Ultrasonic Inspection Fundamentals

g
Ultrasonic Inspection
Level 2
Student Name________________________________________
Ultrasonic Level II Issue 11/05 1

ULTRASONIC INSPECTION LEVEL II
g
A. Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………………5
1. Course overview and format
2. Distribution of reference material
B. Math of Ultrasound ……………………………………………………………………………………17

1. Pulse echo calculations
2. Beam shape calculations
3. Angle beam calculations
4. Angle beam distance calculations
C. Angle Beam Inspection……………………………………………………………………………….49

1. Set up information
2. General rules
3. Sequence of operation
4. Calibration blocks and reference standards
5. Calibration and inspection methods
D. Flaw Identification/Evaluation……………………………………………………………………….65
1. Evaluation criteria
2. Reflector sizing techniques
3. Classification of discontinuity types
4. Applications review
E. Equipment Quality Control……………………………………………………………………………85

1. Ultrasonic Instruments
2. Transducers
F. Special Instrument Features……………………………………………………………………………99

1. Electronic Gates
2. Electronic DAC and TCG
3. Backwall echo attenuator
4. Interface echo triggering
5. Digital instrument features and data recording
G. Supplement……………………………………………………………………………………………115
H. Lab Exercises………………………………………………………………………………………….133
I. Study Guide…………………………………………………………………………………………….167
2 Issue 11/05 Ultrasonic Level II

g
GENERAL COURSE INFORMATION - ULTRASONICS Level II
Welcome to the GE Inspection Technologies Training.

This course is structured to meet and exceed the requirements of The American Society for
Nondestructive Testing (ASNT) recommended practice SNT-TC-1A as well as those of NAS-410,
MIL-STD 410E, ATA-105.
Personnel needing to complete 80 hours of Level 2 training, as required by the NDT qualification
and certification programs of ISO #9712 and various nuclear industry specifications, will combine
this course with GE Inspection Technologies’ Level 2B ultrasonic training course.
The successful completion of this course satisfies the general education recommendations
towards EMPLOYER certification of Level II ultrasonic NDT personnel.
THIS IS A GRADED COURSE WITH TWO SEPARATE GRADES:
WRITTEN GRADE
a. There will be three daily quizzes with 25 multiple-choice questions on each quiz. These
quizzes may include any course material covered up to that point. The average of the three
quiz grades will make up 10% of the overall written grade.
b. A general written examination (75 multiple-choice questions) will be given on Friday. The exam
grade will make up 90% of the overall written grade.
Example: Quiz grades: 89, 79, 92 would give an average of 87%

10% of 87 is 8.7 Points
FINAL EXAM SCORE = 80% 90% OF 80 = 72 Points
FINAL WRITTEN GRADE = 72.0 + 8.7 = 80.7 = 81%
PRACTICAL GRADE
A general practical examination will be given on Friday. It will include calibration procedures,
scanning and flaw evaluation techniques and other skills learned during the course. It will be
based on a possible 100 points.

g
IN ORDER TO RECEIVE A CERTIFICATE OF COMPLETION, YOU MUST ATTEND THE
ENTIRE COURSE AND RECEIVE A 70% OR HIGHER ON BOTH GRADES - WRITTEN AND
PRACTICAL.
Class will begin promptly at 8:00 AM and typically run until 5:00 PM Monday through Friday.
Lunch will be from 11:30 AM until 12:30 PM daily.
General Electric Inspection Technologies’ policy does not permit tape recording or video taping of
any portion of the training courses.
Please turn off cell phones because they are distracting to the class.
This course will provide a solid foundation in the general theory and practical skills utilized in
industrial ultrasonic inspection. We hope that you will make the effort to ensure the maximum
benefit from this course. Good Luck!
Course Location: ________________________
Course Dates: __________________________
Instructor: ____________________________
Phone Number: ________________________

g
Introduction
Introduction

g

g
Level 1 Review Material
LONGITUDINAL WAVE (L)
• Particle motion is parallel to direction of wave travel

• Only wave mode that will travel in solids, liquids and gases.
• Fastest mode of vibration
SHEAR WAVE (T)
• Particle motion is perpendicular to direction of wave travels only in solids

• Travel at approximately 1/2 the velocity of L-waves
• Smaller wavelength than an L-wave of the same frequency
SURFACE WAVE
• Particle motion is elliptical

• Travels only in solids
• Approximately 45% the velocity of L-waves
• Will travel around gradual curves
• Penetrates to a depth of approximately one wavelength
• Used in contact testing
• Requires clean surface
MODE CONVERSION
• Changing of sound wave from one mode to another

• Caused by the reflection and/or refraction of sound at an interface when the incident angle is
greater than zero degrees
REFLECTION
• Sound bounces off of the part’s walls (interface) staying in the same material
REFRACTION
• The bending of the sound wave as it crosses the interface at an incident angle greater than
zero
ACOUSTIC IMPEDANCE (Z)
• The resistance of a material to the propagation of sound

• Acoustic Impedance = Material’s Velocity x Density Z = CD

g
AMOUNT OF SOUND REFLECTION
• The amount of reflection at an interface depends upon the angle of incidence and acoustic
impedance mismatch.
% Reflected Pressure at 0 degree incidence R = Z2 - Z 1

Z2 + Z1
VELOCITY
• The rate at which sound travels through a material

• Depends upon the material (density & elasticity) and the mode of vibration
• Note - Velocity is constant for a given mode and material
WAVE THEORY
• Cycle: A complete repetition of particle motion

• Wavelength ( λ = Lambda): Distance a sound wave travels during a cycle (distance between
like points on successive wave fronts)
• Frequency: Number of complete cycles of vibrations in a given time period (usually 1 second)
• The higher the frequency, the shorter the wavelength
C (Velocity) = F X λ
λ (Wavelength) = C/F
F (Frequency) = C/λ
WAVE THEORY PROBLEMS
1. What is the wavelength of a 15 MHz shear wave in a titanium rod?
λ = C/F = .12 X 106 IPS = .008”

15 MHz
2. What is the frequency if the straight beam wavelength is .111” in aluminum?
F = C/λ = .25 X 106 IPS = 2.25 MHz

.111”

g
BEAM SPREAD
• Degree of spread is determined by the frequency and the diameter of the crystal
• Higher frequency - less beam spread
• Larger diameter - less beam spread
• The more narrow the beam, the higher the intensity
• Angle gamma (γ) - half angle of the beam spread
SINγ = C X 1.22 Where D = Crystal Diameter

DF
ZONES OF SOUND
• Dead zone: Transmission time - the crystal cannot receive while transmitting.
Zone where reflectors are not detectable in the dead zone.
• Near zone: Zone where the sound wave has not achieved a uniform pattern. Constructive
and destructive interference occurring here.
Flaw detection is possible but evaluation may be limited.
• Peak point: The end of the near field.
Any reflector will give its highest signal amplitude when at this distance
• Far zone: Zone where the sound has achieved a uniform wave pattern.
Best flaw evaluation.
Attenuation and beam spread start to be noticed.
• Attenuation: The loss of sound intensity as the wave travels through the material.
N = D2F Where N = Distance to end of near field (peak point)

4C
ULTRASONIC EQUIPMENT ENERGY PATH
Pulser Couplant
Cable Crystal - receiving
Crystal - transmitting Cable
Couplant Receiver
Test material Display
DISPLAYS
• A-scan - standard display or printout. Horizontal base line represents time or calibrated
distance. Vertical height of signals represents strength of received echo.
• B-scan - provides side view of part, on special CRT or printout. Horizontal position of sweep
corresponds to transducer motion.
• C-scan - provides top view (plan view) of part on recording or printout. Recorder or printer
linked to transducer movement.

g
TYPICAL DIGITAL INSTRUMENT BLOCK DIAGRAM
DIGITAL FLAW DETECTORS
• Advantages of a digital machine: Precise control of the test conditions

Reduced size and weight Ability to store flaw information
Ability to store calibrations Ease of documentation
TYPICAL CIRCUITS
KEYPAD - Used to enter commands and data to the Microprocessor and DLM
POWER SUPPLY - Provides the required voltages needed by the other circuits
CLOCK - Provides timing pulses to the MP/DLM – 50MHz is common
A/D CONVERTER - Converts voltage levels into digital information
DISPLAY - Shows the test information visually on rows of pixels
RECEIVER - Processes the returning echoes and the IP so that they can be displayed.
• Rectifier displays the RF, negative, positive or full-wave signal.
• Filter smoothes out the signal.
• Amplifier increases the signal. The reject control removes unwanted signals
• Attenuator (gain controls) change the amplitude of the signal on the display.
PULSER (TRANSMITTER)
• Produces the initial pulse (IP) after receiving the trigger pulse from the DLM.
• The IP goes to the transducer and the receiver (to be processed as the “main bang”)
• The pulse voltage is controlled by the damping control or pulse energy control.
• The greater the voltage, the more transducer crystal “rings”.
g
PULSER TIMING
• The number of pulses produced each second is called the Pulse Repetition Rate.
• The pulse repetition rate is based on the thickness of the test material.
The thicker the material, the lower the rep. rate.
The thinner the material, the higher the rep. rate.
• The Pulse Interval is the time between trigger pulses.
Must be greater than the transit time
Pulse intervals are normally measured in microseconds.
Microsecond = one millionth of a second = .000001 = 1µsec.
DECIBELS
• A measure of sound for stating the relationships between sound amplitudes
• The number of decibels and corresponding signal amplitude ratios are on a chart
Formula dB = 20 X LOG (A1/A2)
• To obtain dBs or ratios not on the chart:
Adding dBs requires multiplying ratios
Subtracting dBs requires dividing ratios
TRANSDUCER COMPONENTS
CRYSTAL - Ceramic or composite material which produces and receives the sound
• Piezoelectric effect is the effect whereby:
Electrical energy produces mechanical energy
Mechanical energy produces electrical energy
• Thinner the crystal the higher the frequency
WEAR PLATE - Protects the piezoelectric crystal from wear and damage
DAMPING MATERIAL - Material which controls the ringing in the transducer
• More highly damped probes give better resolution
• Less damped probes ring longer(better penetration)
• Damping factor (ring down) - number of cycles before crystal comes to rest
RESONANCE COIL - Provides electrical impedance matching to the flaw detector
BACKING MATERIAL - Holds components in place and absorbs shock
TRANSDUCER TYPES
STRAIGHT BEAM – Sound beam is perpendicular to the entry surface. Poorest near field
resolution because of the dead zone.
• Straight Beam Immersion - Excellent near field resolution because the dead zone and near
zone effects can be eliminated from the test.
• Straight Beam Paintbrush Probes - Length is greater than the width. These immersion probes
are faster when testing large areas for flaws.
• Straight Beam Delay Line - Much better near field resolution due to the delay. Special delays
allow high temperature testing. When testing mild steel, the delay line should be greater than
one half the part thickness.

g
ANGLE BEAM - Transducer is mounted at an incident angle, which determines the angle of
refraction in the test material. The refracted angle is marked on the wedge.
DUAL ELEMENT - Transducer contains two separate crystals; one transmits and one receives.
Used in corrosion thickness testing because a narrow v-shaped sound path is produced (less
scattering). Dual elements have no dead zone.
COUPLANT
• Provides an air free interface

• In immersion testing - water used: Caution - chlorine may affect testing material
ATTENUATION
• Loss of sound intensity as the sound wave travels through the material
• Same size reflectors at different depths will give echoes of different amplitudes
DISTANCE AMPLITUDE CORRECTION - DAC
• Method to evaluate flaw size/severity compensating for attenuation in the part

• Any point along a DAC curve represents the same level response compensating for sound
loss through distance
PENETRATION
• Ability to overcome attenuation

• To improve penetration, increase the pulse length
• The lower the transducer frequency, the longer the wavelength
• Increase initial pulse voltage, longer crystal ringing
• Decrease transducer damping, longer crystal ringing
RESOLUTION
Ability to distinguish reflectors that are close together

• Lateral Resolution – Ability to separate flaws which are at the same depth
Choose a transducer which has a more narrow beam
• Axial Resolution – Ability to separate flaws which are at different depths
1. Near field resolution - ability to separate flaws from top of part (dead zone)
2. Far field resolution - ability to separate flaws close together in depth
To improve resolution, decrease the pulse length
Increase the transducer frequency (shorter wavelength)
Decrease initial pulse voltage, less crystal ringing
Increase transducer damping, less crystal ringing

g
DETECTABILITY
• The ability of the test system to indicate the presence of a reflector (flaw)
• Determined by flaw size to wavelength relationship
• To improve detectability increase the frequency
SOUND INTENSITY
• Amount of sound in a given area

• Determined by: size of initial pulse, transducer damping, and the beam spread
SENSITIVITY
• A measure of the response of a given size reflector at a given distance.

