psychologicaldeterioration that accompanies it-as an inevitable part of his
life. Because noise does not pose asobvious and immediate a danger to health as polluted
water or air, public awareness of noise andpublic commitment to noise reduction have been
modest. Major differences exist between noiseand other forms of pollution.

The difference is as follows

Noise is everywhere; it is not as easy to control as the sources of water and air
pollution.Although certain effects of noise, like those of many other pollutions, accumulate in
theorganism, if noise pollution were to cease there would be no noise residual in the
environment,as there would be in the case of water and air or water pollutants.

Unlike air and water pollution, the effects of noise are felt only close to the source.An
essential awareness of noise and motivation to reduce the problem are not present; peopleare
more likely to complain and demand political action about air or water pollution than
aboutnoise. Finally, noise is not likely to have genetic effects, while some form of air and
waterpollution, such as radioactive pollution, can cause genetic effects.

Sources of noise pollution

Traffic is considered to generate most annoying kind of noise, Road traffic, rail traffic and
airtraffic, all contribute to transport noise. Industrial noise sources are – steel industry,
textileindustry, power generation, oil refineries generate huge amount of noise. Domestic
noise sourcesare – household gadgets such as mixer, washing machine, refrigerator, air
conditioners, vacuumcleaners and recreational noise (TV, ratio) etc.

Thermal Pollution

Thermal pollution is defined as – rising air/water temperature so that it becomes harmful

tohuman being and other organisms.

Sources of thermal pollution

Thermal power station Nuclear power plants Petroleum refiners, Domestic sewage

Effects of Thermal pollution

Thermal pollution affects aquatic ecosystems in a variety of ways. In general, the

speciescomposition changes as species tolerant of warmer waters replace those unable to

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adapt. Thistransition is often accompanied by as overall decrease in species richness. For

example, attachedalgae in heated effluents were reported to show an increase in biomass but
a decrease in thenumber of species represented. Fish can be particularly susceptible to effects
of thermal pollutionbecause their body temperature fluctuates with that of the surrounding
water. For this reason, anincrease in water temperature causes an increase in the metabolic
rate of fish. This enhancedmetabolism requires more oxygen. However, the amount of
dissolved oxygen present in water isinversely related to its temperature. The lack of dissolved
oxygen at higher temperatures can leadto cold water conditions.

Thermal pollution reduces dissolved oxygen (DO).The water properties are changed due to
thermal pollution. Toxic chemical becomes soluble at high temperatures. Thermal pollution
disrupts naturalreproductive cycle of water animals by premature hatching of eggs.

Nuclear Hazards

Radioactivity is produced by the spontaneous decay of the isotopes of some elements,

whosenuclei are unstable. The radiation can take a number of different forms. In some cases
it is asparticles and in others it is electromagnetic.

Five types of radiation may occur: alpha and beta particles, neutrons gamma rays and x-rays.
Analpha particle is large, consisting of two neutrons and two protons, whereas a beta particle
is anelectron. Gamma and X-rays have no mass. The type of particle emitted is important
incontrolling exposure. They type of radiation is not the only factor affecting the management
ofradioactive substances. The rate of emission is also extremely important.

Sources of man-made Radiation

It is important to ensure that the potential risk from man-made radiation is examined in the
corrective perspective. The harm that an accident or weapons testing may do is enormous
andsteps must be taken no reduce the risks.

Nuclear reactors

Commercial and military reactors both operate by the fission of uranium or plutonium
atoms.The reaction create a range of new elements or radio nuclides some of these are
heavier thanuranium, others are lighter, and all have different properties to the original
element. Thecontainment of nuclear reactors is sufficient to prevent almost all releases to the
widerenvironment. The most likely route of release is, however, through the cooling-water
system andunder normal operating conditions small traces of contamination will occur.

Nuclear installations also result in atmospheric discharges in a few instances, through to

therelease of very large quantities of material, e.g. from the Chernobyl accident. It is
usuallyaccidental discharges from nuclear plants, rather than their routine operation, which
release mostradio nuclides.

Health Effects of Radiation

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The effect of ion sing radiation is to disrupt molecules within cells, thus causing
chemicalchanges; it is possible to distinguish two distinct effects of radiation. At high doses,
radiationcauses burning, nausea and other rapidly produced symptoms. This results from the
radiationcausing extensive, immediate death of body cells. The effects are entirely
predictable, i.e. if aperson receives a certain dose, then particular symptoms will appear. Such
effects are termeddeterministic. However, at lower doses, radiation results in health problems
such as cancer. It ispossible to estimate the percentage of individuals within a population that
may be whether anygiven individual exposed to that dose, will become ill. These events are,
therefore, termedstochastic. The most important of these effects is the disruption of DNA,
leading to thedevelopment of radionuclide exposure. Thus, there is always a risk that the
presence of ionizingradiation may lead to detrimental damage to cells.

