BRITISH STANDARD BS 8005-4:1987

Sewerage —
Part 4: Guide to design and
construction of outfalls

UDC 628.241.2
BS 8005-4:1987
This British Standard, having
been prepared under the
direction of the Civil
Engineering and Building
Structures Standards Committee,
was published under the
authority of the Board of BSI
and comes into
effect on
31 December 1987
© BSI 02-1999
First published, as CP 2005,
December 1968
First Part revision, as BS 8005-4,
December 1987
The following BSI references
relate to the work on this
standard:
Committee reference CSB/5
Draft for comment 84/11184 DC
ISBN 0 580 15993 0
Committees responsible for this
British Standard
The preparation of this British Standard was entrusted by the Civil
Engineering and Building Structures Standards Committee (CSB/-) to
Technical Committee CSB/5, upon which the following bodies were
represented:
Association of Consulting Engineers
Association of County Councils
Association of District Councils
British Ceramic Research Ltd.
British Coal
British Plastics Federation
British Precast Concrete Federation Ltd.
British Tunnelling Society
Clay Pipe Development Association Limited
Concrete Pipe Association
Construction Industry Research and Information Association
Convention of Scottish Local Authorities
County Surveyor's Society
Department of the Environment (Property Services Agency)
Department of Transport (Highways)
Federation of Civil Engineering Contractors
Fibre Cement Manufacturers’ Association Limited
Health and Safety Executive
Hydraulics Research Station Ltd.
Institute of Water Pollution Control
Institution of Civil Engineers
Institution of Environmental Health Officers
Institution of Public Health Engineers
Institution of Structural Engineers
Institution of Water Engineers and Scientists
Royal Institute of British Architects
Scottish Development Department
Trades Union Congress
Water Authorities Association
Water Research Centre
Amendments issued since publication
Amd. No. Date of issue Comments
 BS 8005-4:1987

Contents

Page
Committees responsible Inside front cover
Foreword ii
Section 1. General
1 Scope 1
2 Definitions 1
3 Abbreviations 1
Section 2. Design
4 Principles of design, investigation and records 2
5 Water quality criteria 6
6 Detailed studies 6
7 Location 10
8 Outfall hydraulic design 10
9 Pre-treatment 11
10 Storage tanks and tank sewers 11
Section 3. Construction
11 Types of outfall and methods of installation 12
12 Materials 13
13 Chambers 13
Section 4. Operation and maintenance
14 Operation and maintenance 14
Appendix A Methods of outfall installation 15
Appendix B Bibliography 18
Figure 1 — Four main types of outfall and diffuser configuration 12
Figure 2 — Bottom pull method 16
Figure 3 — Lay barge method 16
Figure 4 — Reel barge method 16
Figure 5 — Float and lower method 18
Publications referred to Inside back cover

© BSI 02-1999 i
BS 8005-4:1987

Foreword

This British Standard has been prepared under the direction of the Civil
Engineering and Building Structures Standards Committee and is directed at
general engineering practitioners who may either be embarking on a career in
sewerage or be dealing with a particular aspect for the first time. It is not
intended to be exhaustive in any field but sets out to present guidance on basic
principles and good practice, indicating where a more detailed and
comprehensive study may be made. BS 8005 supersedes and enhances
CP 2005:1968, which is withdrawn, although some of the material incorporated
is a restatement or a revision of the earlier text.
BS 8005 gives guidance on the planning, design, construction, operation and
maintenance of works to convey sewage, including storm sewage, surface water
and trade effluents to a sewage treatment works, tidal waters or other final place
of disposal. Recommendations are given for the repair, renovation and
replacement of sewers.
Many end users of this British Standard, such as governments, public
authorities, sewerage authorities and consultants, issue their own
recommendations and specifications for sewerage which BS 8005 is intended to
complement rather than replace.
BS 8005-0 directs the reader to sources of more detailed information, particularly
on important and specialized fields such as health and safety. It should be
regarded as supplying essential background information for the other Parts of
BS 8005.
BS 8005 is to be published in six separate Parts, as follows.
— Part 0: Introduction and guide to data sources and documentation;
— Part 1: Guide to new sewerage construction;
— Part 2: Guide to pumping stations and pumping mains;
— Part 31): Guide to sewers in tunnel;
— Part 4: Guide to design and construction of outfalls;
— Part 51): Guide to rehabilitation of sewers.
It has been noted that substantial one-part codes and guides take a long time to
revise and if they are reviewed at infrequent intervals, they tend to become out of
date quickly, especially in a field where technological development is rapid. It is
intended therefore to keep a constant watch on new developments and to update
BS 8005, Part by Part, as soon as the work can be justified.
BS 8301 sets out recommendations for building drainage and, while it relates
generally to smaller pipelines, there is some overlap between it and BS 8005.
BS 6297 gives recommendations for the design and installation of small sewage
treatment works and cesspools.
Apart from Part 0, which is directed more specifically at the UK sewerage field,
BS 8005 is for use both in the UK and, in appropriate circumstances, overseas.
Suggestions for the improvement of any Part of BS 8005 will be welcomed by the
Secretary of CSB/5 at 2 Park Street, London W1A 2BS.
A British Standard does not purport to include all the necessary provisions of a
contract. Users of British Standards are responsible for their correct application.
Compliance with a British Standard does not of itself confer immunity
from legal obligations.
Summary of pages
This document comprises a front cover, an inside front cover, pages i and ii,
pages 1 to 18, an inside back cover and a back cover.
This standard has been updated (see copyright date) and may have had
amendments incorporated. This will be indicated in the amendment table on the
inside front cover.
1)
In preparation.

ii © BSI 02-1999
 BS 8005-4:1987

Section 1. General

1 Scope 2 Definitions
This Part of BS 8005 provides guidance on the For the purposes of this Part of BS 8005, the
design, construction, operation and maintenance of definitions given in BS 8005-1 apply.
sea and other tidal outfalls (e.g. esturial outfalls),
including the sources of information available in 3 Abbreviations
preparatory investigations, the requirements of the For the purposes of this Part of BS 8005 the
installation from the environmental viewpoint and
abbreviations given in BS 8005-1 apply.
the provision of ancillary plant for storage and for
pretreatment of sewage, before discharge to tidal
waters for marine treatment.
NOTE The titles of the publications referred to in this standard
are listed on the inside back cover.
The titles of British Standards not referred to in this Part of
BS 8005 but of interest as dealing with closely associated
subjects are listed in Appendix A of BS 8005-1:1987.
Other publications that may be of interest are listed in
Appendix B.