• Essential for repeatability
CALIBRATION
• Calibration is the adjustment of the instrument and the transducer to a known set of conditions
using a reference standard (calibration block).
• DISTANCE - Display is set to a known number of inches.
• SENSITIVITY - a given size reflector at a given depth is placed at a specific screen height The
amplitude the signal is put at is called the reference line. The amount of gain required to put
the signal at the reference line is called the reference level.
• Acoustic zero is the point in time when the sound enters the top of the part
• Electric zero is the point in time when the transmitter fires the initial pulse.
ANGLE BEAM DISTANCES
• Leg - the sound path (SP) distance from the BIP to the opposite side.
• V-path - the SP distance from the BIP to where the sound returns to the surface
• Skip Distance - the surface distance from the BIP to the point where sound returns to the
surface.

g
ANGLE BEAM REFLECTOR LOCATION
• Locating angle beam flaws is different because the sound is traveling at an angle.
• Two distances are necessary, the surface distance to the reflector and its depth.
IMMERSION TESTING – The Main Alternative To Contact Testing
• Involves submerging the test piece in a tank of liquid or water (couplant).

• ADVANTAGES: Uniform coupling Use of higher frequencies
Better resolution Ease in scanning the test piece
C-scan documentation Greater test repeatability
• Water path must be 1/4th of steel part’s thickness (due to water/steel velocity ratio)
• Focused transducers are used:
Test convex or concave surfaces with the beam perpendicular to the part surface
Shorten the near field length of the higher frequency transducers
Provide a very narrow beam
• No interface echo, initial pulse, back wall, or back wall multiples show on the display when
doing angle beam immersion testing
THROUGH TRANSMISSION
• One transducer is on one side of a test piece and a second is on the opposite side.
• One is a transmitter and the other is a receiver.
• Sound goes through the part in one direction.
• Flaw is indicated as a loss of the signal on the screen
RESONANCE TESTING
• Thickness testing and disbond location method

• Continuous wave, not a pulse of sound
• Variable frequency, not fixed
• Frequency is changed until the wavelength equals twice the thickness of the part, and then the
part’s thickness can be read from the dial.

Training and Certification
g
It is important that the Technician and Supervisor be Qualified in the Inspection method before
the technique is used and test results evaluated.
The American Society for Nondestructive Testing (ASNT) recommends the use of the document;
“Recommended Practice # SNT-TC-1A”.
This document provides the employer with the necessary guidelines to properly qualify and
certify the NDT Technician.
To comply with this document the employer must establish a “Written Practice” which
describes in detail how the technician will be trained, examined and certified.
The employer and student are advised to study the current edition of SNT-TC-1A to determine the
recommended number of hours of classroom instruction and months of experience
necessary to be certified in the inspection method
Certification of NDT personnel is the responsibility of the employer.
Level I - is qualified to perform specific calibrations, specific tests, and specific evaluations under
the direct supervision of a Level II or Level III.
Level II - is qualified to set up and calibrate equipment and to interpret and evaluate results. Must
be able to prepare written instructions, report test results, and supervise trainees and Level I
personnel.
Level III - Must be capable and responsible for establishing techniques, interpreting codes, and
designating the test method and technique to be used.
Approves inspection procedures and directs the training and certification of NDT personnel.
Must have a practical background in the technology and be familiar with other commonly used
methods of NDT.
The SNT-TC-1A document recommends that Level I and II NDT technicians be examined in the
following areas; General examination, Practical examination, and Specific examination(s)
The SNT-TC-1A document recommends that NDT Level III personnel be examined in the
following areas; basic examination, method examination and specific examination.
The American Society for Nondestructive

Testing
1711 Arlingate Lane
Columbus, OH 43228-0518
Ph: 800-222-2768
Web site: www.asnt.org

g

g
Mathematics
Mathematics of Ultrasound

g

Pulser (Transmitter) Timing
g
The Pulser fires Initial Pulse.
The material and its thickness determine the number of pulses.
Pulse Repetition Rate (PRR): The number of pulses produced each second
Transit Time (TT): The time for the sound to make a round trip.
Pulse Interval (PI): The time between trigger pulses (must be greater than the transit time).
1 1
PRR = PI =
PI PRR
Pulse Repetition Rate
STEP1: Calculate the__________________________
2 × Thickness 2T
TT = =
Velocity C
Example: 4” thick, mild steel (L-wave)
2T 2(4" ) 8"
TT = = 6
= =
C .23 × 10 in/sec 230,000 in/sec
To convert seconds to microseconds, move the decimal point 6 places to the right.

g
Pulse Repetition Rate
Minimum Pulse Interval could be equal to the transit time
Used in high speed scanning
Min PI = TT
STEP 2: Calculate the____________________ Pulse Interval (PPI)
Practical Pulse Interval allows time for echoes to subside and for microprocessor calculations to
be made
Usually _____________the transit time.
Example:
P.PI = 5 x TT = 5 x ____________sec = _____________sec
STEP 3: Calculate the Maximum Practical Pulse Repetition Rate

(Round to the nearest whole number)
1
P.PRR = = 1
P.PI
Calculator Key(s) that may be used
1 -1
X or X

g
Max Practical PRR calculations
Calculate the maximum practical pulse repetition rate for a straight beam contact test of a 1” thick
mild steel sample.
STEP 1: Transit Time
STEP 2: Practical Pulse Interval
STEP 3: Max. Practical PRR
Approximately 23,000 pps is the maximum practical pulse repetition rate.

g
Repetition Rate Calculations
Calculate the maximum practical pulse repetition rate for a straight beam contact test of a 5” thick
nylon sample.
STEP 1: Transit Time
STEP 3: Maximum Practical PRR

g
Repetition Rate Calculations
Calculate the maximum practical pulse repetition rate when straight beam immersion testing a 1”
thick, mild steel sample using a 3” waterpath.
STEP 1 “A”: Transit time in 1” of mild steel
STEP 1 “B”: Transit time in 3” of water
STEP 1 “C”: ADD the Transit Times
STEP 3: Maximum Practical PRR

g
Acoustic Impedance Mismatch
The amount of reflected pressure________________ as the acoustic impedance
___________________increases.
Sound transmits through an interface more easily as the mismatch decreases.
Typical Acoustic Impedances
Air 0.0004
Water 1.48
Polyurethane 1.9
Plexiglass 3.1
Aluminum 17.0
Titanium 27.3
Mild Steel 46.0
Tungsten 101.0
Refer to the UT Reference Data Card

g
Reflected Pressure Calculation
(for 0° angle of incidence)
Z1 = Acoustic Impedance of 1st Material

Z2 = Acoustic Impedance of 2nd Material
Z2 - Z1
= X 100
Z2 + Z1
Reflected Pressure Calculation

1. Calculate the percentage of reflected pressure at a mild steel to air interface.
RP = Z2-Z1 = .0004 – 46
Z2+Z1 .0004 + 46
2. Calculate the percentage of reflected pressure at mild steel to aluminum interface.
3. Calculate the percentage of reflected pressure at a mild steel to copper interface.

g
Acoustic Impedance Mismatch
Reflected
Minimal
pressure reflection
air
.0004
Beam Spread Formula

C
SIN γ = × 1 . 22
DF
γ = Half angle of spread
F = Frequency
D = Diameter
C = Velocity
The constant 1.22 measures to

the effective edge of the beam.

g
Beam Spread Formula
The constant 1.22 defines the edge of the beam relative to the intensity loss from the central axis
of the beam.
The chart below lists other constants and their respective dB-down points that can be used with
the beam spread formula.
k= intensity loss (dB)

0.37 -1.5
0.51 -3.0
0.70 -6.0
0.87 -10.0
0.93 -12.0
1.09 -20.0
1.22 Infinity
**free field intensities are shown**
Beam Spread Calculations

Example:
Calculate the half angle of spread for a 1.0 MHz - 1.0” straight beam contact probe when testing
mild steel.
(Round to four decimal places)
STEP 1:
Use the beam spread formula to acquire the SIN of the half angle.
C .23 × 106 in / sec

SINγ = × 1.22 = ×1.22 =
DF (1.0" )(1.0 MHz )
.23 .23 × 1.22 =
SINγ = × 1.22 =
1

g
Beam Spread Calculations
STEP 2:
Convert the calculated SIN value to an angle.
Depress the INV, 2ND, SHIFT or ARC button, and then the SIN button. Round to one decimal
place.
(Calculators have different entry logic. Your instructor will help you to determine the entry logic of
your style of calculator)
The half angle of beam spread is _______

(after rounding) ______
1. Calculate the half angle of spread for a 1.0 MHz - 0.5” straight beam contact probe when
testing mild steel.
C
SINγ = × 1.22 =
DF
2. Calculate the total angle of beam spread for a 2.0 MHz - 12mm straight beam contact probe
when testing mild steel.
Therefore, the total angle (2γ) of beam spread is _____

g
Near Field / Peak Point Formula
D2
N= or D2F
4λ N= N
4C N
N = Near Field Length
D = Diameter of crystal
F = Frequency
C = Velocity
λ = Wavelength
As the frequency or diameter increases, the near field length will_______________________.
Near Field / Peak Point Calculations

1. Calculate the near field length for a straight beam contact test of mild steel using a 1.0 MHz,
1.0” transducer. (Round to two decimal places)
D2F (1" )2 (1MHz) (1) × (1) 1

N= = = =
4C 6
4(.23 × 10 in / sec) .92 .92
2. Calculate the near field length for a straight beam contact test of aluminum using a 1.0 MHz,
0.5” transducer.
3. Calculate the near field length for a straight beam contact test of mild steel using a 4.0 MHz, 12
mm transducer.

Sound Angles
g
= Angle of Incidence
= Angle of Reflection
= Angle of Refraction
Standard Contact Transducer Angles
Incident angles (plexiglass)
Commonly used refracted angles

North America: 45°, 60°, and 70°
Europe: 40°, 50°, 60°, and 70°
Refracted angles (steel)

Transducer Angle Selection
g
Determined by:
1. __________________________
As the material thickness_____________, a _______________refracted angle would normally be

used to shorten the long sound path distances.
General guide:
Thickness Angle
up to 1/2” 70-80
1/2” to 1 1/2” 60-70
1 1/2” to 2 1/2” 45-60
greater than 2 1/2” 45
Beam Angles for Pipes

Transducer Angle Selection
g
2. _________________________
Best detectability is achieved when the sound beam is perpendicular to the major dimension of
reflectors.
Select inspection angles according to

the probable flaw orientations.
Often determined by failure analysis
Snell’s Law
Defines angular relationships of sound waves crossing an interface.
00
C1
Sin α
=
α Sin β C2
C1
C2
β

Snell’s Law Example
g
What refracted angle would be produced when contact testing mild steel at an incident angle of
46°?
STEP 1: Plug in known values
SIN α C1 SIN 46° .11× 106 in / sec( L)

= Becomes =
SIN β C2 SIN β .13 × 106 in / sec(T )
STEP 2: Cross multiply
SIN β × .11 = SIN 46° × .13

SIN 460 x .13 SIN ß x .11
=
.11 .11
STEP 3: Isolate the unknown (divide both sides by .11)
(.7193)(.13)
SIN β =
.11
STEP 4: Solve for the unknown
.093509
SIN β = = .8501
.11
STEP 5: Find the angle (inverse SIN)

Snell’s Law Problems
g
What incident angle yields a 70° shear wave when contact testing mild steel?
SIN α C1 SIN α .11× 106 in / sec

= =
SIN β C2 Becomes SIN 70° .13 × 106 in / sec
SIN α × .13 = SIN 70° × .11
SIN a x .13 SIN 700 x .11

=
.13 .13
(.9397)(.11)
SIN α =
.13
.103367
SIN α = = .7951
.13

g
What refracted angle would be produced when contact testing aluminum at an incident angle of
40°?
SIN α C1
= Becomes
SIN β C2

g
What incident angle yields a 70° shear wave when immersion testing aluminum?
SIN α C1 Becomes
=
SIN β C2

First Critical Angle (Contact)
g
Plex to mild steel
• The _____________________-that yields a___________________________.
• L-wave approaches the surface (90°)
• a > 27 degrees the L - wave is totally reflected)

Second Critical Angle (Contact)
g
0°
Plex to mild steel
Rayleigh
Wave
The ________________angle that yields a ____________________.

