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Introduction To Tha Basic Principles PDF
Introduction To Tha Basic Principles PDF
with Ultrasonics
Michael Berke
Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1. Why use ultrasonics for nondestructive material testing? . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2. Ultrasonic testing tasks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3. Detection of discontinuities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
4. Method of testing and instrument technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
4.1 The ultrasonic flaw detector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
4.2 Near resolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
4.3 The probe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
4.4 Refraction and mode conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
4.5 Characteristics of angle-beam probes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
4.6 The TR probe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
5. Locating discontinuities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
5.1 Calibration of the instrument . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
5.1.1 Calibration with a straight-beam probe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
5.1.2 Calibration with a TR probe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
5.1.3 Calibration with an angel-beam probe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
5.1.4 Locating reflectors with an angle-beam probe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
6. Evaluation of discontinuities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
6.1 Scanning method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
6.2 Evaluation of small discontinuities: The DGS method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
6.3 Sound attenuation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
6.4 The reference block method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
6.4.1 Comparison of echo amplitudes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
6.4.2 Distance amplitude curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
7. Documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
8. Diagnosis of indications (outlook) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Reference list . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3
Introduction
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1. Why use ultrasonics for other hand special test problems are sol-
nondestructive material ved, the same as before, using radiogra-
testing? phy. In cases where the highest safety re-
quirements are demanded (e.g. nuclear
At the beginning of the fifties the technician power plants, aerospace industry) both
only knew radiography (x-ray or radioac- methods are used.
tive isotopes) as a method for detection of
internal flaws in addition to the methods
for nondestructive testing of material sur- 2. Ultrasonic testing tasks
faces, e.g. the dye penetrant and ma-
gnetic particle method. After the Second Is there a primary classification of tasks
World War the ultrasonic method, as de- assigned to the ultrasonic operator? If we
scribed by Sokolov in 1935 and applied by limit ourselves to testing objects for
Firestone in 1940, was further developed possible material flaws then the classifica-
so that very soon instruments were avail- tion is as follows:
able for ultrasonic testing of materials.
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3. Detection of
discontinuities
The operator then scans the test object, A sound beam can be roughly divided into
i.e. he moves the probe evenly to and fro a convergent (focusing) area, the near-
across the surface. In doing this, he obser- field, and a divergent (spreading) part, the
ves an instrument display for any signals far field, Fig. 3.
caused by reflections from internal discon-
tinuities, Fig. 2. The length N of the near-field (near-field
length) and the divergence angle is de-
pendent on the diameter of the element, its
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Fig. 4b Volumetric discontinuity – angle-beam probe
Fig. 4a Volumetric discontinuity – straight-beam probe Fig. 5 Volumetric flaw – detection form different directions
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scanning from different directions. A plane If the reflected portion of the sound wave
(two-dimensional) discontinuity (e.g. ma- is not received by the probe then it is unli-
terial separation, crack) reflects the ultra- kely that the discontinuity will be detected.
sonic waves mostly in a certain direction, The possibilities of detection only increase
Fig. 6. when the plane discontinuity is hit vertical-
ly by the sound beam. This applies to dis-
continuities which are isolated within the
test object.
Fig. 7 Apparent deformation of the sound beam on a side wall Fig. 8a Crack detection with 45˚ scanning
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Fig. 8b Angle reflection effect Fig. 10a Angle reflection effect
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4. Method of testing and
instrument technology
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Fig. 13 Block diagram: Pulse Echo Method
The time measurement starts with the Fig. 14 Ultrasonic Testing in practice
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surface and travels through the test object
a second time.
1. Horizontal position.
left flank of the echo at the 8th
scale graduation
2. Vertical amplitude:
70% screen height
Fig. 18 Backwall echo at the 8th scale graduation Fig. 19a Straight-beam probe: initial pulse delay
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With angle-beam probes the sound pulse between the initial pulse and the backwall
in the probe must travel through a much echo another echo will appear, caused by
longer delay path made of perspex before partial reflection of the sound wave on a
it is transmitted into the test object. De- discontinuity, Fig. 20.
pending on the type of probe, the initial
pulse delay can be so large that it no longer Such an echo is called an intermediate
appears on the display, Fig. 19 b. echo. It is easy to foresee the position
changes of the intermediate echo on the
display if the reflector is at different depths.
Fig. 21 a+b: the position of the intermedi-
ate echo on the display in relation to the
position of the backwall echo behaves the
same as the distance of the discontinuity
related to the total thickness of the test
Fig. 20 Test object with discontinuity, display with flaw echo Fig. 21b Discontinuity near the surface
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object. We already know a method of
determining the distance of an internal
flaw; the ultrasonic tester speaks of loca-
tion of the discontinuity.
22.