© BSI 02-1999 1
BS 8005-4:1987
Section 2. Design
4 Principles of design, investigation
and records
4.1 Principles of sewage disposal by marine
treatment
4.1.1 Design objectives. The function of a tidal
outfall is to discharge sewage to the sea, usually
after grit removal and mechanical treatment, at a
sufficient distance from the shore to ensure that the
processes of dilution, dispersion and natural
purification reduce the concentrations of harmful
organisms and chemicals present in sewage to
acceptable levels in inshore waters, particularly
those used for fisheries or for recreational purposes.
4.1.2 Water quality. The inshore water quality to be
achieved will be determined by the relevant
authority granting a consent to the discharge, and
will depend upon the local usage of the receiving
water for bathing, fishing, shell fishery, cooling
water abstraction, etc. For example, the
EEC Directive concerning the quality of bathing
waters (76/160/EEC) lays down mandatory and
guide levels for faecal bacteria, pathogenic
organisms and chemicals that are present in
sewage. Faecal bacteria occur naturally in the
human gut and are consequently present in very
large numbers in sewage. They can be readily
detected when dispersed in seawater and are used,
therefore, to indicate the possible presence of more
harmful pathogenic organisms and chemicals which
tend to be present sporadically and in much smaller
concentrations in sewage.
4.1.3 Self-purification of sewage. It is implicit in the
design of sea outfalls that natural degradation
processes take place in sea water. The parameters
concerned when sewage is discharged to rivers or
enclosed waters are primarily biochemical oxygen
demand and suspended solids and, in some highly
productive streams, the nutrient elements nitrogen
and phosphorus; problems may arise because
dilution is limited by the flow of river water. This is
rarely the case in the sea where the load of organic
material, suspended solids and nutrients can
usually be assimilated with no more than a limited
local effect immediately adjacent to the outfall. The
principal parameter used when sewage is
discharged to the sea is the concentration of faecal
bacteria which is reduced not only by dilution but
also by natural mortality.
2 © BSI 02-1999
4.1.4 Hydrographical investigations. To determine
the optimum location for discharge, it is necessary
to study the natural mixing and dispersion
processes in the particular marine area into which
the discharge is likely to be mixed. To this end, it
may be necessary to carry out drogue tracking, dye
dispersion tests, bacterial tracer studies, current
metering or mathematical modelling. From this
information and a knowledge of inshore winds and
T90 periods (see 6.3.5), it is generally possible to
predict the effect of a discharge on the water quality
of the inshore waters.
4.1.5 Diffuser systems. To ensure that the
immediate area of the discharge (which may have
some amenity value for boating, water sports, etc.)
is not polluted by smell, sewage slicks and solids of
obvious sewage origin, it is necessary to achieve
some minimum initial dilution at the sea surface
over the discharge ports. Initial dilution for given
water depths, sea water density, sewage density,
discharge port diameter and ambient current
velocity may be readily calculated (see 7.2).
Subsequent dilution in a current and turbulence
induced surface plume is less easily predicted and
usually examined by in situ tracer tests. Careful
consideration of the requirements of the optimum
discharge location for dispersion is necessary to
select a suitable diffuser array of single or multiple
ports along the final length of the outfall pipe. In
addition, careful hydraulic analysis of the flow
division to the ports in the diffuser manifold and the
overall head loss within the complete outfall system
should be checked to ensure careful design of each
element of the outfall disposal system,
i.e. dispersion and die-off, initial dilution, diffuser
system and outfall pipe. When a suitable outfall
proposal is produced, it should be further checked to
determine the effects of sea water entering the
outfall system at low flows and whether any counter
measures need to be adopted.
4.1.6 Pre-treatment. To protect the outfall system
against blockages and to minimize visual pollution,
it is necessary to provide a headworks to pre-treat,
and occasionally to control the discharge of sewage.
The main functions carried out at a headworks are
as follows:
a) to remove grit, which otherwise may silt up the
outfall;
b) to remove from the flow debris such as rags and
plastics;
c) to break up the faecal matter to ensure rapid
dispersion and breakdown in the sea;
d) sometimes to give further treatment,
i.e. sedimentation.

Because sewage systems in coastal towns are
generally located towards the seafront, headworks
are by necessity sited in environmentally sensitive
areas and require housing in enclosed buildings
with precautions taken regarding noise, odour,
safety and appearance.
The economic balance between the degree of
pre-treatment on land and the length of the outfall
will depend on local circumstances, but the analysis
generally shows an advantage in favour of a long
outfall with limited pre-treatment.
4.1.7 Approvals to be sought. Throughout the
development of an outfall project, the following
approvals should be sought.
a) Statutory requirements
1) Planning permission from the local
Planning Authority to construct Works on land
or on the foreshore (Town and Country
Planning Act 1971).
2) Consent of Coast Protection or Sea Defence
Authority to carry out work on or near their
installations (Local Act or Byelaws).
3) Consent of MAFF, DAFS (or other
appropriate body) for the construction of an
outfall pipe on the sea bed (Food and
Environment Protection Act 1985 —
Part Two).
4) Consent of Department of Trade (or other
appropriate body) for the construction of works
below high water mark which could be a
hazard to navigation.
(Coast Protection Act 1949)
5) Consent of Water Authority or Purification
Board for discharge of sewage to the sea
(Control of Pollution Act 1985 — Part 2).
Where the applicant is a water authority such
consent is subject to the over-riding powers of
the DoE and approval by MAFF.
6) Consent of the dock or harbour authority, or
the Ministry of Defence, to construct the
outfall and discharge sewage. (Local Act
or Byelaw, or Defence legislation.)
b) Other requirements
1) Purchase of land and easements from
landowners.
2) Easement from the Crown Estates
Commissioners (or other appropriate body) to
cross the foreshore.
4.1.8 Consultations. Consultations should be
carried out with the following bodies.
a) Obligatory (in addition to the approvals noted
in 4.1.7)
Sea Fisheries Committee
© BSI 02-1999
BS 8005-4:1987
b) Desirable
General public
Conservation and amenity groups
Local councils
Fishery interests (commercial and
recreational)
Recreational interests
4.2 Design considerations
4.2.1 Design populations and flows. The magnitude
of sewage flows depend on the type of sewerage
system. In older parts of coastal towns, the sewers
usually operate on a combined system
(see BS 8005-1), while new developments tend to
have separate drainage facilities for foul sewage and
surface water. Flows should be calculated in
accordance with appropriate formulae
(see BS 8005-1). The designer of the outfall should
select a size to accommodate the existing range of
flows, with provision for predictable increases
resulting from development and for seasonal
variations in the population and strength. The
nature of discharge should be determined before
design begins. Discharge should be by gravity
whenever sufficient head is available
(see BS 8005-1), but with pumping capacity
available at other times. Auxiliary generators may
be necessary to prevent flooding in the event of
mains power supply failure.
4.2.2 Industrial processes. Care should be taken to
ensure that sewage will not be discharged near to
intakes supplying process or cooling water for
industrial use, or in the vicinity of fish farming
installations.
4.2.3 Nature of discharge. Most components of
domestic sewage are quickly broken down
(or degraded) in sea water, so that the combination
of degradation and dilution renders them harmless
in the salt water environment. As part of the
natural cycle of growth and decay, the abundant
supply of oxygen usually available in sea water
stimulates biological oxidation of the sewage
components. Ultraviolet light also plays an
important part in killing bacteria, while currents
and turbulence aid dilution and sedimentation
takes place over a wide area, where decomposed
material once again enters the lower level food
chain.
3
BS 8005-4:1987
Other substances which are more resistant to
degradation, or are non-degradable, in the sea may
be undesirable if discharged continuously or in large
quantities. These may occur in direct discharges of
industrial wastes or in trade effluents combined
with domestic sewage. The contracting parties to
the Paris Convention, 1974, undertake to eliminate
pollution of the sea resulting from the discharge of
specially noxious substances such as halogenated
organic compounds, mercury, cadmium,
hydrocarbons, oils and synthetic substances which
resist degradation. There are also limitations on the
discharge of other less persistent substances. The
Council of the European Communities set similar
objectives in their Directive on pollution caused by
dangerous substances discharged into the aquatic
environment of the Community (76/464/EEC). The
Control of Pollution Act 1985 — Part 2 gives the
water authorities in England and Wales powers to
control all discharges to estuaries and coastal
waters up to 3 miles offshore. Similar powers apply
to the River Purification Authorities in Scotland.
The EEC Directive on the quality of bathing
waters (76/160/EEC) is particularly useful in
determining the degree of marine treatment to aim
for in the design of a sea outfall, as it specifies
measurable bacterial concentrations (with
exceedence exceptions) admissible for classified
bathing waters.
4.2.4 Fisheries. Shellfish are particularly
susceptible to the effects of pollutants discharged to
the sea, and may be damaged by bacterial infection,
toxic substances, or siltation of suspended material
on their feeding grounds. The Council of European
Communities Directive on the quality required of
shellfish waters (79/923/EEC) provides for Member
States to designate certain brackish and coastal
waters to support shellfish life and growth.
Most marine organisms which live on the sea bed
are relatively immobile and are thus at risk from
pollutants which settle to the sea bottom. Spawning
grounds for fish may be affected deleteriously by
such conditions. The more mobile forms of marine
life tend to avoid areas affected by noxious
substances. Nevertheless, sudden releases of
certain wastes may give rise to certain conditions
acutely toxic to swimming fish. Depletion of
dissolved oxygen in the water in restricted areas,
such as estuaries, may prevent the passage of fish to
and from their spawning grounds. In extreme cases,
this may result in their death by asphyxiation.
Consultations with fisheries interests should take
place and the appropriate bodies and statutory
responsibilities are listed in 4.1.
4 © BSI 02-1999
4.2.5 Quality of receiving water. Quality criteria for
the receiving water should be related to the
recreational or other use made of the area. The
sewage discharge should not detract from the visual
aesthetic quality of the water.
Generally, this means that floatable material
should be disintegrated or removed and that the
formation of surface slicks, which are caused by
greasy material in sewage, should be minimized by
ensuring rapid dilution.
In accordance with the requirements of
the EEC Directive on bathing water
quality (76/160/EEC), certain bathing areas
(to be designated by the Secretary of State for the
Environment) are subject to numerical limits for
various bacterial and chemical parameters.
Similarly, the Directive on the quality required of
shellfish waters (79/923/EEC) applies to certain
designated waters and these are subject to specified
quality criteria.
UK policy on the control of discharges is based on
the concept of environmental quality objectives
(the use identified for a particular body of water)
and environmental quality standards (limiting
concentrations of contaminants in the receiving
water). Water and river purification authorities
have the responsibility for setting quality objectives
for their receiving waters and for determining
consent conditions for discharges containing
specified contaminants in relation to nationally
agreed quality standards. Consultations should
take place as outlined in 4.1.8.
4.3 Recorded information
4.3.1 General. Extensive use can be made of readily
available recorded information during the initial
study period for an outfall.
4.3.2 Hydrographic charts and records. An
up-to-date chart of the coastal waters will usually be
available from an agent for the sale of Admiralty
Charts. Information is given on water depths,
nature of the sea bed, obstructions, navigation
channels, and average tidal current velocities at a
few selected positions. Although this data is useful
for preliminary studies, it is rarely of sufficient
detail to be used for design purposes. Extensive local
surveys are invariably necessary to supplement this
source of information. Old charts are sometimes
useful when the long-term stability of channels has
to be considered. Local port authorities usually keep
such records.
Charts will also give an indication of available water
depths which will greatly influence initial dilution.