•Most angle beam inspection is done between the first and second critical angles
•As the T-wave approaches 90° a Rayleigh wave begins to be generated (surface mode)
Snell’s Law - Critical Angle Calculations

Determining the first and second critical angles for a given material is a relatively simple process.
A modified version of Snell’s law is used.
By definition, all critical angle problems assume the refracted angle to be 90°.
The SIN 90°=1, therefore:
SIN α C1 C1
SIN α C1 SIN α =
= = C2
SIN β C2 1 C2

g
Determine the first and second critical angles when contact testing aluminum.
STEP 1: Solve for the first critical angle. (Refracted L-wave)
C (L ) .11× 106 in / sec

SIN α = 1 SIN α =
C2 (L ) .25 × 106 in / sec
SIN α = .4400
STEP 2: Solve for the second critical angle. (Refracted T-wave)
C (L ) .11× 106 in / sec

SIN α = 1 SIN α =
C2 ( T ) .12 × 106 in / sec

g
Determine the first and second critical angles when immersion testing gray iron.
STEP 1: Solve for the first critical angle. (Refracted L-wave)
C1(L )
SIN α =
C2 (L )
STEP 2: Solve for the second critical angle. (Refracted T-wave)
C1(L )
SIN α =
C2 ( T )

Angle Beam Distances
g
BIP (Beam Index Point): The point where the central axis of the sound beam leaves the wedge.
Skip distance: The _____________________________________distance from the BIP to where

the sound returns to the surface.
Leg: The ____________________________________________distance from the BIP to the

opposite surface.
V-path: The __________________________________________distance from the BIP to where

sound returns to the surface.

g
Angle Beam Distance Calculations
Calculate the skip distance for a 1.0” thick sample using a 60° wedge.
SKIP = 2T × TAN β
= 2(1" ) × TAN 60°
= 2"×1.732
Skip distance is used to determine how far back from your targeted inspection area to begin
scanning.
Calculate the V-Path and Leg for a 1.0” thick sample using a 60° wedge.
Mark the V-Path and leg positions on the display grid below.
T
2T Leg =
VPath = COS β
COS β
1"
2(1" ) =
= COS 60°
COS 60°
2" 1"
= =
0.5 0.5

g
To locate the Leg positions on the display screen grid:
Divide the leg length by the range.
Leg
% FSW =
Range
2"
= =
5"
The end of Leg 2 is double the screen width of Leg 1 =___________.
Display Screen Grid
R=5”
0 2 4 6 8 10

g
Calculate the Skip Distance, V-Path and Leg for a 2.0” thick sample using a 45° wedge.
Calculate the Skip Distance, V-Path and Leg for a 127 mm thick sample using a 45° wedge.

g
Inspection of Pipes - Tubes – Cylinders
Parts with ODs _______________________________require curved wedges.
• Ensures proper coupling

• Prevents rocking that results in sound loss and angle changes
Longitudinal (axial) scans have sound path distances __________________as for a flat parts of
the same thickness.
Inspection of Pipes - Tubes – Cylinders

____________________________ Scans have sound path distances _________________than
for a flat parts of the same thickness.
• Angle beam distance calculations must be

corrected.
• Methods are detailed in procedures and specifications.

Reflector Location
g
D
S
P - Projected ___________________to a reflector = _____________________
D –__________________to a reflector = ______________________________**
S - __________________(measured on display screen) = _________________
**Depth correction is required if testing beyond the first leg.
Reflector Location Problems
• Second Leg Flaw

If the answer is greater than T
2T – (SP X COS ß)
• Third Leg Flaw
If the answer is greater than 2T
(SP X COS ß) –2T
NOTE: Curvature correction required for tubular inspection

g
A
Range = 10”
β = 60°
T = 1.5”
0 2 4 6 8 10
Determine the surface distance and the depth of signal A.
(Signal A from previous slide)
SP (Soundpath) = %FSW x Range= 40% x 10” = .40 x 10
P (Projected Surface Distance) = SP x SIN ß = 4” x SIN 60°
= 4” x .8660
Depth = SP x COS ß = 4” x COS 60° = 4” x 0.5
2nd Leg Depth Correction Required
D2 = 2T – (SP x COS ß) = 2(1.5”) – 2” = 3” – 2”

g
Determine the surface distance and depth to a signal at 75% of a 5” range, using a 70° wedge on
0.75” thick stainless steel.
SP (Soundpath) = %FSW x Range
P (Projected Surface Distance) = SP x SIN ß
Depth = SP x COS ß
Determine the surface distance and depth to a signal at 30% of a 100 mm range, using a 70°
wedge on 19 mm thick inconel.
SP (Soundpath) = %FSW x Range
P (Projected Surface Distance) =
Depth = SP x COS ß

g
Angle Beam Inspection
Inspection

g

g
Angle Beam Inspection General Rules
Inspection procedures or codes normally outline, in detail, the following information regarding
inspection using angle beam transducers.
1. _________________________________________________
• Influences the beam shape (beam spread) and intensity

• Determines the defect size that can be detected
2. __________________________________________________
• Based on the part geometry and thickness
3. __________________________________________________(Direction, Overlap, Legs)
• Ensures intended area coverage and the detectability of critical defects
4. Maximum ___________________________________________
• Example (manual): Not to exceed 6” per second

• Example (immersion): Not to exceed 20” per second. To ensure proper coverage, the
maximum scanning speed is calculated considering the ratio between maximum PRR and
minimum beamwidth.
5. Surface Preparation
• Any surface imperfection that impedes the movement or coupling of the probe should be
removed (weld spatter, etc.)
6. Straight Beam Inspection
• For______________________ that would prohibit the total inspection of the critical area

g
Scanning Patterns
The scanning pattern and the degree of beam overlap are outlined in the procedure.
Skip or Half Skip
C/L
____________________________or half skip distance normally dictates where to begin scanning
(application dependent).
Overlapping of the beam is normally required.
• __________________movement is used to detect angular defects.
Orbital Rotational Lateral Linear

g
Typical Angle Beam Sequence of Operations
1. Straight beam range calibration - set for 2T.
2. Straight beam sensitivity calibration - place the backwall echo at 80% FSH.
3. Check the resolution (if required).
4. Scan for_______________________. Monitor for loss of the backwall signal.
5. Prepare the inspection report.
• Test parameters
• Test calculations
6. Calibrate the angle beam probe:

• Verify the BIP
• Set a range
• Verify the angle of refraction
• Perform a sensitivity calibration (examples: dB rating or DAC curve)
• Resolution check
7. Scan for critical defects
8. Scan for all other relevant discontinuities
9. Recheck the___________________________
10. Evaluate and report test results
IIW Calibration Block

International Institute of Welding
Used by AWS, ASME, and other codes to establish and verify test parameters
• Beam index point

• Distance on the screen
• Angle of refraction
• Set sensitivity, _________________________________
• Straight beam resolution and distance

g
IIW Calibration Block
IIW – Type 1:
•One inch crescent
•Signals at ______________
IIW -- Type V1:

•Slot - no crescent
•Metric
•Signals at ______________
IIW -- Type 2:
•Two inch radius
•Signals at ______________
DSC Block
Position Target Function

J or L 1” or 3” radius BIP
K 1/8” dia. Hole Angle
J 1”, 5”, 9” Distance
L 3”, 7” Distance
L 1/32” slot Sensitivity

Miniature Angle Beam Block
g
POSITION TARGET FUNCTION

A OR B 1” OR 2” BIP
A 1”, 4” , 7” DISTANCE
B 2”, 5”, 8” DISTANCE
C AND D 1/8” DIA. HOLE ANGLE
E 1” DISTANCE
Angle Beam Resolution Block
Used by certain codes to verify angle beam transducer ________________ capabilities

Other Reference Blocks
g
DC Distance Calibration Block
• Shearwave reflectors occur at 1”, 2”, 3”, 4”, 5”, etc.

• Straight beam reflectors occur at .5” and 1”.
DS Equipment Quality Control Block
• Used for quality control checks.

• Straight beam reflectors occur at 2” and 4”

Angle Beam DAC Blocks
g
• Used to establish the primary reference response and to construct
____________________ with reflectors at ¼, ½, and ¾ thickness
• Fabricated from specifications given in the applicable code.
The code provides dimensions, size, location of reflectors and other information.
Transducer
movement
O
o
o
Simple reference blocks have reflectors at 1/4, 1/2, and 3/4 thicknesses.

Angle Beam DAC Blocks
g
Other DAC blocks have a reflector placed at 1/4T, 1/2T or 3/4T
Representative samples may be configured as a DAC block
1/2 T 3/4 T
Angle Beam Sensitivity - Cylinder Inspection

The signal responses from a flat calibration block will not be equal to that from a curved reference
block.
1. DAC Curve using end-drilled holes in a similar piece of curved material
1/2 T 3/4 T

Angle Beam Sensitivity - Cylinder Inspection
g
2. ID and OD Notches
• A section of the pipe or tube is normally used -- same OD and wall thickness.
• Shape (V-notch / square-notch) and Depth would be specified in the procedure.
• The ______ peaks at the end of Leg 1, and the______ peaks at the end of Leg 2.
• Either the ID or the OD notch signal is placed at the reference line.
Angle Beam Sensitivity - DAC Curve System

Accounts for attenuation by displaying amplitude responses from a reflector at increasing
soundpath distances.
The V-path (NODE) is divided into _______________ equal soundpath reference points.
• Points along the V-path are identified in terms of______________________________

Angle Beam DAC Curve Procedure
g
1. Maximize the signal and using gain, place the peak at the
reference line (80% FSH). This is normally the ___________ position.
2. The number of dB is the reference level. After this, the

sensitivity must not change!
3. Mark the _______________________ of the signal on the screen.
4. _________________ the signals from the needed reflectors and mark the peaks on the screen.
5. ______________________ the points with a smooth curve.
6. Add _______________ above the reference level sensitivity (scanning level).
7.___________________ is done at the ____________________________ sensitivity.
Example:
• All indications greater than 20% of the DAC must be investigated

• All cracks greater than 20% of the DAC are rejectable
• All slag or porosity greater than 50% of the DAC is rejectable

Angle Beam Sensitivity - dB Rating System
g
Compensates for distance attenuation ______________________________________.
• Testing variables must be minimized

• The attenuation rate is known and constant
1.Place the maximized signal from the SDH at the _______________________________.
0 2 4 6 8 10
2. Record the ______________________________________-B- (number of dB’s).

Angle Beam Sensitivity - dB Rating System
g
3. Add the ________________________ based on the maximum soundpath
(See ”dB report form” in Lab Exercise #6 – pg L19). Large amounts of scanning gain allow the
operator to see critical size reflectors at any point in the sound beam.
4. Scan the part until a signal exceeds the reference line.

Maximize its amplitude.
5. Lower the gain until the signal is _________________________________________.
6. Record the _____________________________ -A- (number of dB’s)
7. Compute + record the __________________________________________________ -C-

2(SP - 1)
Round to the nearest whole number (.5 and up, round up)
8.Calculate and record the
______________________
D = (A - B - C)
9. Take the rating to the appropriate evaluation chart.
The more________________________ the rating, the more __________________ the flaw.

dB Rating System Example
g
Determine the indication rating of the signal below.
R = 5”
Thickness = 1.5” b = 70 degrees
Reference Level = 46 dB
Signal at 40% of a 5” Range
Indication Level = 50 dB
Soundpath = __________________
• Attenuation Factor
2 (SP - 1”) =_______________________
• Indication Rating 0 2 4 6 8 10
A - B - C = D
Ind. L. Ref. L. Atten. F. Rating
- - =
• Based on the material thickness and the inspection angle, this would be
a__________________ flaw.
It is rejectable on amplitude alone. Size is not a factor.

dB Rating System Example
g
Class A (Large Discontinuities)
Any indication in this category shall be rejected (regardless of length)
Class B (Medium Discontinuities)

Any indication in this category having a length greater that ¾ inch (19mm)
shall be rejected.
Class C (Small Discontinuities)

Any indication in this category having a length greater than 2 inches (15mm)
shall be rejected.
Class D (Minor Discontinuities)

Any indication in this category shall be accepted regardless of length or
location in the weld.

g
Flaw Identification/Evaluation
Flaw Evaluation

g

g
Inspection Procedure Development
Qualified Level III’s should develop inspection procedures
Use details of the part’s design, manufacture, and NDT needs.

• The possible flaw_________________, critical _______________and ____________________
must be determined
• Failure analysis data is frequently used
Procedures outline test parameters:

Calibration, Scanning, Recording,
Evaluation, Reporting
Detection and Evaluation
Procedures must be carefully ______________________________

Certification “Specific” Exams test this
Procedures must be carefully _______________________________ to detect all flaws

• During scanning, unusual reflectors are reported.
• Echoes exceeding this reporting level are _____________________________
The _____________________________ of a discontinuity is normally more involved.

• Information about the flaw is gathered and evaluated.
• Signal Dynamics - movements on the screen are studied

g
Acceptance and Rejection Criteria
Acceptance and Rejection may be based on:
1. _______________________________________ -- Most common - requires least evaluation
• Echo is compared to a reference reflector or a DAC curve.
• Reference reflector size and shape should relate to the defect
• Reject flaws larger than the reference echo or DAC curves
NOTE – The amplitude will be affected by:

o Part size, shape, surface smoothness
o Distance and orientation to the transducer
Transfer Techniques / Attenuation Checks compensate for these.
2. Flaw _______________ -- Need to determine the actual flaw dimensions.
To size smaller flaws (surface area smaller than the sound beam), the echo amplitude is
compared to a series of known reflector signals.
ASTM Blocks
Sizing Blocks

Other Sizing Techniques
g
Other sizing methods:
• 6 dB drop method
• 20 dB drop method
• Beam boundary (edge) method
• Tip diffraction
• Flaw mapping
Acceptance Rejection Criteria
3. Flaw __________________________:
___________________________: Has length 3 times greater than the width
___________________________ : A flaw that is not linear
4. Flaw____________________________-- If the flaw is located in a critical area or oriented in a

direction which may allow propagation (growth), the integrity of the part could be affected
5. ________________________________ of flaws
• Multiple flaws may be reported as either individual flaws or as a flawed area.