Effect of Radionuclides in the Environment

There is a very wide degree of response to radioactive substances by different plant and
animalspecies. Releasing radioactive substances into the natural environment poses may
long-termrisks, especially as the aims would be to supply sufficient does to cause significant
adverseeffects.

Much recent understanding of the impacts on the natural environment has come
fromexamination of the results of unplanned releases. Results from these are provided in the
case studies. However, they do have the disadvantage thatmany of the procedures for normal
scientific experimentation (adequate controls, baseline dataand monitoring) were not
possible.

GREENHOUSE EFFECT
The greenhouse effect increases the temperature of the Earth by
trapping heat in our atmosphere. This keeps the temperature of the
Earth higher than it would be if direct heating by the Sun was the
only source of warming.1 When sunlight reaches the surface of
the Earth, some of it is absorbed which warms the ground and
some bounces back to space as heat. Greenhouse gases that are in the atmosphere absorb and
then redirect some of this heat back towards the Earth.

The greenhouse effect is a major factor in keeping the Earth warm because it keeps some of
the planet's heat that would otherwise escape from the atmosphere out to space. In fact,
without the greenhouse effect the Earth's average global temperature would be much colder
and life on Earth as we know it would not be possible.3 The difference between the Earth's
actual average temperature 14° C (57.2° F) and the expected effective temperature just with
the Sun's radiation -19° C (-2.2° F) gives us the strength of the greenhouse effect, which is
33° C.

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The greenhouse effect is a natural process that is millions of years old. It plays a critical role
in regulating the overall temperature of the Earth. The greenhouse effect was first discovered
by Joseph Fourier in 1827, experimentally verified by John Tyndall in 1861, and quantified
by Svante Arrhenius in 1896.

How does the greenhouse effect work?

To understand exactly how the greenhouse effect works, imagine the following: a warm,
sunny day where the sun shines bright on the Earth. This sunlight (shortwave radiation)
passes into the planet's atmosphere and warms the Earth. Part of this energy is absorbed by
the Earth's surface, transformed into heat (longwave radiation) and radiated back towards
space. But as this heat goes up through the atmosphere, some of it is trapped by the different
greenhouse gases and doesn't escape
into space. This in turn warms up the
Earth's atmosphere; just like the
windows of a greenhouse that lets
light in and keeps the heat within to
warm the plants growing inside.

Since some of the heat can't escape into space, it continues to add up which then warms up
the Earth. This is what we call the greenhouse effect. So the more greenhouse gases you have
in the atmosphere, the more heat stays on Earth.

If the amount of energy from the sun and the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere
remain the same, then the average temperature on Earth will also be constant. But this is no
longer the case. The amount of greenhouse gases in our atmosphere is the highest it has been
in the last 3 million years. This is enhancing the greenhouse effect and making the Earth
warmer than normal, which is affecting the planet's weather patterns, creating global
warming and climate change.

An everyday example of the greenhouse effect

If you open the door of a car that has been left parked in the sun for a couple of hours, you'll
notice that the temperature inside the car is much warmer than the temperature outside. This
is because the windows of the car allow the sunlight to enter. This light, once inside, is then
partially converted into heat. However, these same windows do not allow the heat inside the
car to pass through as easily as light, so some of this heat accumulates. The net effect is that
more heat remains in than can come out, increasing the temperature inside the car.

What causes the greenhouse effect?

The greenhouse effect is caused by the interaction of the sun's energy with greenhouse gases
such as carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide and fluorinated gases in the Earth's
atmosphere. The ability of these gases to trap heat is what causes the greenhouse effect.

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Greenhouse gases are made of three or more atoms. This molecular structure makes it
possible for these gases to trap heat in the atmosphere and then re-emit it towards the surface
which further warms the Earth. This continuous cycle of trapping heat leads to an overall
increase in global temperatures. This process, which is very similar to the way a greenhouse
works, is why the gases that can produce this effect are collectively known as greenhouse
gases.