Underwater obstructions (wrecks, submarine cables
and pipelines) should be noted and also the
possibility of mining activities leading to
subsidence.
4.3.3 Geological records. The British Geological
Survey can usually supply local geological maps and
details of any boreholes that may have been drilled
in the area.
4.3.4 Oceanographic records. These will mainly be
wave records and are obtainable, where
appropriately available, from MIAS (Marine
Information Advisory Service) and perhaps from
local records.
4.3.5 Tidal and current records. A broad picture of
tidal current activity can be gained from Admiralty
Tidal Atlases as well as from local current records
on Admiralty Charts. However, the detail on these
is rarely sufficient for outfall design. Tide details are
available from local tide tables, but preferably from
the Annual Admiralty Tide Tables for British
waters which also give the relationship between
local chart datums and ordnance datum.
In the absence of published information, records
should be obtained of tidal variations over a period
of at least 1 year. These may be available from the
water authority, or local harbour authority;
otherwise observations should be made at the site
by installing a recording tide gauge in a position
sheltered from abnormal weather conditions and
where it will be submerged at all times. The zero
level of the gauge should be related to an
appropriate datum. The mean levels of high and low
water of spring and neap tides should be calculated
from at least 1 year’s continuous record. Mean tidal
level and the highest and lowest recorded tide levels
should also be ascertained.
Tidal currents in open coastal waters in the UK tend
to run parallel to the shore and generally reverse
direction twice in each tidal cycle. There may be a
net longshore movement of water, usually in one
direction, which is beneficial to the disposal of liquid
wastes at the site. The extent of any residual
longshore drift should be determined for typical
tidal conditions. Residual drift tends to be smaller in
shallow bays and inlets and may be influenced
significantly by wind. The extent of any
onshore/offshore residual movements should also be
investigated.
4.3.6 Admiralty pilots. Admiralty and local
yachtsman’s pilots can yield useful local navigation,
tide and current information.
© BSI 02-1999
BS 8005-4:1987
4.3.7 Special local effects
4.3.7.1 General. Local harbourmaster, yacht and
diving clubs are often a source of useful, if somewhat
piecemeal, information which may be of use during
initial design.
4.3.7.2 Littoral drift. Strong tidal and
wind-generated currents tend to cause movements
of shingle and sand in the littoral zone. In some
areas, this littoral drift is progressive, accretion of
bed material taking place at one point at the
expense of erosion at another. In other areas,
littoral movements are more random, resulting from
occasional rough sea conditions. Records over as
long a period as possible should be investigated.
Extensive littoral drift may alter conditions in the
immediate vicinity of the outfall after construction;
in extreme cases the pipe structure could be
undermined.
Aerial photographs of most of the UK coastline are
taken at regular intervals and provide a useful
source of information on littoral drift and coastal
morphology. These photographs are generally
available from the Ordnance Survey, regional
authorities such as the Scottish Development
Department and private survey companies.
4.3.7.3 Estuarial fresh-water discharges. Tidal
currents may be considerably modified by the
discharge into an estuary of large quantities of fresh
water following heavy rainfall inland. Any records
of such occurrences should be consulted. These
discharges may also carry a heavy load of
agriculturally derived nutrients which may give rise
to eutrophic effects in some estuaries with poor
flushing characteristics.
4.3.7.4 Groynes and sea defences. Attention should
be paid to existing or proposed sea defence
structures which could result in substantial
accretion or erosion of bed material in the vicinity of
the outfall pipe.
4.3.7.5 Headlands and overfalls. Outfalls
constructed from headlands often result in very
effective dispersion of sewage. The length of
submerged pipeline may be considerably less than
for construction within an adjacent bay to achieve
comparable dispersion characteristics. Difficulties
of construction on exposed headlands should be
considered, particularly the effects of interaction
between strong tidal currents or flow over an
irregular sea bed, giving rise to strong turbulence
exhibited as overfalls or races.
5
BS 8005-4:1987
4.3.8 Meteorological records. The direction and force
of winds may have a very marked effect on local
conditions. In some areas, certain combinations of
wind and tide can result in abnormally high or low
tidal levels. Strong winds blowing over large
expanses of open water generate heavy swell
conditions in shallow water which may affect the
configuration of the sea bed in the littoral zone. It is
important therefore to obtain the fullest possible
information on local effects caused by winds from
particular directions. Historical records of wind
conditions can be obtained for standard reporting
stations from the Meteorological Office. Local
records may also be available from harbour or port
authorities and H.M. Coastguard. Detailed records
should be obtained on the direction of prevailing
winds, occurrence of gale-force winds, and local tidal
effects.
5 Water quality criteria
5.1 Purpose of a long sea outfall
The purpose of a long sea outfall is to discharge
sewage, usually after mechanical treatment to
disintegrate or remove floatable solids, at a position
offshore where dilution and dispersion
characteristics are such that conditions in the
receiving water will satisfy certain specified water
quality criteria. Appropriate criteria may be
expressed in terms of various parameters indicative
of sewage concentrations. There are wide spatial
and temporal variations in the effects of
environmental conditions on the behaviour of
sewage in the sea. Hence, statistical limits should be
placed on any parametric values adopted for water
quality criteria.
5.2 Dilution and slick formation
One feature of outfall performance which can be
predicted with some confidence is initial dilution of
the jet of sewage between the outfall pipe and the
sea surface (see 4.1.5). The concentration of sewage
will usually be higher in the immediate vicinity of
the outfall than elsewhere and it is appropriate to
define criteria for outfall performance in terms of
initial dilution factors. Limited information is
available to relate occurrence of sewage slicks to
dilution in various environmental conditions.
Nevertheless, it is possible to prescribe initial
dilution requirements in relation to aesthetic
quality of the water.
Subsequent dilution in a current and the behaviour
of a turbulence induced surface plume is less easily
predicted and usually relies on in situ tracer
tests (6.3.2).
6 © BSI 02-1999
5.3 Enteric bacteria mortality
The most sensitive indicators of sewage
concentration are the enteric bacteria which form
part of the normal flora of the human gut and
therefore occur in extremely high numbers in
domestic sewage. Viruses and pathogenic organisms
tend to be present sporadically and in much smaller
numbers. Hence the ubiquitous indicator bacteria,
characteristic of healthy individuals, are usually
adopted for assessing sewage concentration in
natural waters. These organisms can also be
detected quantitatively by comparatively simple
techniques. Total numbers of coliform bacteria, or
the more specific faecal bacteria are usually
enumerated. The natural mortality rate of these
bacteria in sea water is governed by a number of
factors, but most important by ultraviolet radiation,
and is measured by a T90 period which is defined by
the time for 90 % mortality of the organism
(see 6.3.5).
6 Detailed studies
6.1 General
Following the assessment of available records and
the completion of preliminary feasibility
calculations, field studies should be commissioned
to measure tidal currents and to determine the rates
of diffusion applicable to the area. Consideration
should be given to water quality characteristics and
a baseline survey made of the flora and fauna of the
area. Detailed examination of sea bed conditions
along the route of the proposed outfall should be
undertaken.
6.2 Observations of tidal currents
6.2.1 General. There are two ways of studying water
movement. The first involves fixing the location at
various times of a particular volume of water
(Lagrangian). The second involves measuring the
speed and direction of water moving past a fixed
point (Eulerian). In making Lagrangian
measurements, it is necessary to label the
particular volume of water to be followed. This is
usually done by means of floats or drogue devices,
but can also be achieved with a water-soluble
marker dye.
 BS 8005-4:1987