• Key factors are the distance between the flaws and their major dimensions.
• Procedures tell when to consider multiple flaws as one flaw.
6. ___________________________
•Flaw typing requires experience with
______________________ of each type.
•_________________________ show
idealized flaw representations

Reflector Sizing
g
____________________________Drop Method
• Set reflector peak to reference line (80% FSH)

• Move probe until signal drops 6 dB on screen
• Mark material surface at probe center
• Repeat in opposite direction
• ___________________________________________ is the approximate reflector length
_________________________ Drop Method
1. Determine _______________________________________ of transducer at flaw depth

• Peak up the reference echo at the same depth as flaw
• Set reflector peak to reference line (80% FSH)
• Move probe until signal drops by 20dB (8% FSH)
• Mark material surface at probe center
• Repeat in opposite direction
• Distance between mark is the beam width
2.Repeat on the actual reflector in the test material reflector length is the distance between marks
minus the beam width.

g
Reflector Sizing
_______________________Method
• The effective beam edge is used to “map” the outline of the reflector
• Must relate the effective beam edge to the side of the transducer case
• Maintain the reflector signal at ______________ and move the transducer around the
outside edge of the reflector
• Mark the reflector shape on the part
_________________ techniques -- Used to _______________ and ________________reflectors

that are perpendicular to the sound beam

g
Reflector Mapping
• The reflector surface can be “mapped” by finding the surface distance and depth at
different points along the reflector and plotting the locations.
• May need to test from both sides with different angles.
Attenuation Check
Calibration blocks may be required to be acoustically compatible to the test material.
1. Specifications may require an extra part be made and cut up for calibration blocks.
2. Existing blocks may be used if the attenuation rate is similar to the test material’s.
• Compare the backwall _________________________ of the test material with that of a

calibration standard of equal thickness.
• If the test material’s backwall is lower; add gain to equalize the response.
• This is known as the ______________________________________.

Attenuation Check
g
The attenuation factor in the above example is 6 dB
AWS - IIW / DSC Block Transfer Method

An IIW Block calibration must be used.
A DSC block may be used if an IIW block calibration can be reproduced. The DSC can be used
to verify that the original calibration has not changed.
Reference D1.1-98 pp # 6.23.1
Step 1 - Perform a sensitivity calibration on the IIW’s .060 SDH
- Write down the Reference Level
Step 2 - Peak-up on the DSC slot
- Mark the peak on the screen
- Use this height as the Reference Line for the DSC slot

Flaw Detection and Location
g
Beware of internal and external reflective surfaces that can misdirect the sound beam.
• Causes flaw locations (distances) to be incorrect.
• Example: backing bars and support rings, corners, laminations, and dimensional
changes
• Finger damping -- a tool to help verify where the sound beam is reflecting at the part
surface or edge.
Apply couplant to the part and “rub” your finger across the surface while watching the
amplitudes of signals on the display.

Categories of Discontinuities
g
1. ____________________ discontinuities -- usually formed when the metal or material is molten:
• Cast materials – formed in the _________________
• Wrought materials – formed in the ________________, then hot worked
2. ___________________ discontinuities -- related to the various manufacturing processes:
Primary Processing Secondary Processing

Forging Heat Treating
Rolling Grinding
Extruding Machining
Plating
Welding
• During the forging and rolling processes the __________________ structure is refined
and aligned to improve strength, toughness, and fatigue resistance
• With further processing, subsurface discontinuities may be ______________________
3. __________________________ discontinuities -- related to the various in-service conditions:

• Erosion and Corrosion
• Static and Cyclic Stresses
• Fatigue Cracking
Inherent Ingot Discontinuities

Discontinuities – (Cutting off the ____________________ removes most of these problems)
• Non-metallic ______________________ – Slag, oxides and sulfides
• Blowholes and Porosity –Gas entrapped as the molten metal solidifies
• _______________– Internal shrinkage in the center of the ingot during solidification
• _____________________– Areas of an ingot where the elements are not uniformly

mixed

g
Inherent Ingot Discontinuities
1.Hot Top
2.Molten Metal
3.Solidified Metal – from the

outside to the center, and the
bottom to the top
__________________________ (1):
• Unfused area where molten metal was
poured over solidified metal
• Surface and Subsurface
__________________________ (2):
• Cracks or voids where areas of different
thicknesses cool and shrink at different rates
__________________________ (3):
• Space caused by shrinkage

Inherent Casting Discontinuities
g
_____________________________ (4):
• Small surface holes caused by gas or
steam from moist sand
• Surface
_____________________________ (5):
• Small holes caused by entrapped gas
_____________________________ (6):
• Slag, oxides, and sulfides
Primary Processing Discontinuities

_____________________________:
• Rolled plate
• Flattened pipe or porosity
• Lie parallel to the surface
_____________________________:
• Rolled or forged billet and bar stock

• Long, thin non-metallic inclusions
• Lie parallel to the surface
______________________________:
• Rolled or forged materials

• Flattened and elongated blowholes and cracks
• Lie parallel to the grain
• May be open to the surface
______________________________:

• Excess material is folded over ____________________
• Forging dies may be poorly aligned
• On the part surface

g
Primary Processing Discontinuities
_____________________________:

• Stress cracks due to rapid cooling after hot work
• Lie parallel to the grain
_____________________________:
• Forged materials
• Voids caused by continued forging on material which has cooled too much
• Random orientation
Weldment Flaws
Lack of ___________________________________:
• Inability to deposit weld metal into the root of the joint

• Subsurface

Weldment Flaws
g
Incomplete Fusion:
• Lack of________________________ between weld metal and base metal or between

passed
• Subsurface
Porosity:
• Entrapped ____________________________
Inclusions:
• Entrapped pockets of __________________________________

• Metallic – Tungsten particles from GTAW electrode
• Non-metallic – Slag and Oxides
• Subsurface

Weldment Flaws
g
Cracks:
Narrow,________________________ separations along grain boundaries

Result of uneven cooling, stop in the process, or poor support
Surface and Subsurface
Underfill - Insufficient Throat:
• Failure to fill the weld

joint completely
• Root underfill is often
called Internal
Concavity
• Surface and
Subsurface
Overlap:
•Overflowing of excess
metal beyond the desired
weld surface contour
without fusion

g
Secondary Processing Discontinuities
Grinding Cracks:
• Shallow cracks found at right angles to the direction of grinding

• Only on ground surfaces
• Caused by stresses from excess heat from the wheel
Heat Treating Cracks:
Random network of cracks

• Extends to adjacent surfaces
• Caused by stresses from unequal or too rapid cooling
Machining Tears:
• Tear or gouge produced by a dull tool

• Excessive heating may cause cracking
Service Discontinuities
Fatigue Cracks:
•Constant and cyclic stresses cause _____________________________________ (stress riser)

•Usually start at the surface near stress concentration points (may be laminations, inclusions,
porosity, corners, or areas of thickness change)
•Example: Bolts – area where head and shaft meet and at base of threads
Corrosion/Erosion:
• The gradual removal of material by chemical and/or mechanical forces
• The opening of material or grain boundaries
Intergranular Stress Corrosion Cracking (IGSCC):

Corrosive environment
• Material susceptible to corrosion cracking (300 series Stainless Steels)
• High Stresses – poor stress relief, poor heat treating, or high loads

Straight Beam Applications
g
For detection of flaws ______________________________________________
1.Inherent and processing discontinuities:
• Ingots – pipe, inclusions, porosity, blowholes, and segregation
• Forgings – seams, laps, flakes, cracks, and bursts
• Rolled products – stringers, seams, laps, flakes, laminations, and cracks
• Castings – cold shuts, tears, shrink cavities, blow holes, porosity, and inclusions
2. Service induced discontinuities:
• Fatigue cracks
• Erosion / Corrosion
• Stress corrosion cracks
3. ____________________________________________________________:
• Used for better near surface resolution in plate and sheet
• Thickness measurements
• Composites (including ZIP probes) – Voids or porosity, resin rich/poor areas, foreign
material, and delaminations

Angle Beam Applications
g
For detection of flaws __________________________________ to the part surface
1. Inherent and processing discontinuities:
• Forgings – seams, laps, and cracks

• Rolled products – radial cracks
• Welds – lack of penetration, incomplete fusion, porosity, cracks, undercut, underfill,
and inclusions
• Tubing and Pipe – circumferential and longitudinal cracks
• Fatigue cracks and stress corrosion cracks
Dual Element Applications
1. Processing discontinuities:
• Plate and sheet – thickness measurement and lamination detection
• Tubing and Pipe – thickness measurement
• Erosion / corrosion, pitting, and stress corrosion cracks

g
Equipment Quality Control
Equipment

Equipment Quality Control
g
Codes, specifications and company procedures normally establish performance standards for
ultrasonic instruments used in test applications including:
• Thickness gauges
• Portable flaw detectors
• Immersion and “in-line” instrument systems
• Example: “Each ultrasonic instrument shall be certified every 12 months per the
manufacturer’s procedure.”
Specifications may also require (and describe procedures for) certain performance checks to be
made between the annual calibrations.
Items that may be checked are:

• dB control accuracy
• Horizontal Linearity
• Vertical Linearity
• Resolution – Near Surface and Far Field
• System sensitivity and noise
NOTE: FOLLOW THE REQUIRED PROCEDURE FOR TIME INTERVALS, DATA

COLLECTION STEPS, AND REPORTING
References:
The Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Volume 03.03:
• E-317 Standard Practice for Evaluating Performance Characteristics of Ultrasonic Pulse-

Echo Systems Without the Use of Electronic Measurement Instruments.
• E-1324 Standard Guide for Measuring Some Electronic Characteristics of Ultrasonic

Examination Instruments

dB Accuracy
g
Adding __________________must double signal height on the instrument display.
Sample procedure:
1. Couple a straight beam probe to the DS block at position “T”, and place the 2” signal at 50%
FSW.
2. Set the 2” signal at 40% FSH using the gain controls.
3. Add 6 dB of gain to the instrument. The signal should now be at 80% FSH.
4. Record the expected and actual amplitude and dB values.
5. Move the transducer off of position “T” until the signal is again at 40% FSH.
6. Steps 3 - 5 should be repeated over the entire dB range
7. Check the specification for acceptance.

Horizontal Linearity
g
All equal spaces on the display should represent ____________________________ in a material.
0 2 4 6 8 10
Sample Procedure:
1. Couple a straight beam probe to the 1” side of the IIW block

2. Set a five-inch range
3. Adjust the left flank of the first BW to 80% FSH using the gain controls
4. Read the position of the signal on the baseline
5. Perform step 3 and 4 on each of the remaining echoes
6. Record the expected and actual % FSW
7. Check the specification for acceptance

Vertical Linearity
g
Signal amplitudes should maintain their same ratio at any __________setting, within 20% to 80%
of the calibrated screen height.
2:1 amplitude ratio is maintained at any gain setting
Sample Procedure:
1. Couple a straight beam probe to the DS block so that signals from both the 2” (T) position and
the 4” (U) position are produced.
2. Move the probe so that a 2:1 ratio is achieved. Using the gain controls, place the 2” (T) signal
at 100% FSH. The 4” (U) signal should be at 50% FSH.
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
1. With the gain controls, decrease the larger signal by increments of 20% FSH and note the
amplitude of the smaller signal.
2. Repeat step 3 until the larger signal is at 20% FSH.
3. Record the data on a chart.
4. Check the specification for acceptance

System Sensitivity and Noise
g
A system sensitivity test determines if a system is sensitive enough to ____________________ a
reflector producing a relatively low-amplitude signal.
1. The system should be able to clearly show the reflector’s echo at the desired depth.
2. The echo should be significantly higher than the noise
• Noise can mask a signal from a discontinuity

• Random electrical noise may set-off an alarm gate
• The material’s structure may produce indications
Determine the_________________________ detectable FBH that has a 3:1 signal-to-noise ratio.
Sample Procedure:
1. Using a straight beam probe and a series of Area Amplitude blocks.

2. Maximize the echo of the largest FBH and, using gain, take it to 60% FSH
3. Record the hole size, the height of the noise, and the gain setting.
4. If the noise level is under 20% FSH, repeat steps 2 and 3 with the next block.
5. Continue until a block with a noise level over 20% FSH is used.
6. Check the specification for acceptance.

Transducer Quality Control
g
Codes, procedures and specifications normally establish quality standards for transducers to be
used in specific test applications.
1. Transducer performance is evaluated by measuring the response of the probe’s sound beam to
a known target in a controlled test.
2. The data is transmitted to a computer-based system for processing and documentation.
3. A certificate can be produced to document the transducer’s parameters.

4. Precise test reproduction is possible. Poorly performing units should be removed from service.
5. Some measured parameters include:

• Frequency
• Sensitivity
• Damping
• Pulse length
• Beam shape
• Near field length (focal point)
• Beam spread
Reference:
Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Volume 03.03, E-1065 Evaluation Characteristics of Ultrasonic
Search Units
Transducer Parameters
Test set up for the evaluation and certification of transducer parameters.
Under controlled conditions, the transducer’s echo returning from a known reflector at a known
distance is measured and certified.