Or do we perhaps have a clue which will reflected many times between the surface
lead us to the unseen intermediate echo (a and the discontinuity, Fig. 24.
near-to-surface discontinuity)? The answer
is yes, when the discontinuity is In this case, the amplitudes of the echoes
large enough and shadows a noticeable become smaller as the distance increases.
part of the sound beam so that the back- The more dense the flat echoes advance
wall echo becomes smaller, Fig. 23. If the to the surface, the more the echoes of the
near-to-surface discontinuity is also echo sequence disappear into the initial
smooth and parallel to the surface, then pulse, this causes the echoes to become
there is an echo sequence which is more even more dense. In such cases there is a
or less well formed because the pulses are limit to detection.
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From everything, we see that the initial 4.3 The probe
pulse is not welcome on the display, how-
ever it is a technical necessity: it limits the Probes whose beams are normal to the
detectability of near-to-surface disconti- surface are called straight-beam probes,
nuities. Reflectors in the dead zone, the Figs. 1a and 26.
non-testable area immediately beneath
the surface, can no longer be detected,
Fig. 25. The dead zone is dependent on
the test setup, this means from the probe
and the test instrument. However, it can be
minimized by suitable selection of the test-
ing device.
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continuities due to the width of the initial the question about why angle-beam
pulse. probes do not transmit longitudinal waves.
In this case a detailed examination is re-
Probes whose beams enter at an angle are quired.
called angle-beam probes because they
transmit and receive the sound waves at
an angle to the surface of the test object,
Figs. 1b and 28. 4.4 Refraction and mode
conversion
α = angle of incidence
β = angle of refraction
c1= sound velocity in medium 1
c2= sound velocity in medium 2
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Moreover something strange happens: In
addition transverse waves are created at
the sound beam's point of impact, Fig. 30b.
This happens with reflection as well as with
refraction! Due to the fact that the trans-
verse waves propagate at around only half
the sound velocity of longitudinal waves,
other propagation directions are automat-
ically produced due to the refraction law,
i.e. reflection and refraction angles.
That is the limit over which no more sound able sound wave in the test object (made
waves are transmitted into the test object. of steel), namely the transverse wave bet-
Total reflection starts from here, Fig. 32d. ween 33.3˚ and 90˚, Fig. 33.
4.5 Characteristics of
angle-beam probes
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beam probes do not have such a wide 4.6 The TR probe
selection as straight-beam probes. This is
primarily due to the fact that high frequency
If you want to obtain a similarly good near
transverse waves in non-alloyed fine grain
resolution with straight-beam scanning
steels are subjected to high attenuation.
you should use a TR probe, Fig. 35.
As the sound energy of the waves travels
through the material it is so strongly ab-
sorbed and scattered that only relatively
small test objects can be tested with suffi-
cient sensitivity.
Fig. 34b Detection of a hole with a MWB 70-4E Fig. 36 TR probe on the test object: CRT with backwall echo
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Multi-reflections within the delay path of teristic explains why TR probes play a
the transmitter do not interfer because the valuable part in the chemical and energy
transmitter element does not have any re- generating industries: they are ideal for
ception function. Only when the sound testing all types of tubes and containers,
pulses come out of the test object and into for the detection of discontinuities in tube
the receiver element of the TR probe do walls, and for measurements of inside cor-
evaluatable echoes appear on the display. rosion and remaining wall thicknesses.
The electrical and acoustic separation is, Special high temperature probes are even
due to technical reasons, not completely able to measure the wall thickness on test
possible. Especially high gain adjustments object surfaces up to about 550˚C so that
and rough test object surfaces cause por- installations can be tested during oper-
tions of sound to be directly transferred ation.
from the transmitter to the receiver.
si
Ti =
k
1 25 10 2.5
2 50 10 5.0
3 75 10 7.5
4 100 10 10.0
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Example 2: Calibration range of 250 mm between the initial pulse and the backwall
in aluminum echo, Fig. 44, e.g. an echo at scale grad-
uation 1.4. With calibration in the 250 mm
10 scale graduations correspond to 250 range the distance to the reflector s is
mm in aluminum: k = 25 mm/graduation. therefore 1.4 x 25 = 35 mm.
We couple the straight-beam probe to an
aluminum test block which is 80 mm thick,
i.e. a backwall echo sequence is produced
from this thickness (t = 80 mm), Fig. 43.
The calibration table now looks like this: 5.1.2 Calibration with a TR probe
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from 6 mm to scale graduation 6, Fig. c) Steps a) and b) are alternately repeated
45a+b. until both echo flanks are exactly on the
3rd and 6th scale graduations, Fig.
45a+b.