6.2.2 Float tracking. On release from an outfall, 6.2.3 Dye tracking. Releases of dye may be made to
sewage usually rises to the sea surface before being the water surface and tracked in a similar way to
carried away by the tidal current and gradually floats and drogues. It is usually only possible to
dispersing laterally and through the depth. Wind make visual estimates of the centre of the dye patch
strength and direction may affect the current, at the water surface and the most useful way to
particularly at or near the water surface. Thus it is employ dye releases is in calibrating the effect of
necessary to obtain information on water velocities wind on floats and drogues. Submerged releases of
at several depths as well as in the surface layer. dye can be made, but it is then necessary to employ
Surface movement can be monitored by small instrumental methods of detection.
marker devices designed to float virtually 6.2.4 Current metering. Direct reading current
submerged, but still be visible from a boat. Suitable meters can be deployed from anchor boats to obtain
drift cards can be made from coloured plastics current profiles over full tidal cycles.
material weighted to float on edge and just
Recording instruments are available for
submerged. Surface drifters are usually released in
continuously measuring current speed and direction
large numbers with instructions to the finder to
at a point in the sea for up to 2 months. Data are
return them on promise of a small reward.
usually recorded on magnetic tape in a form which
Pole or stick floats are intended to integrate the can readily be transferred to a computer. The
water movement over a depth corresponding to their current meter should be installed on a taut-wire
length. These consist of lengths of wood weighted to mooring to minimize wave-induced movements; the
float just submerged; they can be fitted with a recording position at a fixed height above the sea
lightweight identification flag. bed with the depth below the surface varying
Measurements at greater depths are made by according to the state of the tide. In deep water,
means of a drogue device, which may carry a radar several meters may be deployed at different
reflector, supported by line beneath a buoyant positions on the same mooring wire.
marker unit. The submerged drogue should be large Records may be required for more than one location,
in relation to the surface unit and it has been found particularly in areas where the coastline is irregular
that three-winged devices give better drag and circulation patterns tend to be complicated.
performance than a four-winged variety. Parachute
Current-meter data can be examined graphically or
drogues, having a much greater projected drag area
statistically. Graphical interpretation includes
than cruciform drogues, can be used but are difficult
resolving components at right angles and producing
to deploy from small boats. Information on currents
progressive vector diagrams, which can be
close to the sea bed can be obtained by means of
compared with float tracks. By employing statistical
free-floating drifters designed to hover just above
analysis of continuous data records, it is possible to
the bottom. These so-called “woodhead” sea bed
separate components of the water movement
drifters are usually released in groups to be
resulting from tidal motion and the effects of wind.
returned by the finder on promise of a small reward.
6.2.5 Outfall positioning. The information gained
All types of floating device are affected to some
from the current studies will enable a preliminary
extent by wind and it is desirable to calibrate their
outfall discharge point to be selected. The local
performance with respect to a soluble water tracer,
dispersion characteristics for discharges at this
such as a dye. The design of the surface unit is very
point can then be investigated.
important and care should be taken to minimize the
effects of wind by reducing the exposed area.
The aim of a current study should be to obtain a
synoptic picture of the tidal currents over the whole
dilution area. This information should cover whole
neap and spring tidal cycles, and be presented as a
tidal atlas.
The most efficient way to obtain this information is
to use a land based radar station to track as many
as 12 float-drogues simultaneously.
The float-drogues are strategically placed and
maintained within the survey area by a high speed
boat, which is in touch by radio with the radar
station.
Subsequent plotting takes account of any wind drift
of the floats.