Transducer Parameters
g
1. The __________________________________________ represents actual crystal ringing
• Highly damped transducers reduce crystal ringing

• Less damped transducers ring longer and louder
2. The ______________________________ represents the transducer’s frequency response.
• The crystal will transmit sound covering a range of frequencies.
Effects of Transducer Damping

Transducer ______________ _____________
Pulse Length Very Short Longer
1-2 Cycles 3-4 Cycles
Frequency Broad Band Narrow Band

Range
Bandwidth
Designed for Better Better

Resolution Penetration

Center Frequency and Peak Frequency
g
Three main frequency references are obtained from the spectrum. (Nominal frequency is marked
on transducer)
1. _____________________ Frequency - The frequency with highest amplitude on the spectrum
2. ____________________________________(FC) - The frequency halfway between F1 and F2
F1 and F2 - The frequencies where the

amplitude is half of the peak amplitude
Bandwidth
3. Bandwidth measures the frequency range and the amount of __________________________.
Peak Freq. is 2.3 MHz
Center Freq. = (F2 + F1) / 2

CF = (2.9 MHz + 1.4 MHz) / 2
4.3 MHz / 2 = 2.15 MHz
Bandwidth (BW) = F2 - F1
BW = 2.9 MHz - 1.4 MHz
= 1.5 MHz

g
Pulse Length
The pulse length is a measure of the time the crystal is ringing.
1. Shorter pulse lengths contribute to better ________________________________.
2. Pulse length is measured on the _______________________________________.
PL = T1 – T0
= 1 msec
Beam Profile
Measures sound beam_________________________________ in an immersion tank
• Documents new and used transducer performance

• Correlation tests to actual materials may be made
The transducer scans a series of rods and the echo amplitudes are recorded.
• At 1/2 peak point or the focal length (Y0)

• At the peak point or the focal length
• 1 1/2 peak point or focal length

Simplified Beam Profile Example
g
Measures:
Beam Intensity
Beam Symmetry
Intensity across the beam is shown at each distance.

Turn the transducer 90° and perform the profile again to show _________________________.
Beam Profile
Focal Length:
•Near field length or focal point (Y0) can be determined.

Beam Width:
•Beam coverage can be verified at each depth.

• ______________________________resolution can be measured.

Beam Profile Example
g
Paint-brush, Immersion Transducers
Width and Symmetry Width is OK,

are OK Symmetry is unacceptable

g

g
Special Instrument Features
Special Features

g

Electronic Gates
g
__________________________ a part of the display for signals of certain amplitudes.
1. Gates can trigger an alarm, initiate digital readouts of test measurements, and initiate data
transfer to a computer.
The gate normally appears as a bar on the display.
• Gate delay/start - sets the ____________________ of the gate.
• Gate width - sets the _________________________ of the gate.
• Gate threshold - sets the _________________________required for any signal to

trigger the gate.
2. Gate Logic
• _______________________- Triggered by a signal exceeding the threshold.
• ______________________ - Triggered by the absence or loss of a signal. (Useful
for monitoring backwall signals)
3. Gate Mode
• ______________________ - Triggered by the_____________ signal exceeding the
threshold. Useful for thickness testing
• _______________________ - Triggered by the __________________ signal
exceeding the threshold.
4. Multiple gates - Monitor multiple areas of the test piece.
• Independent Gates - Controlled individual
• Slaved Gates - Gate B’s position is linked to Gate A.
5. _____________________ - Monitors the interface echo when straight beam immersion testing.
• Can be used to show the edge of the part on a C-Scan
• Interface amplitude loss may indicate loss of normalization

Electronic - Digital (DAC) Curves
g
Time Corrected Gain
DAC Curve (TCG)
Digital
DAC
Curve -
Individual
signals
are
entered into the computer and may be stored for later use
TCG - Equalizes signal amplitudes with gain compensations derived from the DAC curve.
• Echoes from _______________________ reflectors will peak at the reference line
• Allows the use of gating circuits
Backwall Attenuator
Backwall loss may indicate “hidden” flaw.
• Many procedures require the monitoring of the backwall echo.
• Scanning levels put the signal ________________________ of the screen.
• A separate scan for backwall monitoring would be necessary.
• An attenuator control is used to lower the BW signal to a reference line
• Testing sensitivity for the rest of the display is not affected
Gate A is used
normally
Gate B is placed over

the BW

Interface Triggering
g
Straight beam, immersion testing problems exist when the Interface Echo (IE) moves due to
______________________________________________ (WP)
• Plate type product - out of flatness
• Cylindrical type product - out of roundness
• The transducer’s path is not parallel to the test piece surface ___________________ (ITD):
• Locks the Interface Echo at 0% FSW
• Signals around gated area remain stable, though water multiples will move relative to
changes in water path.
1 2 3
WM WM
BW
IE BW IE
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
As the water path gets longer, the interface echo “walks” into the gate and sets off the alarm.
(note transducer positions 1 and 2)

Digital Instrument Features
g
Memory - Calibrations and flaw information can be stored for later use
Freeze:
• Freeze All – The entire A-Scan is frozen
• Freeze Peak – Holds the ______________________ amplitudes as the probe is moved
FREEZE ALL – SECOND HOLE IN 4-HOLE DAC BLOCK FREEZE PEAK – SCANNED ALL HOLES IN DAC BLOCK

Zoom - Expands the A-Scan horizontally
FREEZE ALL – SECOND HOLE IN 4-HOLE DAC BLOCK FREEZE PEAK – SCANNED ALL HOLES IN DAC BLOCK
Gate Magnify – Expands the gated area to fill the display

g
Lock – Inhibits the adjustment of most functions
Screen Delay – Moves signals horizontally on the display:

• Same as the Delay Control on the analog instrument
• Changes only what you _____________. (Used for visual calibrations)
• NOT used for calibration when measurements are needed
Zero (Probe Delay) – Adjusts the time position of _______________________

• Used for digital calibrations
• Digital measurements are obtained by timing from electric zero minus the probe
delay time.
Zero to First Mode – Measures from acoustic zero to the first signal in the gate.
Multi-Echo Mode – Measures distances between two gated signals.
dB Reference – Compares flaw signals to a reference signal
• Stores the gain setting and amplitude of reference signal for comparison.
Auto-Calibration – Calibrates the A-Scan display with just a few key presses by the operator
Measurement Readouts – Vary with instrument:
• Sound path (S)

• % FSH (H)
• Number dB above or below the dB Reference
• Angle beam projected surface distance (P)
• Angle beam depth (D)
• Surface and depth – corrected for curvature in pipes

Digital Measurement Features
g
Example: 70°, Angle beam inspection in Pipe, ½” T, 24” OD
NO CORRECTION CORRECTED
SURFACE = 2.818” SURFACE = 2.970”
DEPTH = .974” DEPTH = .220”
NOTE SYMBOLS FOR LEG 2 + CORRECTION
Digital Instrument Direct Report
Test reports may be generated:
•Data sent to software loaded

onto a computer
•Data sent to software built into

the instrument – no computer
needed.

Ultra Application Software
g
DMS 2, DMS, DM 4DL, CL 3DL and all USN instruments
•transfer of measurement •display and printing of •for corrosion analysis

reading files to a PC meas. data as graphics •determination of
•data merging into •management of test data, tube/container life
Windows programs file comments •database linkage

C-Scan Software
g
SCAN OF A 30 FBH RESOLUTION BLOCK
FBH SIZES OF 3/64”, 5/64”, AND 8/64”
10 DEPTHS FROM 0.050” TO 1.250”

K-Scan Software Increases Capabilities
g
Positive Gate-A
monitors flaws
Negative Gate-B
monitors loss of
Backwall
New scan of same 30-holeBlock

One scan yields data that may be presented in many ways

Newer Software Increases Capabilities
g
Scan of same 30-hole

3/64 FBHs block
5/64 FBHs
8/64 FBHs
Accurate measurements

Pseudo 3-D, C-Scan
g
8/64 FBH
Same scan of 30-hole block
5/64 FBH
3/64 FBH

Examples of Data available
g
Scale
Cursor selects one location and data may be determined for loss
for that site of BW
Ex. Position and signal amplitude

g
Scale for
loss of
BW
View the two B-Scans through any point

g
Define an area and get location and size of square inches

g
ULTRASONICS LEVEL II
SUPPLEMENTAL INFORMATION
Supplement

g

Ultrasonics II Formula Sheet
g
WAVELENGTH FREQUENCY VELOCITY THICKNESS
(λ)= C F=C V=FXλ TT X C

F λ 2
ACOUSTIC IMPEDANCE % REFLECTED PRESSURE BEAM SPREAD
Z=CXD Pr = (Z2 – Z1) SIN γ = _C X 1.22

(Z2 + Z1) DF
TRANSIT TIME PULSE REP. RATE PULSE INTERVAL PRACTICAL PRR
TT = 2T PRR = _1 PI = _1 _ PPR = ___1___

C PI PRR PI X 5
SNELL’S LAW CRITICAL ANGLE SKIP DISTANCE V-PATH LEG
SIN α = C1 SIN α = C1 2T X TAN β 2T _T _

SIN β C2 C2 COS β COS β
SOUNDPATH SURFACE DISTANCE DEPTH
% FSW X RANGE SP X SIN β SP X COS β 1ST LEG

2T - (SP X COS β) 2ND LEG
(SP X COS β) – 2T 3RD LEG
NEAR FIELD dB ATTENUATION FACTOR dB INDICATION RATING
N = D 2F (SP – 1”) X 2 A - B - C = D
4C IL - RL - AF = D
PULSE LENGTH CENTER FREQUENCY BANDWIDTH % BANDWIDTH
T1 – T0 Fc = F1 + F2 BW = F2 - F1 % BW = BW X 100
2 Fc

g
GE INSPECTION TECHNOLOGIES TRAINING

50 INDUSTRIAL PARK DRIVE
LEWISTOWN, PA 17044
GEInspectionTechnologies.com
Registrar -- 866-243-2638

g

RIGHT TRIANGLE GEOMETRY
g
In a right triangle (triangle having a 90° angle) there are relationships defined in terms of the ratios
of the lengths of the sides of the triangle.
SIN = Opposite b
Hypotenuse c
COS = Adjacent a
Hypotenuse c
TAN = Opposite b
Adjacent a
The sum of the angles in a right triangle equals 180° degrees.
These relationships can be applied to ultrasonics to determine sound distance when performing
angle beam testing. Most common are skip distance, V-path, leg, surface, and depth.
They are also used in developing testing procedures to predict sound travel through a test piece.

USE OF TRIG FUNCTIONS IN ANGLE BEAM TESTING
g
Example: Calculate the length of the leg
• We can construct a right triangle using the sound path as the hypotenuse.
• Label the right angle (90°) and beta (70°)
• Determine the third angle (alpha) – the sum of the angles equals 180°
• We know the thickness of the part (1”)
How do we find the leg?
What trig function can we use since we know B, the length of the adjacent side, and want to find
the length of the hypotenuse?
COS β = Adjacent side COS β = Thickness

Hypotenuse Leg
So Leg = Thickness = 1” = 1 = 2.92”

COSβ Cos 70° .342

g
POWER OF TEN Decimal Equivalent Prefix
109 1,000,000,000 Giga
106 1,000,000 MEGA
105 100,000
104 10,000
103 1,000 Kilo
102 100 Hecto
101 10 Deka
1
10-1 0.1 deci
10-2 0.01 centi
10-3 0.001 milli
10-4 0.0001
10-5 0.00001
10-6 0.000001 micro
10-9 0.000000001 nano
VELOCITY EQUIVALENTS
LONGITUDINAL VELOCITY OF STEEL:
• Inches - .23 X 106 IPS = 230,000 IPS
.23 X 106
2.3 X 105
23.0 X 104
230.0 X 103
2,300.0 X 102
23,000.0 X 101
230,000.0
• Metric - 5.9 KM/SEC = 5,900,000 mm
1 KM = 1,000 Meters
1 Meter = 1,000 millimeters, therefore
1 KM = 1,000,000 mm OR 1mm X106

g

RECOMMENDED TRAINING REFERENCES
g
1. Goldman, R. Ultrasonic Technology Reinhold Publishing Corporation: London, England
1962
2. Heuter and Bolt Sonics John Wiley & Sons: New York, 1966
3. Hogarth and Blitz. Techniques of Nondestructive Testing. Plenum Publishing Corporation:

New York, 1963
4. “Inspection of Welding” Welding Handbook. Section1, latest Ed. American Welding

Society, Miami, FL
5. Krautkramer, J and H. Krautkramer. Ultrasonic Testing of Materials. Springer-Verlag, Inc.:

New York, 4TH Edition
6. McGonnagle, W.J. Nondestructive Testing, 2nd Ed Gordon & Breach, Science Publishers,
Inc.: New York, 1969
7. Procedures and Recommendations for the Ultrasonic Testing of Butt Welds, 2nd Ed. The
Welding Institute: Cambridge, England, 1971
8. Ultrasonic Testing, Classroom Training Handbook (CT-4): Robert Smilie Editor, PH

Diversified, Harrisburg, NC, 1997
9. Ultrasonic Testing Inspection for Butt Welds in Highway and Railway Bridges. US
Department of Transportation, 1968
10. Nondestructive Evaluation and Quality Control (Metals Handbook – Vol. 17): American
Society of Metals, Metals Park, OH, 1989
11. Nondestructive Testing Handbook: 2nd Edition Ultrasonic Testing: Vol. 7: American
Society for Nondestructive Testing, Columbus, OH, 1991
12. Materials and Processes for NDT Technology. Henry D. Moore, Editor. American Society
for Nondestructive Testing, Columbus, OH, 1981

LIST OF PROFESSIONAL ASSOCIATIONS
g
1. AMERICAN NATIONAL STANDARDS INSTITUTE, INC. (ANSI)
1430 Broadway
New York, NY 10018
2. AMERICAN PETROLEUM INSTITUTE (API)