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5.1.3 Calibration with an angle-
beam probe
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Fig. 50 Range: 250 mm with a WB 60-2 on V1 block Fig. 51b Path of a sound wave in a V2 block, radius 50 mm
Because the radius of the circle segment The corresponding echo sequence is pro-
is exactly 100 mm we will regularly receive duced according to whether the probe
an echo sequence with distances of 100 beams into the 25 mm radius or the 50 mm
mm, 200 mm, 300 mm etc. with which we radius. No echoes appear with sound
are able to carry out calibration of the test paths by which the sound pulses from the
instrument the same way as the straight- "wrong" direction meet at the center point
beam probe. Fig. 50 shows calibration of because these pulses are absorbed by the
the 250 mm range. front damping element of the probe.
For the miniature angle-beam probe one Fig. 52 shows calibration of the 100 mm
uses the considerably smaller and lighter range by scanning into the 25 mm radius
Standard Calibration Block 2 (V2 block). of Standard Calibration Block V2.
This has, as opposed to the V1 block, two
circle segments with a common center
point, however it does not have saw cuts.
The required echo sequence is produced
here by the alternating reflection of the
sound waves, Fig. 51a+b.
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5.1.4 Locating reflectors with an practical reasons, the reduced surface
angle-beam probe distance is used because this is
measured from the front edge of the probe.
The echo of a discontinuity on the instru- The difference between the surface dis-
ment display does not now give us any tance and the reduced surface distance
direct information about its position in the corresponds to the x-value of the probe,
material. The only available information for this is the distance of the sound exit point
determination of the reflector position is to the front edge of the probe, Fig. 54b.
the scale position and therefore the sound
path s, this means the distance of the
discontinuity from the index point (sound
exit point) of the probe, Fig. 53.
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depth of the reflector is produced by using 6. Evaluation of
the depth formula which is greater than the discontinuities
thickness T of the test object.
Of course, a discontinuity is best evaluated
when its size (extension) is known. The
operator's wish to accurately know the
"real reflector size" is understandable
therefore it is expected that an
nondestructive testing method, such as
ultrasonic testing, give this information.
However, due to the fact that on the display
Fig. 56a The apparent depth only the echo can be interpreted, this
means the reflected sound coming from
the discontinuity, it is very often difficult,
The ultrasonic operator must acertain and in some cases even impossible, to
whether a reflection comes from the oppo- reliably assert the size of the reflector. In
site wall and then proceed with calculating fact, the echo height plays the decisive part
the reflector depth, Fig. 56b. when evaluating discontinuities during ma-
nual Ultrasonic Testing.
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Fig. 58b Top view with reflector for extension
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Fig. 59 Reflectors with different areas and their echoes
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With accurate tests using flat-bottom holes
at different depths a simple law can be
found, at least in the far field of the applied
sound beam:
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above method of discontinuity evaluation
is applied in many countries due to the fact
that the method is based on well proven
laws in the sound field. It is therefore re-
producible, i.e. the evaluation results are
independent of testing device and operator.
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6.3 Sound attenuation
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Fig. 68 Reference block wiht side drilled holes and resulting
echoes
6.4.2 Distance amplitude curve 2. that the heavy reference block need not
be transported to the testing location.
All reflectors in the reference block are
scanned before the test, their maximum 3. that the recording of a DAC for certain
echo heights marked on the attachment applications is only required once be-
scale of the display and joined by a curve, cause the curve is documented on a
Fig. 68. transparency or in the memory of a
modern ultrasonic test instrument.
The curve produced is called the Distance
Amplitude Curve, or DAC for short. When By recording the curve using reflectors in
a discontinuity echo appears, an immedia- a test object comparable to the work piece,
te assessment can be made whether or this curve contains all the influences in the
not the discontinuity echo exceeds the test object (distance law, sound attenua-
DAC. In addition to this a determination is tion, surface losses). Corresponding cor-
made, by a corresponding gain change, to rections are therefore not necessary.
Regarding the evaluation results, we must
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understand here that the effect of the
discontinuity (geometry, orientation and
surface quality) is not taken a great deal
into account the same as the DGS method.
Therefore, the result of a discontinuity
evaluation with the reference block
method has the same uncertainty as the
DGS method.
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7. Documentation
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storing of all discontinuity data in the instru- Now he is able to use his own program
ment, transfer errors can be excluded, (word processing, database) for individual
position coordinates of the detected design of his own test documentation. In-
discontinuities are entered into the instru- strument settings and display graphics are
ment and are therefore contained in the simply read into his program. This routine
stored data set along with the A-Scan. If work is easily made by a so called Macro.
required, the documentation can be A macro is nothing more than a list of com-
printed at the test location, Fig. 71. mands belonging to the user program
being used and runs automatically thus
creating the required documentation. The
names of the files to be processed are re-
quested, in dialog, by the operator.
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Ultrasonic test report
(example referring to AD-Merkblatt HP 5/3)
Indications to be recorded:
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8. Diagnosis of indications
(outlook)
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Literature list
J. and H. Krautkrämer:
"Ultrasonic testing of materials"
4th edition (1990)
Springer-Verlag
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