© BSI 02-1999 7
BS 8005-4:1987
6.3 Dilution and dispersion studies
6.3.1 General. There is a wide range of field studies
which can contribute information relevant to outfall
design. Some are demanding in time and resources
and, even if completed successfully, may not
necessarily provide values of the diffusion
parameters which are significantly different from
those selected from literature, in relation to the
short-term behaviour of sewage in the sea. Careful
thought should be given therefore, to the relevance
of the measurements which are being proposed and
the ultimate aims of the investigation. There are
two main situations to consider: first, where
discharge is proposed into an area where there is no
existing sewage discharge and secondly, where an
existing outfall can be used as a source of sewage to
study aspects of local dispersion performance. In
some cases, it is necessary to differentiate between
the effects of two or more sources of sewage by the
use of added tracer substances.
Alternative methods of surveillance and sampling
should be considered. It may be possible to use
satellite imagery or aerial reconnaissance from
fixed-wing aircraft, model aircraft, or helicopters.
The majority of studies involve working from boats;
the vessel selected should be compatible with the
type of investigation, have a working speed
adequate for covering the necessary ground at all
tidal conditions and be seaworthy in the roughest
conditions likely to arise.
6.3.2 Dye dispersion studies. Reference has been
made to the use of dyes to calibrate the performance
of floats and drogues (6.2.1). Measurements may be
extended to determine rates of horizontal and
vertical mixing (diffusion coefficients). Dye
concentration is measured in a fluorometer, the dye
being made to fluoresce in ultra-violet light. Ideally,
dye should be continuously injected, after
preliminary dilution, at the proposed outfall
location, over full tidal cycles. Continuous
measurements of dye concentration at several
depths are required along straight traverse lines
through the dye plume between known starting and
finishing points. Each set of traverses through the
plume is then corrected for drift to some mean time
(usually that associated with the point of maximum
concentration) and a synoptic plot obtained of dye
concentration. The diffusion rate can then be
estimated from the area enclosed by contours of
particular concentration levels at various positions.
Care in handling concentrated dye solutions is
essential to prevent false readings due to
contamination. The behaviour of the particular dye
used should be checked with respect to
photochemical decay and absorption on particulate
matter.
8 © BSI 02-1999
6.3.3 Other tracer materials. Fluorescent dyes are
the most suitable tracers for general purpose use,
but other substances may be used in special cases.
Radioactive tracers are particularly suitable for
surveys where concentration is measured in situ,
although specialized detection equipment is
required, involving the employment of qualified
radiochemists to handle the tracer in concentrated
form.
Bacterial tracers are available, which can be
detected after dilution by several orders of
magnitude more easily than can dyes or
radioactivity. However, as this method entails
discrete samples being taken for analysis, the
technique is more applicable to studies of the
long-term fate of sewage in the sea.
6.3.4 Bacteriological studies. Where sewage is
already being discharged to the sea in the
neighbourhood of the proposed new outfall, it is
useful to examine spatial and temporal
distributions of indigenous sewage bacteria in the
nearshore water. Samples collected at regular
intervals from fixed stations can be analysed for
coliform bacteria or faecal coliform and the results
examined statistically to find correlations between
bacterial counts and environmental parameters
such as tidal state, wind velocity, sea state and solar
radiation. The results may also indicate the
presence of other sources of sewage bacteria such as
storm overflows or polluted river discharges.
6.3.5 Bacterial mortality. A parameter of
considerable importance to the prediction of the fate
of sewage in the sea is the rate of mortality.
Although many factors are probably involved in
reducing bacterial counts in sea water, there is
considerable evidence to show that sunlight is the
most important controlling influence. The
effectiveness of a particular level of solar radiation
depends on the depth to which the light can
penetrate the water column. In clear sea water, this
may be several metres, but if the water is highly
turbid, as is often the case in estuaries or at sea
during storms, the depth of penetration may be only
a few centimetres. Salinity and temperature are
also parameters of relevance to the inactivation of
bacteria as they survive considerably longer in fresh
water than in salt water under otherwise similar
conditions. Measurements of turbidity, salinity and
temperature should be included therefore in water
quality surveys.
The rate of bacterial mortality in sea water is
described by the T90 period, which is the time
required for 90 % of bacteria to die off. T90 periods
should be locally determined but can vary at the
same site between less than 1 h to over 48 h.

6.3.6 Model studies. The complexity of combining
the dispersion and decay processes affecting patches
of diluted sewage of various ages requires the use of
computer models. A good degree of realism may be
obtained by using a hydrodynamic model to
estimate the pattern of tidal currents over a whole
area; they should be calibrated and validated from
field measurements (6.2). These results can then be
used in dispersion models, calibrated from dilution,
dispersion and decay studies (6.3), to study several
options under a variety of conditions.
(See “Application of coastal pollution research.
Part 5 — Microbial mortality.” WRc Technical
Report — TR228-1985.2))
6.4 Biological studies
Possible effects of domestic sewage on marine flora
and fauna can be examined in two ways: by in situ
monitoring and comparison of conditions in polluted
and similar control areas, or by toxicity tests in the
laboratory using samples of domestic sewage
diluted with sea water.
The procedures adopted by the relevant authority
for the control of trade effluents within the drainage
area of a tidal outfall should have regard to the
effect of such discharges on the marine
environment. Where the discharge of trade effluents
to the outfall is permitted, tests of acute or chronic
toxicity to selected marine organisms may be
desirable.
Where in situ monitoring is to be carried out,
controlled observations should be made:
a) at the site of the outfall before its construction,
to provide a basis for direct comparison with
studies made after the outfall is brought into use;
and
b) at a control site in the vicinity which exhibits
similar characteristics to the outfall site but
should be unaffected by the new discharge. This
control site would enable variations in marine
flora and fauna unrelated to the new discharge to
be observed.
The physical nature of the sea bed will indicate
whether particulate material is likely to settle or be
resuspended. Quantitative estimates should be
made of the abundance and diversity of species
present and seasonal variations determined.
Where outfalls discharge to estuaries or other
semi-enclosed bodies of water, it may be necessary
to estimate the effects of additional nutrients on the
growth of plants and the consequent effects on
concentrations of dissolved oxygen.
2)
Obtainable from the Water Research Centre, P.O. Box 85, Frankland Road, Blagrove, Swindon, Wiltshire SN5 8YR.
© BSI 02-1999
BS 8005-4:1987
6.5 Geophysical investigations
6.5.1 General. Information should be obtained on
the configuration and surface structure of the sea
bed along the line of the proposed outfall.
Subsequently, cores can be drilled from the sea floor
to provide information on the geological nature of
the substrate.
6.5.2 Sea bed profiling. Detailed information on the
distribution of water depth, or bathymetry, may be
obtained by echo-sounding surveys along known
transit lines, the spacing between successive lines
being dependent on the detail required.
Topographical features of the sea bed can be
mapped using side-scan sonar equipment which
also reduces the number of transit lines required to
survey a given area. Seismic reflection profiling
would determine the vertical extent and type of
material beneath the sea bed. Low-frequency pulses
of acoustic energy are used to penetrate up to 60 m
below the sea bottom.
6.5.3 Offshore site investigations. When a feasible
line for the outfall has been established, the
composition of the bed material should be examined
in more detail. Within the surf zone, and in shallow
water further offshore, this can be done by divers
using hand probes or jetting equipment to test the
resistance to penetration. Samples of bed material
can also be obtained by divers. In deeper water, it
may be necessary to use grabs or corers operated
from survey vessels. Corers operating by gravity or
under pneumatic pressure can provide samples in
certain instances which can be examined for particle
size and shear strength. However, corers may only
be of limited value and full borehole investigations
should be undertaken where tunnel construction is
under consideration. Geological information is
essential to the selection of construction method,
whether the outfall is to be supported on piles,
buried in a trench, or constructed in a tunnel. Both
cost and feasibility of a particular method of
construction are dependent on the nature of the
substrata.
9
BS 8005-4:1987
7 Location
7.1 General
All hydrographic and geophysical information
obtained should be considered in reaching a decision
about the location of the new outfall. Some of the
original options will probably have been rejected
during the course of the initial studies; it is likely
that the final choice will be concerned with outfall
length and method of construction. Ideally,
predicted performance should be compared with
criteria required for adjacent recreational areas
(see 4.2.3).
Wherever possible, the outfall pipe should be buried
beneath the foreshore to protect its exterior coating
from wave damage.
The amenity value of local recreational beaches
should be taken into account in deciding the position
and length of a sea outfall and the site of any
associated headworks. The location and design of
any storm overflows, and levels at which they are
set to operate, should not be overlooked
(see BS 8005-1). It is important to ensure that
visible solids, identifiable as of sewage origin, are
not discharged. The time taken for water to travel
from the seaward end of the outfall to the shore in
unfavourable wind conditions should be
determined. The degree of dilution which is likely to
be achieved in the minimum transit time should be
estimated.
7.2 Initial dilution
Dilution performance and distribution of outlet
ports should be calculated for all tidal conditions
and compared with a demand curve relating
dilution to the distance offshore; there is no
justification for requiring high initial-dilution
performance at points remote from recreational
areas.
7.3 Tidal conditions
Data on tidal currents should be examined to ensure
that minimum dilution criteria will be satisfied at
all states of tide. In some cases, where slack-water
conditions persist for a significant part of the tidal
cycle, it may be necessary to consider storing sewage
during this critical period. Similarly, storage may be
required during the lower half of the tidal cycle at
sites where the tidal range is large and the water
line recedes several kilometres across the foreshore
at low water. If possible however, storage should be
avoided, to discourage the establishment of
anaerobic conditions.
10
Residual movements of water in the longshore
direction should be deduced and related to the time
that sewage will remain in a particular area. The
effects between layers of water at different depths
should be determined.
7.4 Secondary dilution
Appropriate rates of horizontal and vertical
diffusion should be determined and applied to the
estimation of secondary dilution during successive
tidal cycles after discharge.
7.5 Water quality at recreational areas
The parameters set out in the EEC Directive on
bathing water quality (76/160/EEC) should be used
for guidance in any areas set aside for water contact
sports or similar recreation.
7.6 Effects of wind
Winds from certain quarters are likely to give rise to
worst-case conditions ashore. Estimates should be
made of water quality in such cases and these
compared with the average conditions predicted.
Although wind-induced movement of water is likely
to reduce the transit of polluted water between the
outfall and the shore, it will increase the rate of
vertical mixing, thus enhancing dilution.
7.7 Environmental effects
An assessment should be made of the long-term
ecological effects of discharging sewage at a
particular location. Particular attention should be
given to local fisheries. Controls should be applied to
the discharge of toxic substances (see 4.2.3).
8 Outfall hydraulic design
The hydraulic design of an outfall is a vital link
between the many preliminary investigations and
the final engineering solution.
The physical and hydraulic characteristics of an
outfall may be included in a computer program
which is programmed to calculate the performance
of the outfall’s diffuser, in terms of flow distribution
and head loss, and the overall head loss of the
outfall, at all design discharges. The program
should also predict internal velocities in order to
prevent internal sedimentation, and jet velocities to
prevent sea water intrusion. This is essentially a
cylical design process during which a number of
variations will be investigated to achieve design
optimization.
© BSI 02-1999