2101 L ST NW
Washington, DC 20037
3. AMERICAN SOCIETY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS (ASME)

345 East 47th St.
New York, NY 10017
4. AMERICAN SOCIETY OF METALS (ASM)

Materials Park, OH 44703-0002
5. AMERICAN SOCIETY OF NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING (ASNT)

1711 Arlington Lane <asnt.org>
PO Box 28518
Columbus, OH 43228-0518
6. AMERICAN SOCIETY OF QUALITY (ASQ)

230 West Wells St.
Milwaukee, WI 53202
7. AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR TESTING AND MATERIALS (ASTM)

1916 Race St.
Philadelphia, PA 19103
8. AMERICAN WELDING SOCIETY (AWS)

PO Box 351040
Miami, FL 33135
9. NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF CORROSION ENGINEERS (NACE)

2400 West Loop South
Houston, TX 77027
10. SOCIETY FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF MATERIAL AND PROCESS ENGINEERING (SAMPE)
PO Box 2459
Covina, CA 91722-8459
11. SOCIETY OF MANUFACTURING ENGINEERS (SME)

PO Box 930
Dearborn, MI 48121

USN-52
g

g
1. BASIC Menu:
GAIN: Adjusts vertical amplitude of echo signals.
RANGE: Sets horizontal width of the A-scan. Course mode = “RANGE”
fine mode = “range”.
MTL VEL: Velocity of sound in test material; reference value only. Course
mode = “MTL VEL”, fine mode = “mtl vel”.
DELAY: Adjusts horizontal position of signals.
2. RCVR Menu:
FREQ: Sets frequency and bandwidth of the receiver.
DAMPING: Sets receiver damping
RECTIF: Sets rectification mode for echo signals; full, neg half, pos half RF.
3. PULS Menu:
PULSER: Selects single element or dual; single, dual.
REJECT: Suppresses unwanted low amplitude signals.
REP-RATE: Sets pulse repetition rate; high, low.
4. GATE Menu:
a-THRESH adjusts threshold level of gate a.
b-THRESH adjusts threshold level of gate b.
a-START adjusts horizontal position of leading edge (start) of gate a bar.
b-START adjusts horizontal position of leading edge (start ) of gate b bar.
a-WIDTH adjusts horizontal position of trailing edge (width) of gate a bar.
5. S-CAL Menu:
a-START adjusts horizontal position of leading edge (start) of gate bar.
MTL VEL = Velocity of sound in test material.
ZERO adjusts the horizontal position of the acoustic zero (starting) point for
taking measurements.
6. MEM Menu:
RECALL activates instrument control settings and displays frozen A-scan
image stored in selected DATA SET. WARNING: All current
setting will be replaced by the recalled settings.
DATA SET selects data set number to store; 1 to 70 data sets.
STORE saves instrument control settings and current A-scan display in
selected DATA SET number.

7. DAC Menu:
g
DAC/TCG enables DAC record mode and TCG and DAC functions; REC,
OFF, TCG, DAC.
REC Mode shows current reference echo number and records reference
amplitude.
DAC OR OFF Mode shows number of recorded reference points in the curve.
CURVE enables and disables the calculated DAC curve display.
8. Menu 8 - Lower Level
GRATICULE enables and disables horizontal and vertical A-scan display
markers.
AMPLITUDE sets method of amplitude display in the measurement line;
% SCREEN HT, dB THRESHOLD
FREEZE MODE selects freeze mode; FREEZE ALL, FREEZE PEAK.
INTENSITY sets display brightness.
VELOCITY #1 sets first velocity for MTL VEL function in course mode.
VELOCITY #2 sets second velocity for MTL VEL function in course mode.
dB STEP sets size of user programmable step option
GATE LOGIC enables and disables gate and sets gate logic; OFF, POSITIVE,
NEGATIVE, MEASURE.
FILE NUMBER selects number of files and configures on-board data logger,
then selects one file, or all files, for logging or printing data;
ALL CLEAR, SET #1 to 99, 1 to 99, or ALL FILES.
LOCATION selects location number in file selected via FILE NUMBER above.
VALUE displays contents of selected file/location number and clears selected
location; EMPTY, Value ERROR.
FILE MODE enables/disables data logger.
ASCAN selects echo signal display mode; hollow, solid.
Selects LANGUAGE for displays and reports.
MEAS. UNITS selects unit of measure.
INSTR. RESET restores base data set (defaults) for all functions (except
memory sets and data logger memory).
BAUD RATE sets speed of RS-232 data transfer.
Sets word LENGTH for RS-232 data transfer.
PARITY sets RS-232 error detection method.
COPY MODE sets type of internal or external (RS-232C) data communication,
HARD COPY, REPORT, THICKNESS, DATA LOGGER,
DISP + PDUMP.
ANGLE of transducer used
THICKNESS for angle beam flaw location.
X-VALUE is the measured distance from the beam index point to the front of
the angle beam probe or wedge.
DATA SET DIRECTORY shows the directory of the data sets.
AUTO CAL enables the auto calibration function
GATE LOGIC enables and disables gate and sets gate logic; OFF, POSITIVE, NEGATIVE,
MEASURE.
MEASURE selects method for measurements; off, 0 to 1st, multiecho.
TOP selects measurement mode; flank, peak

NOTES
g

Company Information:
g
General Electric Information Technologies is the world's largest designer, manufacturer, and
marketer of high technology ultrasonic instruments and transducers. These instruments utilize
ultrasound to examine the internal integrity of metals, plastics, and composite materials. The
Krautkramer instrument product line includes flaw detectors, thickness gauges, hardness testers,
and inspection systems.
Our products are used mainly to test materials such as steel or plastic for cracks and defects, and
to measure material thickness either as part of a manufacturing cycle or during the life of a
product or component.
Our main manufacturing centers are in Köln Germany and Lewistown USA. We also have direct
facilities in Japan, United Kingdom, and France, as well as worldwide Representatives.
GE Inspection Technologies’ manufacturing facilities employ sophisticated manufacturing and

control systems to ensure timely and reliable delivery of your production orders. In addition to
being a certified Class A MRPII company, with Just-In-Time (JIT) manufacturing methods,
Krautkramer maintains a quality program certified to the international quality standard ISO-9001.
This enables GE Inspection Technologies to quickly serve the marketplace with products of
exceptional quality and value. GE Inspection Technologies’ commitment to providing the very best
customer service is evidenced by our continuing investments in manufacturing technology and
productivity enhancing capital equipment.
Branson Instruments:
In 1946, Norman Branson and Peter Bloch formed the Branson Instruments Company and began
manufacturing an ultrasonic thickness-gauging instrument known as the Audigage. These early
units used ultrasonic resonance techniques to measure workpiece thickness from one side. They
were built in the company’s first location, a two-car garage in Danbury, Connecticut.
Along with their NDT product line, Branson Instruments developed products for medical
applications. Branson’s efforts were joined with those of Smith Kline & French Laboratories, one
of the largest U.S. manufacturers of pharmaceutical products at that time. In 1964, Smith Kline &
French took over Branson Instruments.
In 1970, Branson Instruments acquired Aerotech Laboratories. Aerotech Laboratories had begun
in the basement of a Strodes Mills, PA home in 1969, and moved to the Mifflin County Industrial
Park in Lewistown about a year later. Their product line included transducers for industrial and
medical applications. Aerotech’s highly damped ultrasonic probes with improved resolution
promised to strengthen Branson’s product line.

Krautkrämer:
g
In 1949, Dr. Josef and Herbert Krautkrämer developed the first German ultrasonic flaw detector.
Their instrument operated according to the pulse-echo method, which not only detected flaws
existing inside the material being tested, but also determined their position. This first Krautkrämer
flaw detector was suitable for testing forgings, axles and plates.
Krautkrämer established offices in Belgium and France as early as 1951. More offices in countries
around the globe were added in the following years. By 1953, Krautkrämer had developed devices
for weld testing and quantitative flaw location, as well as the first testing machines for rails, tubes,
and plates.
In 1960, the first tube-testing machine equipped with rotating probes went into service. Two years
later, the first, and for many years the smallest and lightest all-transistorized, battery-operated
instrument, the USK4, was developed. The USE1, designed primarily for automatic testing
systems, consisted of 20 interchangeable modules, and was launched in 1969.
Krautkramer Branson:
In 1972, Branson Instruments merged with Krautkrämer GmbH of Köln, West Germany, now
operating in Hürth on the outskirts of Köln, establishing Krautkramer Branson as the world’s
largest manufacturer of ultrasonic testing equipment. Research and development projects were
coordinated, and technical consulting and sales networks operating worldwide were brought under
centralized management control. In 1984, the St. Louis based Emerson Electric Company
purchased Krautkramer Branson as a wholly owned subsidiary. As part of Emerson, Krautkramer
continued to grow in terms of products and technology for worldwide industrial and medical
markets. In 1991 Krautkramer purchased 50% of Hocking NDT entering the Eddy Current
market.
Agfa NDT Inc:

In June 2000, the Agfa-Gevaert Group (AGFA), Mortsel, Belgium acquired the entire worldwide
Krautkramer business from Emerson Electric Co. Agfa's emphasis on non-destructive testing
provides growth opportunities for Krautkramer because of the strategic importance of NDT in
Agfa's business portfolio.
GE Inspection Technologies
On January 1, 2004 General Electric Aircraft Engine division acquired Agfa NDT Inc.
The NDT group was merged in the newly formed Inspection Technologies retaining the brand
names of Agfa NDT, Krautkramer, and Seifert. Later in 2004 GE Inspection Technologies
purchases the remainder of Hocking NDT.

g

g
Lab Exercises
Ultrasonic Inspection Level II
LAB EXERCISES

g

g
STUDENT TRANSDUCER KITS
• FOUR BLOCKS:
ALUMINUM ANGLE BEAM DAC BLOCK
ALUMINUM FLAWED BLOCK
STEEL, 5-STEP, STEP BLOCK
STEEL, THICKNESS MEASUREMENT BLOCK
• THREE CABLES:
BNC TO BNC
BNC TO MICRODOT (WITH DELAY LINE TRANSDUCER)
CABLE WITH DUAL TRANSDUCER AND 2 CONNECTORS
• FOUR TRANSDUCERS:
70°, LARGE, ANGLE BEAM TRANSDUCER
THREE STRAIGHT BEAM TRANSDUCERS – 5 MHZ, 2.25 MHZ, AND 1 MHZ
• COUPLANT BOTTLE
• RULER, SCREWDRIVER, AND PAPER-CLIP

g
USN-52

g
USN-58
INSTRUMENT FAMILIARIZATION (CONT)

USM-25
g

L2 LAB EXERCISE #1
g
STRAIGHT BEAM DISTANCE CALIBRATION
Objective: To become competent in performing straight beam distance calibration.
RANGE (R) = 1.00” REFERENCE BLOCK (RB) = 0.50” In Mild Steel
1. Connect a 5 MHz single element, straight beam transducer to the Instrument.
2. Calculate the number of echoes to be displayed on the screen:

-RANGE (R)/REFERENCE BLOCK (RB) = 1.00/0.50 = 2 echo
3. Calculate the position of the backwall echo:

-REFERENCE BLOCK (RB)/RANGE (R) = 0.50/1.00 = 50% FSW
4. Calculate the position of the last signal: = 2 x 50% FSW = 100% FSW
5. On the USN50 or 52, select the BASIC menu and enter 1.000” for the RANGE:
• There are several pre-set values for the RANGE. Scroll through the values with the
increase/decrease keys.
• To set other RANGES, press the RANGE INCREASE/DECREASE KEYS at the same
time - RANGE will become “range” - any RANGE can be manually entered.
5. On the USN 58 or 60, select the PLSRCVR – RECEIVER menu: put FREQUENCY into
BROADBAND and RECTIFY into FULL WAVE
• On the GATES – ALARMS – GATE SELECT and LOGIC, all gates “OFF”.
• Select the BASIC – RANGE menu and set the RANGE at 1.000”
• There are several pre-set values for the RANGE. Scroll through the values with the
Function Knob.
• To set other RANGES, press the RANGE ◄ Key twice, “RANGE” will become “range” –
any Range can be manually entered using the Fun. Knob.
5. On the USM25, select Level 3 menu. On LCD set LIGHT to “on” and on CFG1 set SCALE to
“div”.
6. Enter the velocity (MTL VEL) value for the test material. There are 2 stored values:
• .2330 inches/µsec and .1320 inches/µsec (L-wave and T-wave in steel).
• To set other velocity values, press the MTL VEL INCREASE/DECREASE keys at the
same time MTL VEL changes to “mtl vel”.
6. Select the BASIC – CONFIG. Menu. To select any material scroll through the
choices and using the right knob and select the material type “MILD STEEL – L”
• .2323 inches/µsec (NOTE: .1260 inches/µsec – MILD STEEL – S).