The principal forcing gases of the greenhouse effect are:

 Carbon dioxide (CO2)

 Methane (CH4)
 Nitrous oxide (N2O)
 Fluorinated gases

The main feedback gas of the greenhouse effect is:

 Water vapour

Carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide and the fluorinated gases are all well-mixed gases in
the atmosphere that do not react to changes in temperature and air pressure, so the levels of
these gases are not affected by condensation. Water vapour on the other hand, is a highly
active component of the climate system that responds rapidly to changes in conditions by
either condensing into rain or snow, or evaporating to return to the atmosphere. Thus the
impact of the greenhouse effect is primarily circulated through water vapour, and it acts as a
fast feedback.

Carbon dioxide and the other non-condensing greenhouse gases are the key gases within the
Earth's atmosphere that sustain the greenhouse effect and control its strength. Water vapour is
a fast-acting feedback but its atmospheric concentration is controlled by the radiative forcing
supplied by the non-condensing greenhouse gases.

In fact, the greenhouse effect would collapse were it not for the presence of carbon dioxide
and the other non-condensing greenhouse gases. Together the feedback by the condensing
and the forcing by the non-condensing gases within the atmosphere both play an important
role in the greenhouse effect.

GLOBAL WARMING & CLIMATE CHANGE

Global warming, the phenomenon of increasing average air temperatures near the surface of
Earth over the past one to two centuries. Climate scientists have since the mid-20th century
gathered detailed observations of various weather phenomena (such as temperatures,
precipitation, and storms) and of related influences on climate (such as ocean currents and the
atmosphere’s chemical composition). These data indicate that Earth’s climate has changed
over almost every conceivable timescale since the beginning of geologic time and that the

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influence of human activities since at least the beginning of the Industrial Revolution has
been deeply woven into the very fabric of climate change.

Source: Encyclopedia Britannica Inc.

What causes global warming?

Global warming occurs when carbon dioxide (CO2) and other air pollutants and greenhouse
gases collect in the atmosphere and absorb sunlight and solar radiation that have bounced off
the earth’s surface. Normally, this radiation would escape into space—but these pollutants,
which can last for years to centuries in the atmosphere, trap the heat and cause the planet to
get hotter. That's what is known as the greenhouse effect.

How is global warming linked to extreme weather?

Scientists agree that the earth’s rising temperatures are fueling longer and hotter heat waves,
more frequent droughts, heavier rainfall, and more powerful hurricanes. In 2015, for
example, scientists said that an ongoing drought in California—the state’s worst water
shortage in 1,200 years—had been intensified by 15 percent to 20 percent by global warming.
They also said the odds of similar droughts happening in the future had roughly doubled over
the past century. And in 2016, the National Academies of Science, Engineering, and
Medicine announced that it’s now possible to confidently attribute certain weather events,
like some heat waves, directly to climate change.

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The earth’s ocean temperatures are getting warmer, too—which means that tropical storms
can pick up more energy. So global warming could turn, say, a category 3 storm into a more
dangerous category 4 storm. In fact, scientists have found that the frequency of North
Atlantic hurricanes has increased since the early 1980s, as well as the number of storms that
reach categories 4 and 5. In 2005, Hurricane Katrina—the costliest hurricane in U.S. history
—struck New Orleans; the second-costliest, Hurricane Sandy, hit the East Coast in 2012.

The impacts of global warming are being felt across the globe. Extreme heat waves have
caused tens of thousands of deaths around the world in recent years. And in an alarming sign
of events to come, Antarctica has been losing about 134 billion metric tons of ice per year
since 2002. This rate could speed up if we keep burning fossil fuels at our current pace, some
experts say, causing sea levels to rise several meters over the next 50 to 150 years.

What are the other effects of global warming?

Each year, scientists learn more about the consequences of global warming, and many agree
that environmental, economic, and health consequences are likely to occur if current trends
continue. Here’s just a smattering of what we can look forward to:

 Melting glaciers, early snowmelt, and severe droughts will cause more dramatic water
shortages and increase the risk of wildfires in the American West.
 Rising sea levels will lead to coastal flooding on the Eastern Seaboard, especially in
Florida, and in other areas such as the Gulf of Mexico.
 Forests, farms, and cities will face troublesome new pests, heat waves, heavy
downpours, and increased flooding. All those factors will damage or destroy
agriculture and fisheries.
 Disruption of habitats such as coral reefs and Alpine meadows could drive many plant
and animal species to extinction.
 Allergies, asthma, and infectious disease outbreaks will become more common due to
increased growth of pollen-producing ragweed, higher levels of air pollution, and the
spread of conditions favorable to pathogens and mosquitoes.

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