Calculations should be undertaken to check the
need for non-return valves or other devices to be
located on the diffuser ports to prevent saline
intrusion. Saline intrusion is the ingress of sea
water and possible sea bed sediments into the
outfall through the diffuser ports during no or low
flow conditions. The diffuser ports situated above
the sea bed should be so designed to prevent being
caught up by fishing nets or hooked by ships’
anchors.
9 Pre-treatment
9.1 Siting of headworks
The siting of a headworks, or pre-treatment plant,
for an outfall will depend on operational efficiency
and economy, but should not cause offence to local
residents and visitors. Advantage should be taken to
site the headworks on any rising ground to provide
the head necessary to discharge the sewage to sea by
gravity. When construction within a built-up area is
unavoidable because of the route taken by the
sewerage system, particular attention should be
paid to the control of offensive odours, and to
minimizing the disturbance caused by the
continuous or intermittent operation of electrical
and mechanical equipment. Adequate provision
should be made for access to the plant for
maintenance work and, if necessary, for the removal
of screenings and grit.
9.2 Purpose of headworks
The primary purpose of a headworks is to reduce the
size of particles discharged to the sea to enable the
natural biodegradation process to occur as speedily
as possible. Generally, this can be achieved by the
use of fine screens.
Secondary equipment is also usually installed to:
a) safeguard the fine screening operation;
b) achieve minimum maintenance;
c) to ensure a long operational life of the outfall
system.
This equipment may comprise coarse screens, a grit
settlement facility, comminutors and pumps.
Screenings may be removed completely or
disintegrated and returned to the flow.
More advanced treatment may be justified in some
circumstances to improve the quality of the effluent
to be discharged or to minimize nuisance to the
public at the headworks.
9.3 Disposal of screenings
Screenings may be disposed of by burial, tipping on
land or, after dewatering, by incineration.
Alternatively, the material can be disintegrated and
returned to the sewage flow upstream of the
screens.
© BSI 02-1999
BS 8005-4:1987
9.4 Disposal of sludge
If it is found necessary to incorporate primary
sedimentation as the pre-treatment process, the
sludge can be treated locally, or at a regional works,
by anaerobic digestion or other means. In some
cases, it may be convenient and acceptable to convey
untreated sludge by tanker for dumping at sea for
which a licence is required in accordance with the
Food and Environment Protection Act 1985 —
Part Two. (See 4.1.7 and BS 8005-0.)
10 Storage tanks and tank sewers
The capacity of storage tanks and tank sewers
depends on the period during which sewage is to be
stored and on the multiples of the dry-weather flow
to be stored before the tanks are allowed to overflow.
Discharge from such tanks is usually controlled by
valves or penstocks operated manually, electrically,
hydraulically, or by compressed air. An alternative
means of operation should always be provided for
use in an emergency. The opening and closing of
valves and penstocks may be controlled
automatically by timing devices or by float-operated
contacts actuated by water level. Timing devices can
be designed to correspond approximately to the tidal
cycle. The choice of method of operation will depend
on the head of sewage to be controlled, the size and
weight of the valve gate, the availability of a
particular power source and the manning schedule
at the site.
Provision should be made in the design of storage
facilities for removing sludge deposits, cleaning and
maintenance. In the event of the storage capacity
being exceeded, the design should allow liquid to be
removed from near the top of the tank, to minimize
the quantity of suspended and floatable solids in the
overflow.
Particular attention should be paid to the
ventilation of sewage works, storage tanks and
sewers, to prevent the accumulation of flammable
and toxic gases such as methane or carbon
monoxide, both during normal operations and when
access is necessary for maintenance, cleaning or
overhaul. Care should be taken to control offensive
odours and to preserve the amenity of the area.
11
BS 8005-4:1987

Section 3. Construction

11 Types of outfall and methods of 11.2 Outfall types

installation
11.1 General
There has been considerable development in sea bed
pipeline construction techniques in recent years. It
is desirable that the expertise of both specialist
construction contractor and designer should
participate throughout the design process, if the
most economic solution is to be adopted. Such a
combination of skills may be difficult to achieve
since a sea outfall project will require an extensive
survey and investigation stage before any detailed
proposals can be put forward and costed. When
tenders are invited for the construction of the
outfall, the results of the various marine
investigations should be made available to the
tenderers, who should be encouraged to put forward
alternative offers, based on proven or adequately
researched construction techniques.
11.2.1 General. Outfalls may be broadly classified
under three main headings as described
in 11.2.2 to 11.2.4, with tunnelled outfalls having
important sub-classifications.
11.2.2 Piped outfalls constructed without excavation
[see Figure 1(a)]. This is an outfall where the pipe
and diffuser section is laid entirely on or above the
sea bed. It may be constructed in a variety of
materials and is placed by the bottom tow, float and
sink, or in situ construction methods. The diffuser
section is generally a continuation of the outfall
pipes, with a stepped area reduction, along which
circular discharge ports are cut into the pipe. In
designing this type of outfall, most careful
consideration should be given to its protection
against drag from ships' anchors and trawled
fishing gear.