LAB EXERCISE #1 - (CONT.)
g
• To set other velocity values, Select the BASIC – RANGE menu and PRESS THE
velocity ◄ Key twice. “VELOCITY” will change to “velocity”, and the desired value may
be dialed in with the Function Knob.
6. Select Level 1 menu. Set a RANGE of 1.000” and a METVEL of 233.0. On “aGAT” menu turn
“aLOGIC to “off”. Repeat the same for the B Gate.
7. Couple the transducer to the 0.5 inch reference block and note the backwall and multiple
echoes. Notice how far to the right of their proper position they are. This shows the
difference between electric zero and acoustic zero.
8. Use the DELAY control to adjust the 0.5 inch backwall echo to 50% FSW if needed use the
”mtl vel” control to adjust the last echo (the 1.0” multiple) to 100% FSW. Repeat until each
signal is correctly positioned.
NOTE:
The displacement of acoustic zero from electric zero becomes less noticeable at larger ranges.
For this reason, calibrations should be set with a small range (like a 1” range) and then the
desired ranges may be dialed in with the range control. Remember to always verify echo
positions using a calibration standard.

L2 LAB EXERCISE #2
g
DUAL ELEMENT DISTANCE CALIBRATION
Objective: To review the proper procedure to calibrate and take thickness measurements with
a dual element probe.
RANGE (R) = 1.00” REFERENCE BLOCKS (RB) = 0.10” and 1.00” (STEEL)
1 USN52: Select the PULSER menu and set the PULSER to DUAL.
Select the RCVR menu and set the RECTIF. to NEG HALF
1. USN-58 or 60: Select the PLSRCVR – RECEIVER menu: put the PULSER to DUAL, and the
RECTIFY control to NEG HALF.
1. USM-25: Select Level 1 menu. On BASE set a RANGE of 1.00” and a METVEL of 233.0. On
PULS set DUAL to “On”, and on RECV set RECTIFY to “neg. h-w”
2. Select the BASIC menu and set the RANGE to 1.000 inch. Set the MTL VEL value to .2330
inches/µsec and the DELAY to “0.000”.
2. On the BASIC – RANGE menu set the RANGE to 1.000 inch and the PROBE DELAY to
“0.000”. On the BASIC – CONFIG. Menu. Select the material to be tested, “MILD STEEL – L”
3. Calculate the position of the backwall echoes from each reference block:
RB/R = 0.1”/1.0” = 10% FSW RB/R = 1.0”/1.0” = 100% FSW
4. Connect a dual element probe and couple it to the 0.1” (thinner) block, identify the backwall
echo, and use the DELAY (PROBE DELAY) control to put it at 10% FSW.
5. Couple to the 1.0” (thicker) block, identify the backwall echo, and use the MTL VEL
(VELOCITY) control to put it at 100% FSW.
6. Repeat until each backwall signal is correctly positioned.

L2 LAB EXERCISE #3
g
ANGLE BEAM TRANSDUCER CALIBRATION
Objective: To learn the proper method of calibrating an angle beam contact probe to a
Range of 10” with the IIW Type 1 calibration block.
1. On the USN-50 and USN-52 select the BASIC menu and set the RANGE to 10.00”.
2. Set the MTL VEL to .1320 inches/µsec, and then press both keys at the same time to change
to “mtl vel” for fine adjustments. Set the DELAY control to “0.000” to put the Main Bang at 0%
FSW.
1. On the USN-58 or USN-60 select the PLSRCVR – RECEIVER menu: put FREQUENCY into
BROADBAND and RECTIFY into FULL WAVE
2. Select the BASIC – RANGE menu and set the RANGE at 10.00” and the PROBE
DELAY at 0.000. Select the BASIC – CONFIG. Menu. Select “MILD STEEL – S”
1. On the USM-25 Select Level 3 menu. On LCD set LIGHT to “on” and on CFG1 set SCALE to
“div”. Select Level 1 menu. Set a RANGE of 10.00” and a METVEL of 132.0 On
“aGAT” menu turn “a LOGIC to “off”. Repeat the same for the B Gate.
Part 1: Verify the BIP
Place the transducer in position A. Locate the echo from the 4” radius (the first large echo after
the Main Bang) and peak up on it. Carefully hold the transducer on the block and mark the side of
the probe wedge (use a piece of tape) directly above the zero mark on the IIW block. This mark
represents the actual BIP.
POSITION A
Part 2: Distance Calibration
Place the probe in position A making sure that the BIP is lined up over the zero mark. Locate the
echo from the 4” radius (first large echo after the Main Bang). Increase the GAIN to locate the 9”
echo. Use the DELAY (PROBE DELAY) control to place the 4 inch echo at 40% FSW. Then use
the “met vel” (VELOCITY) control to place the 9 inch echo at 90% FSW. Repeat until both signals
are properly located on the display. The Main Bang will be off of the screen. The instrument
display is now calibrated for a 10 inch range for steel.

LAB EXERCISE #3 (CONT.)
g
Part 3: Verify the Refracted Angle
Place the transducer in position B (as shown below). Peak up the echo from the Lucite disc by
moving the transducer back and forth. When peaked, read the degree scale on the IIW block at
the probe BIP on the wedge to identify the actual refracted angle (β).
POSITION B FOR 70°° TRANSDUCERS POSITION B FOR 45°° AND 60°° TRANSDUCERS
Part 4: Set the Sensitivity
Place the transducer in position C. Peak up on the signal from the .060” SDH. Using a 70 degree
probe, this echo should be near 2” on the screen. When carefully peaked, use the GAIN (dB)
control to adjust the echo height to the reference line (50% FSH). Record the reference level (dB
reading).
Have the instructor check the calibration when finished.
POSITION C

L2 LAB EXERCISE #4
g
ANGLE BEAM DISTANCE CALIBRATIONS FOR 5”, 12”, 15” AND 20”
Objective: To determine the positioning of signals when setting angle beam ranges using an IIW
Type 1 and a DSC block.
• The IIW Type 1 block produces a 4” reflection, followed by a signal every 5” after that. (4”, 9”,
14”, 19”…).
• The DSC block produces a 1” reflection in one direction, and a 3” reflection with the transducer
turned around in the other direction. These are both followed by a signal every 4”: (1”, 5”, 9”,
13”…) or (3”, 7”, 11”, 15”...)
To determine where the signals for a display range would occur, divide the distance by the given
range. Example: A 4” signal on a 12” range = 4”/12” = 33.3% FSW
1. Fill in the following reference charts.
IIW, TYPE 1 DSC

4” 9” 14” 19” 1” 5” 9” 13”
12 33.3% 75% ----- ------ 12” ------
”
15 ------ 15”
”
20 20”
”
5” ------- ----- ------ 5” ------ ------
3” 7” 11” 15”
12” ------
15”
20”
5” ------ ------ ------
2. Calibrate a 15” range using the IIW block.

L2 LAB EXERCISE #5
g
ANGLE BEAM SENSITIVITY CALIBRATION - DAC
Objective: To become competent in performing A DAC curve calibration and recording

information on a calibration report.
1. Complete the steps below and transfer the required data to report form #3001.
2. Use a 5 MHz straight beam transducer to measure these dimensions on the DAC Block
provided.
Length (L)__________ The four distances to the hole (Use a 2.0” range):
Width (W)__________ A _______ C _______
Thickness (T)__________ B _______ D _______
3. Perform a 60 degree, 10” calibration, mark the BIP, and record the refracted angle.
4. Calculate the skip distance, half skip distance, v-path, and leg. Ensure that the range used is
greater than the v-path.
5. Plot the “legs” on the report and also on the screen with a grease marker.
6. Calculate the nodal distances used (3/8, 5/8, 7/8, 9/8; and/or 6/8, 10/8, etc.)
7. Measure back from the end of the block ½ skip distance and then a full skip distance and mark
these locations on the block surface.

g
LAB EXERCISE #5 (CONT)
8. Placing the BIP on the ½ skip line, identify the tall signal from the bottom corner of the block
(end of leg 1). Back up the transducer and identify the smaller signal from the SDH, which is
showing at about an inch to the left of the corner’s signal.
9. After peaking up on the SDH signal, use the gain control to take the signal to the reference line
of 80% and mark the height of the signal on the screen and the report form. Record the
reference level. Verify the actual surface and depth of the SDH against the previously
calculated values.
10. Without changing the gain, slide the transducer back watching the SDH fall and then rise as it
moves near the calculated 5/8 node distance. It should be in the second leg area of the
screen.
11. Peak up the 5/8 node signal and mark the top of the signal on the screen. Verify the surface
and depth measurements.
12. Turn the block over so that the SDH is near the top surface of the block.
13. Place the transducer a full skip distance from the edge of the block and notice the corner
signal at the end of leg 2. Move the transducer back and see the SDH signal rise in front of
the corner signal. This signal should be near the calculated 7/8 node distance.
16. Finish the construction of the DAC curve by connecting the 4 marks with a smooth curved
line.

CALIBRATION REPORT - DAC
g
Inspector: Level: Date:
Instrument S/N: Calibration Due:

IIW / DSC S/N: Calibration Due:
DAC Block S/N: Calibration Due:
Straight Beam Transducer: MHz “ Dia. S/N
Angle Beam Transducer MHz “ Size S/N
Range: Actual Refracted Angle: Degrees

Reference Line: Material Thickness:
Reference Level: Scanning Level:
Skip Distance(2T X TANβ): 1/2 Skip Distance:

V-Path (Node) (2T / COSβ): Leg Distance (1/2 of V-Path)
Node EXP. Sound Path EXP. % Range (S. P. / Range)
3/8 (0.375)
5/8 (0.625)
6/8 (0.750)
7/8 (0.875)
9/8 (1.125)
10/8 (1.250)
14/8 (1.750)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

INSPECTION REPORT - DAC
g
Part Length: Width: Thickness:
Ind β Node Actual % Flaw Flaw Flaw Flaw

Position Sound Path of DAC Length Surface Dist. Depth Class
Side View of the Part
Draw the true thickness and the measured location of any drilled holes
Plan View of the Part Scanning Levels
Scan 6 dB higher than

reference level sensitivity
Draw the locations and dimensions to any drilled holes
ACCEPTANCE CRITERIA
• Investigate any indication greater than 50% DAC.

• Reject any slag or porosity greater than100% DAC
• Reject any crack or other linear indication greater than 50% DAC.

L2 LAB EXERCISE #6
g
ANGLE BEAM REFLECTOR EVALUATION – dB RATING SYSTEM
Objective: To become competent in evaluating a reflector by a dB rating system and recording

information on a calibration and an inspection report.
CALIBRATION – Use calibration report
1. Complete the steps below and transfer the required information to the report form.
2. Perform a 10”, 70° angle beam calibration, mark the BIP, and set sensitivity by using the .060”
SDH in the IIW block. The reference line is 50% FSH.
3. Calculate the skip distance, half of the skip distance, v-path, and leg. Ensure that the range
used is greater than the v-path. Plot the “legs” on the screen with a grease marker.
INSPECTION – Use dB inspection report
1. Maximize the Leg 1, SDH signal in the provided steel block.
2. Record the sound path, Indication level, BIP to end of block, and length.
3. Complete the data concerning the reflector.
4. Determine the Flaw Class and Acceptability using the acceptance criteria.
5. Plot the locations of the probe and reflector on the side and plan view drawings.
6. Repeat the above steps for a second leg inspection.
7. Have the instructor check the results.

CALIBRATION REPORT - dB
g

Straight Beam Transducer: MHz “ Size S/N



INSPECTION REPORT - dB
g

Ind β Actual TX BIP to Ind. Ref Atten. Ind. Flaw Flaw Flaw Flaw
# Sound End of Level Level Factor Rating Lengt Surfac Dept Class
Path Plate A B C D h e Dist. h
Draw the thickness, the location of any drilled holes, and the transducer’s location
Scanning Levels
Plan View of the Part
Soundpath Add
Up to 2.5” 14dB
Up to 5” 19dB
Up to 10” 24dB
Up to 15” 29dB
70°° ACCEPTANCE CRITERIA – NOT FROM AWS CODE

THICKNESS OF MATERIAL IN INCHES
SEVERITY CLASS 5/16 - 3/4 > 3/4 - 1 1/4 > 1 1/4 - 2 1/2 >2½-4
A - Reject all +5 and lower +2 and Lower -2 and lower -5 and lower
B - Reject > 3/4” long +6 +3 -1 and 0 -4 and -3
C - Reject > 2” long +7 +4 +1 and +2 -2 to +2
D - Accept all +8 and up +5 and up +3 and up +3 and up

SEVERITY CLASS 5/16 - 3/4 > 3/4 - 1 1/4 > 1 1/4 - 2 1/2 > 2 1/2
A - Reject all NA +4 and lower +1 and lower -2 and lower
B - Reject > 3/4” long NA +5 +2 and +3 -1 and 0
C - Reject > 2” long NA +6 +4 and +5 +1 and +2
D - Accept all NA +7 and up +6 and up +3 and up

g

Scanning Levels
Soundpath Add
Up to 2.5” 14dB
Up to 5” 19dB
Up to 10” 24dB
Up to 15” 29dB

SEVERITY CLASS 5/16 - 3/4 > 3/4 - 1 1/4 > 1 1/4 - 2 1/2 >2½-4

SEVERITY CLASS 5/16 - 3/4 > 3/4 - 1 1/4 > 1 1/4 - 2 1/2 > 2 1/2

L2 LAB EXERCISE #7
g
GATES
Part I
1. With a 4” range, Set sensitivity by peaking up the 1” backwall signal to 80% FSH.
EXAMPLE: USN-50 / 52
2. Choose the Lower Menu containing the GATE LOGIC keypad. Select the POSITIVE gate
logic setting. Return to the GATE Menu.
2. On the GATE Menu – TTL OUT – TTL # 1, set to “GATE A”

On the GATE Menu – ALARMS – LOGIC, set to “POSITIVE”.
3. Use the A-START control to set the beginning of the gate to 0.5” and using the A-WIDTH to
1.4”.
4. Adjust the A-THRESHOLD control to 60% FSH and set the 1” backwall signal above 60% FSH
and the alarm light(s) on.
5. Select the NEGATIVE logic gate setting.