Figure 1 — Four main types of outfall and diffuser configuration

12 © BSI 02-1999

11.2.3 Piped outfalls in trench [see Figure 1(b)]. This
is a common type of outfall where the pipe is
shallowly buried, and in which the diffuser section
consists of a number of short riser pipes linked to
discharge ports just above the sea bed. Construction
techniques are similar to the sea bed type described
in 11.2.2, except that the pipe is laid into a
pre-dredged or excavated trench which is
subsequently backfilled with bed materials, rock or
concrete. If backfilled with granular material, the
stability of the pipe (particularly if emptied for
inspection) in the backfill material should be
evaluated, especially in a surf zone. Clearly, these
outfalls are well protected, and hydraulically may
be considered similar to tunnelled outfalls with very
short riser pipes.
11.2.4 Tunnelled outfalls. There are two types of
tunnelled outfall as follows:
a) tunnelled outfalls with the diffuser risers
connected to the tunnel soffit [see Figure 1(c)];
b) tunnelled outfalls with the diffuser risers
connected to the tunnel invert [see Figure 1(d)].
Under normal discharge conditions, when the entire
outfall system is full of fresh water, the hydraulic
behaviour of both types is the same. However, their
behaviour under sea water intrusion conditions is
significantly different with less risk using type b)
above.
There are a number of sub-classifications in which a
tunnelled outfall may terminate in a sea bed pipe
diffuser section, or the diffuser section of any type
may take the form of two or more separate arms.
The need for a multi-port diffuser should not be
assumed, as there are circumstances where its
added design and operational complications are
unnecessary.
11.2.5 Methods of pipeline installation
Methods of installing submarine pipelines are
detailed in Appendix A.
Methods of constructing sewers in trench are dealt
with in BS 8005-1.
12 Materials (see also BS 8005-1)
The material selected for a particular outfall pipe
will depend on the diameter and length required for
the methods of construction and installation.
The methods of installation described in Appendix A
normally require long lengths of pipe to be
assembled, and suitable materials include steel,
concrete, high density polyethylene (HDPE),
medium density polyethylene (MDPE), polyvinyl
chloride (PVC) and glass reinforced plastics (GRP).
Precautions should be taken to reduce corrosion of
metal pipes and couplings by electrochemical action
(see BS 5493 and PD 6484).
© BSI 02-1999
BS 8005-4:1987
Steel pipe corrodes rapidly in sea water and needs to
be protected. External coatings may be composed of
coal-tar enamel and several layers of GRP. Cathodic
protection should be provided by the use of
sacrificial anodes or the impressed-current anode
system. Rigid linings are less satisfactory for
internal protection than epoxy resin, polyethylene
or unplasticized PVC. Additional weight is provided
by an exterior coating of concrete applied over a
steel wire mesh. Pipe sections are usually joined by
welding.
Concrete is resistant to attack by sea water but can
be damaged by acids and wastes containing high
concentrations of sulphur compounds. Vinyl or
stainless steel linings are used as well as
acid-resistant cements. Reinforcement with steel
may be necessary and particular attention should be
paid to the jointing of concrete and
reinforced-concrete pipe sections.
Plastics materials have the advantage of resisting
corrosion, but require substantial additional weight
to provide a secure anchorage and to protect the pipe
from abrasion. PVC pipes are available only in small
diameter sizes and appear prone to damage by
certain marine molluscs. HDPE and MDPE and
GRP pipes are manufactured in a wide range of
sizes and sections can readily be joined. There is a
lack of experience of the long-term serviceability of
plastics materials used for sea outfalls.
13 Chambers
Access chambers are required for the maintenance
and cleaning of penstocks and other control
equipment. Provision should be made for the
removal of equipment and the temporary diversion
of sewage while work is carried out. Manhole covers
located below the maximum tidal level should be
fitted with water-tight screw-down covers.
Chambers should be designed to help dissipate the
surge pressures generated when pumps come into
operation, or when large pressure changes occur at
the open end of the pipe (see BS 8005-1 regarding
health and safety matters).
13
BS 8005-4:1987

Section 4. Operation and maintenance

14 Operation and maintenance The full route of the pipe should be inspected by
engineering divers to note any signs of damage or
A long sea outfall should be designed to operate
other unsatisfactory conditions. Particular
efficiently with minimum maintenance. The velocity
attention should be given to the following:
in the outfall system should be sufficient to achieve
self-cleansing velocities to obviate the build up of a) abrasion of the outer protective coating;
settled particles. A flushing regime should be b) undermining of the bed by erosion of bed
incorporated in the design to ensure velocities are materials;
sufficiently high to scour the invert of the pipe. c) excessive growths of marine organisms;
In normal circumstances, a well designed outfall d) the conditions of the outlet ports.
should give satisfactory service without routine
The report should describe any remedial work
attention. Evidence of a build-up of slime or
required and this should be carried out at the
sediment within the outfall may be observed by
earliest opportunity before the hostile environment
increases in the head required to maintain
further attacks the outfall fabric.
discharge at a given tidal state. If there is a marked
decrease in the retention period in the outfall at a
given rate of flow, the installation should be
monitored regularly as regards hydraulic
performance. Physical checks should be made
regularly at 6 to 12 month intervals over the
first 2 or 3 years of an outfall’s life, and
every 2 or 3 years thereafter.

14 © BSI 02-1999

Appendix A Methods of outfall
installation
A.1 Introduction
A number of construction methods are available for
the installation of marine outfalls. The method most
appropriate to any given situation should be
determined after considering the following:
a) length and diameter and the stresses to be
imposed on the outfall arising from pulling,
bending, pressure tests, intermediate supports on
land and at sea, the forces imposed by waves,
currents, water depth and sea bed movement;
b) type of internal and external coatings and
weight coating, including feasibility of
application, particularly at joints, and stresses
imposed on coatings;
c) depth of water and the sea bed profile along the
proposed outfall route;
d) geology of the sea bed and the underlying
strata, foundation stability, depth and method of
burial (e.g. predredging, post lay trenching,
imported cover), stability and maintenance of
predredged trenches;
e) general hydrographic regime and physical
characteristics of the inshore waters including
such factors as currents, waves and tides;
f) location and availability of onshore
construction areas and facilities;
g) contractors’ expertise;
h) shipping movement over outfall route and
work area, and related problems of anchor
dragging and interference with construction
method.
The methods of constructing outfalls are basically
variations of one or more of the following:
1) bottom pull;
2) lay barge;
3) reel barge;
4) float and lower;
5) sectional outfalls;
6) tunnelled outfalls.
Methods 1) to 4) invariably involve constructing the
outfall at a location remote from its final position.
Temporary stresses imposed in these cases will
usually be much greater than those in the
permanent condition.
With methods 1) to 5), a temporary cofferdam
construction through beach and foreshore will
usually be required for excavation purposes to a
point at or below low water, where floating,
dredging or trenching equipment can be deployed.
© BSI 02-1999
BS 8005-4:1987
A.2 Bottom pull method
The bottom pull method (see Figure 2) is the most
common method of outfall construction. Typically,
pipe strings are assembled on a construction site, in
line with the proposed route, and inspected and
tested prior to being pulled into the sea.
A barge equipped with heavy duty winches is
anchored seaward of the offshore end of the outfall
and is used to pull the pipeline from the
construction site. Successive strings are joined on
until the complete length is in its final position.
This method is usually associated with welded steel
pipe which has the advantage of inherent strength
and longitudinal flexibility and can have a
continuous concrete weight coating for protection
and stability. However, prestressed concrete and
HDPE or MDPE pipelines have also been installed
by this method.
The pulling capacity installed should be not less
than the total negative buoyancy of the outfall as
designed, for stability in the prevailing wave and
current regime. The temporary pulling stress and
the available pulling capacity is a function of the
required length and size of the outfall.
A diffuser section designed to be in line with the
outfall can be pulled out with the outfall.
A.3 Lay barge method
The lay barge method (see Figure 3) involves the
jointing of pipe lengths on a barge equipped with a
launching ramp, down which the pipeline is fed in
stages as the barge moves progressively away from
the shore.
The individual pipes are coated on land and
transported to the lay barge in batches, as required.
The draft of the barge and the sea conditions
determine the distance offshore at which it can
commence laying. The inshore section is pulled to
the land with winches and then the barge moves
offshore using its own anchors, which are
progressively moved offshore with tugs.
This method is associated with laying long lengths
of offshore pipelines in an ocean environment, and is
normally considered to be uneconomical for marine
outfalls. However, in sheltered waters, a simple
shallow draft barge can be utilized for laying either
steel, HDPE or MDPE outfalls.
A.4 Reel barge method
The reel barge method of laying submarine
pipelines (see Figure 4) involves coiling a continuous
length of pipe onto a large diameter reel or
turntable. The pipe is then laid from the barge,
through a straightener, and down a ramp onto the
sea bed. As the barge progresses along the required
route, the reel unwinds and the pipeline is laid in
position.
15
BS 8005-4:1987

Figure 2 — Bottom pull method

Figure 3 — Lay barge method

Figure 4 — Reel barge method

16 © BSI 02-1999

This method is used for small diameter steel,
plastics or flexible armoured pipelines and, if
required, concrete collars can be attached as the
pipe enters the water for increased stability.
While purpose built vessels are used for offshore oil
and gas flowlines, small and less sophisticated
barges can be utilized for laying plastics and flexible
outfalls in the shallower inshore areas.
This method has particular application for
constructing outfalls to small coastal towns.
A.5 Float and lower method
In sheltered coastal areas and inland lakes, outfalls
can be floated to the required location and lowered
into position (see Figure 5).
The outfall is assembled onshore, preferably in one
length, at a site that can be remote from the final
location. It is then manoeuvred into the water and
lifting slings from a number of launch pontoons
attached at the required centres. The outfall is
raised clear of the sea bed using the winches on the
launch pontoons and towed to its required location.
The launch pontoons are then anchored and the
outfall lowered into its final position using the
winches in a predetermined sequence.
Steel, HDPE and MDPE outfalls can be installed by
this method. Concrete collars are normally attached
to HDPE and MPDE outfalls to provide sufficient
weight for stability. But for steel, continuous
concrete weight coating or collars can be utilized.
For short lengths of outfall in shallow water, it may
be feasible to design the line to float without
pontoons and to be lowered into position by
controlled flooding.
A.6 Sectional outfall methods
There are several methods of installing sectional
outfalls, the essential feature being that the outfall
is built by jointing individual pipes at the sea bed.
The procedure is heavily dependent upon divers, but
is applicable to all types of pipe as little or no
temporary stress condition is imposed.
At its simplest, conventional small diameter pipes
can be laid, one at a time, in a trench on the sea bed
or on a suitably prepared granular bed, using a
small crane barge and joined together by divers. The
joints are normally of the rubber ring type, but with
additional restraining devices, to prevent the joints
opening after installation.
3)
In preparation.
© BSI 02-1999
BS 8005-4:1987
For larger diameter outfalls, say 1 500 mm and
above, individual pipes can be lowered to the sea bed
from a crane barge or self-elevating platform and
supported in a purpose made framework. This
framework, which is controlled from the support
vessel under the direction of a diver, allows vertical
and transverse adjustment of the pipe position. By
adjusting the longitudinal position, the new pipe
can be inserted into the previously laid pipes and
the joint completed.
Very large or multiple outfalls can be installed by
the immersed tube method. The outfall is formed
from a number of sections which are assembled on a
slip-way or in a dry-dock and floated to their
required location. Each section is then lowered onto
a pre-screeded granular bed or concrete foundation
pads. After adjusting its position on the sea bed, an
initial seal is made to the preceding section using
hydraulic rams or hydrostatic pressure before
continuing onto the next section. The final joints
between each section are completed from inside the
outfall after it has been dewatered.
A.7 Tunnelled outfalls (see also BS 8005-33))
Tunnelled outfall construction is not usually
considered for outfalls less than 1 600 mm diameter
unless:
a) local physical circumstances preclude the sea
bed outfall previously described; or
b) the movement of the sea bed is so great as to
endanger the long-term stability of the outfall.
Submarine tunnels are ideally constructed from a
single shaft located on shore and through
impermeable materials such as still homogeneous
clays or sound rock. Other sea bed materials, faults
and fissures can be tunnelled through using modern
chemical grouting, with or without compressed air,
but the cost implications can be considerable.
The tunnel is normally lined with in situ reinforced
concrete or precast concrete segments, to support
the excavation and improve the hydraulic
characteristics.
At the offshore end, the outfall has to be connected
to the sea bed through either a series of vertical
shafts or a single shaft from which a diffuser section
is laid on the sea bed. These shafts can be formed by
drilling from the sea to the tunnel using a
self-elevating platform or floating equipment.
Alternatively, the shafts may be raised from inside
the tunnel, finally breaking out to the sea bed using
explosive charges.
17
BS 8005-4:1987

Figure 5 — Float and lower method

Appendix B Bibliography 8. GAMESON A.L.H. Investigations of sewage

discharges to some British coastal waters.
1. WATER RESEARCH CENTRE, GAMESON Chapter 5: Bacterial distributions, part 1. WRc
A.L.H. Discharge of sewage from sea outfalls: Technical Report No. 79. WRc 1978.
Proceedings of an international symposium, 9. GAMESON A.L.H. and MUNRO D.
London, August 27 – September 2, 1974. Investigations of sewage discharges to some British
Pergamon 1975. coastal waters. Chapter 5: Bacterial distributions,
2. INSTITUTION OF CIVIL ENGINEERS. Coastal part 2. WRc Technical Report No. 147. WRc 1978.
discharges: Engineering aspects and experience. 10. GAMESON A.L.H. Investigations of sewage
Proceedings of the Conference organised by the discharges to some British coastal waters.
Institution of Civil Engineers, Chapter 5: Bacterial distributions, part 3.
London, 7 – 9 October, 1980. Thomas Telford 1981. WRc Technical Report No. 165. WRc 1981.
3. INSTITUTION OF PUBLIC HEALTH 11. GAMESON A.L.H. Investigations of sewage
ENGINEERS, WALES DISTRICT CENTRE. Large discharges to some British coastal waters.
sea outfalls for sewage disposal. Proceedings of the Chapter 5: Bacterial distributions, part 4.
Symposium organised by the Institution of Public WRc Technical Report No. 176. WRc 1982.
Health Engineers, Wales District Centre, held at
12. AGG A.R. Investigations of sewage discharges to
UWIST, 27 March, 1979. IPHE Wales District
some British coastal waters. Chapter 6: Initial
Centre 1979.
dilution. WRc Technical Report No. 99. WRc 1978.
4. GAMESON A.L.H., AGG A.R., STANFIELD G.
13. GAMESON A.L.H. Investigations of sewage
and GOULD D.J. Investigations of sewage
discharges to some British coastal waters.
discharges to some British coastal waters.
Chapter 8: Bacterial mortality, part 1. WRc
Chapter 1: Introduction. WRc Technical
Technical Report No. 201. WRc 1984.
Report No. 67. WRc 1978.
14. NEVILLE-JONES P.J.D. and DORLING C.
5. GAMESON A.L.H., AGG A.R., STANFIELD G.
Outfall design guide for environmental protection: A
and GOULD D.J. Investigations of sewage
Discussion document. WRc ER No. 209E.
discharges to some British coastal waters.
WRc 1986.
Chapter 2: Indicators of pollution. WRc Technical
Report No. 67. WRc 1978.
6. GAMESON A.L.H. Investigations of sewage
discharges to some British coastal waters.
Chapter 3: Bacteriological enumeration procedures,
part 2. WRc Technical Report No. 193. WRc 1983.
7. GAMESON A.L.H. Investigations of sewage
discharges to some British coastal waters.
Chapter 4: Field studies. WRc Technical Report
No. 68. WRc 1978.

18 © BSI 02-1999
 BS 8005-4:1987

Publications referred to

BS 5493, Code of practice for protective coating of iron and steel structures against corrosion.
BS 8005, Sewerage.
BS 8005-0, Introduction and guide to data sources and documentation.
BS 8005-1, Guide to new sewerage construction.
BS 8005-2, Guide to pumping stations and pumping mains4).
BS 8005-3, Guide to sewers in tunnel5).
BS 8005-5, Guide to rehabilitation of sewers4)5).
BS 8301, Code of practice for building drainage4).
PD 6484, Commentary on corrosion at bimetallic contacts and its alleviation.
BS 6297, Code of practice for design and installation of small sewage treatment works and
cesspools4).
Application of coastal pollution research. Part 5 — Microbial mortality WRc Technical Report TR228-1985.

4) Referred to in the foreword only.

5) In preparation.

© BSI 02-1999
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