5. On the GATE – ALARMS – LOGIC, set to “NEGATIVE”.
6. Reduce the signal to less than 60% FSH. The alarm should again be on.

g
Part II
Flank Mode: The alarm triggers on the first signal within the gate that exceeds the
threshold.
Peak Mode: The alarm triggers on the highest signal in the gate.
1. Set up a POSITIVE gate in FLANK mode with a START of .5”, a WIDTH of 1.4”, and a
THRESHOLD at 60%. Set the MEASURE menu to “0 to I st”.
2. Position the signals from the IIW block’s disc and .060” SHD to be above the GATE threshold.
Notice that the digital depth measurement of about 0.57” is the SDH.
3. Change the mode to PEAK and the digital depth of the disc of about 1.80” is shown.
4. Decrease the gate width until the disc echo is not in the gate. The digital readings should
again be from the SDH.

L2 LAB EXERCISE #8
g
A - SAVING CALIBRATIONS
1. After the calibration is complete, freeze the screen with the image exactly the way it is to be
stored.
2. Go to the MEMORY Menu and select the data set to be used (Assign a File Name if desired).
If the data set has something already stored there, clear the data set first.
3. Press the “STORE” key and when the flashing message is displayed, press the “Home” key.
4. Record the type of calibration stored and the Data set number.
2. Press the HOME key and Press the FILES key
3. Press the CREATE NEW key -- Now you have the option of either spinning the right knob, or
pressing the CREATE NEW key a second time
A. CREATE NEW changes to STORE

B. Cursor highlights the filename
4. To change the file name
A. The RIGHT knob changes the alphanumeric value

B. The LEFT knob will index to the next letter of the filename
5. Once the filename is as desired, press the STORE key and the process is complete
B - RECALLING CALIBRATIONS
1. Go to the MEMORY Menu and select the data set to be recalled.
2. Press the “RECALL” key and when the flashing message is displayed, press the “Home” key
to confirm the recall is desired.
3. Press the “FREEZE” key to unfreeze the screen.
2. Press the FILENAME key

g
3. The RIGHT knob indexes through the available data sets
4. Select the data set file desired and press ACTION
5. The RIGHT knob scrolls to RECALL
6. Press the RECALL key
7. Press the HOME key to confirm. Recall is complete
8. Press the FREEZE key to unfreeze the recalled screen
C – CLEARING CALIBRATIONS
1. Go to the MEMORY Menu and select the data set to be cleared.
2. Double click both “Recall” arrows.
3. When the flashing message is displayed, press the “Home” key and the box should be
removed.
2. Press the FILENAME key
3. The RIGHT knob indexes through the available data sets
4. Select the data set file desired and press ACTION
5. The RIGHT knob scrolls to CLEAR
6. Press the CLEAR Key

L2 LAB EXERCISE # 9
g
AUTO-CALIBRATION
Objective: To become proficient at using the auto-calibration function.
1. Reset the unit. Set the desired range in the “RANGE” box
2. Go the lower level menu (shown below) and set AUTO CAL to “ON”, GATE LOGIC to
“POSITIVE”, MEASURE to “0 TO 1ST”, and TOF to “FLANK”.
• If setting an angle-beam calibration, enter the actual angle and the part thickness on another
lower level menu page
• If setting a dual-beam calibration, select dual on the appropriate menu
3. The rest of the calibration is performed on the modified S-CAL menu, (shown above). Double
press the CAL arrows, causing the CAL box to read “REC 0”
4. Select the appropriate first S-REF value (1.000” is a default value) and enter it. Move the gate
over the S-REF echo, if needed, by changing the A-START value. Ensure the echo is the first
echo in the gate and that it is higher than the gate. Press either CAL arrow to enter the value
for the echo. “REC 0” is then replaced by “REC 1”.
5. Select the appropriate second S-REF value (4.000” is a default value) and enter it. Move the
gate over this S-REF echo. Ensure the echo is the only echo in the gate and that it is higher
than the gate. Press either CAL arrow to enter the value for the echo. “REC 1” is then
replaced by “REC 2”. The calibration process is complete.
6. Exit the calibration mode by pressing either CAL arrow. A blank line will appear under CAL In
the box.
• If the AUTO CAL was successful, the words “met vel” will appear and the velocity will change.
• If the AUTO CAL was not successful, the words “MET VEL” and the velocity will stay the
same. A message may appear “AutoCal error! Hit KEY to continue.”
7. Inspection may now be done from any menu where control of the gate is available.

LAB EXERCISE # 9 (CONT.)
g
AUTOCAL FOR USN-58 AND USN-60 INSTRUMENTS
1. Reset the unit. Select the “HOME” and “BASIC” menus and set the desired Range and a
Velocity close to that of the test piece.
• If setting an angle-beam calibration, enter the actual angle and the part thickness on the
“TRIG” Menu
• If setting a dual-beam calibration, select dual on the “PLSRCVR” – “DUAL” menu.
2. Select the “PLSRCVR” – “RECEIVER” menu: put “FREQUENCY” into “BROADBAND” (or
match the transducer) and “RECTIFY” into “FULLWAVE”. Press “HOME”
3. Couple the probe to the part and ensure that the echoes to be used in the calibration are
visible on the screen.
4. Select “AUTOCAL” – “SETUP” menu.
• Turn the knob to put the soundpath of the first calibration echo into “S-REF 1”.
• Turn the knob to put the soundpath of the second calibration echo into “S-REF 2”.
• Turn the “GATE A START” knob to put Gate A over the first calibration echo.
• Select “RECORD”. Now press “RECORD” ◄. Note the box will change from “Off” to “S-
Ref 1?”. Press the “RECORD” ◄ again and note that “S-Ref 1” will change to “S-Ref 2?”
• Turn the “GATE A START” knob to
put Gate A over the second
calibration echo.
• Select “RECORD”. Now press

“RECORD” ◄. Note the box will
change from “S-Ref 2” to “Off” and
the signals will shift position on the
screen.
5. If the AUTOCAL was not successful, a message may appear “AutoCal” error! Hit any KEY to
continue.”
6. Digital Inspections may now be done from any menu after the gate is positioned.

L2 LAB EXERCISE #10
g
ELECTRONIC DAC/TCG
Objective: To become proficient at setting electronic DAC curves or TCG for evaluating reflectors
by the ASME code.
1. After completing lab Exercise #5, maximize the echo from the first reference reflector and put
the peak at 80% FSH.
2. Turn on the gating circuits and set a POSITIVE gate. Put a 1” wide gate over the desired
echo.
3. On the DAC Menu, activate the DAC Record Mode by pressing both DAC/TCG arrows at the
same time.
4. Record the echo by pressing either DAC ECHO arrow. NOTE: The recorded echo number
will appear in the in the box.
5. Move the gate over the next echo to be recorded. If needed, increase the gain to have the
echo exceed the threshold.
6. Repeat Steps 4 and 5 for the remaining echoes
7. After the final point is recorded, activate the DAC-TCG by pressing the DAC-TCG arrow.
Note: A “T” indicates that a DAC curve has been stored.
8. Remove the curve from the screen by pressing the CURVE ON arrow.
9. Set the gate to indicate signals over 20% of the DAC by lowering the threshold to 16% FSH.
Set the gate at 0.3” with a width of 4.5”.
10. To clear the DAC/TCG press both DAC/TCG arrows.

g



Node Sound Path % Range (S. P. / Range)

1/8 (0.125)
2/8 (0.250)
3/8 (0.375)
5/8 (0.625)
6/8 (0.750)
7/8 (0.875)
9/8 (1.125)
10/8 (1.250)
14/8 (1.750)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

g



Node Sound Path % Range (S. P. / Range)

1/8 (0.125)
2/8 (0.250)
3/8 (0.375)
5/8 (0.625)
6/8 (0.750)
7/8 (0.875)
9/8 (1.125)
10/8 (1.250)
14/8 (1.750)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

g

Scanning Levels
Soundpath Add
Up to 2.5” 14dB
Up to 5” 19dB
Up to 10” 24dB
Up to 15” 29dB

SEVERITY CLASS 5/16 - 3/4 > 3/4 - 1 1/4 > 1 1/4 - 2 1/2 >2½-4

SEVERITY CLASS 5/16 - 3/4 > 3/4 - 1 1/4 > 1 1/4 - 2 1/2 > 2 1/2

g

Scanning Levels
Soundpath Add
Up to 2.5” 14dB
Up to 5” 19dB
Up to 10” 24dB
Up to 15” 29dB

SEVERITY CLASS 5/16 - 3/4 > 3/4 - 1 1/4 > 1 1/4 - 2 1/2 >2½-4

SEVERITY CLASS 5/16 - 3/4 > 3/4 - 1 1/4 > 1 1/4 - 2 1/2 > 2 1/2

g

Scanning Levels
Soundpath Add
Up to 2.5” 14dB
Up to 5” 19dB
Up to 10” 24dB
Up to 15” 29dB

SEVERITY CLASS 5/16 - 3/4 > 3/4 - 1 1/4 > 1 1/4 - 2 1/2 >2½-4

SEVERITY CLASS 5/16 - 3/4 > 3/4 - 1 1/4 > 1 1/4 - 2 1/2 > 2 1/2

g

Scanning Levels
Soundpath Add
Up to 2.5” 14dB
Up to 5” 19dB
Up to 10” 24dB
Up to 15” 29dB

SEVERITY CLASS 5/16 - 3/4 > 3/4 - 1 1/4 > 1 1/4 - 2 1/2 >2½-4

SEVERITY CLASS 5/16 - 3/4 > 3/4 - 1 1/4 > 1 1/4 - 2 1/2 > 2 1/2

g
NOTES

g
UT Level II
Study Guide
STUDY GUIDE

g
ULTRASONIC INSPECTION LEVEL II STUDY GUIDE
This Level II course was carefully developed to add to the theory and equipment usage learned in
the Level 1 class. The effectiveness of the training depends on the student, the study methods
used, and the amount of effort put forth. If any questions or problems arise concerning either the
class material or study methods, please contact the instructor. Your instructor is knowledgeable in
both the theory and industrial inspection methods and uses the whole company as a resource
when providing the most up-to-date information.
During the lectures many new terms, mathematical processes, and concepts are introduced
requiring careful note taking and a focus on the instructor’s explanations. Evening study should
include careful review of the material and some memorization. The questions provided here are
to be used by the student to evaluate the effectiveness of the daily study and to prepare for the
examinations. These are intended to represent the style and scope of the hundreds of possible
questions. The answers to the sample questions can be found at the end of the study guide.

SECTION 1- Mathematics of Ultrasound
g
1. The maximum practical pulse repetition rate for a straight beam contact test of 6” of aluminum
would be: A) .0042 PPS B) 4167 PPS C) 3846 PPS D) 240 PPS
2. The maximum practical pulse repetition rate for a straight beam contact test of 4” of gray iron
would be: A) 8.5 PPS B) 4505 PPS C) 117647 PPS D) 5747 PPS
3. The maximum practical pulse repetition rate for a Straight beam inspection of a 127mm piece
of titanium would be: A) 4807 PPS B) 208 PPS C) 2439 PPS D) 8470 PPS
4. The half-angle of beam spread for a straight beam contact test using a 10 MHz - 1/4" probe in
aluminum would be: A) 7.0° B) 5.7° C) 7.5° D) 9.6°
5. The half-angle of beam spread for a straight beam contact test using a 5 MHz - 3/8" probe in
ductile iron would be: A) 7.0° B) 8.6° C) 3.5° D) 12.8°
6. The half-angle of beam spread for a straight beam contact test using a 2 MHz - 24mm probe in
stainless steel would be: A) 6.9° B) 8.5° C) 14.7° D) 0.003°
7. The near zone length of a 2.25 MHz - 1/4" straight beam contact probe, when testing copper
would be: A) 3.3" B) .83" C) .20" D) 1.5"
8. The near zone length of a 25 MHz - 1/4" immersion probe in water would be:
A) 26.8" B) 107" C) 8.0" D) 6.7"
9. The near zone length of a 15 MHZ - 10 mm straight beam contact probe in tin would be:
A) 288 mm B) 114 mm C) 11mm D) 45 mm
10. What is the first critical angle when immersion testing brass? (metric)
A) 39° B) 20° C) 63° D) 28°
11. What is the second critical angle when immersion testing beryllium? (metric)
A) 10° B) 7° C) 23° D) 45°
12. What is the first critical angle when contact testing tungsten?
A) 90° B) 41° C)19° D) 33°
13. What is the second critical angle when contact testing stainless steel?
A) 29° B) 66° C) 43° D) 58°
14. What is the skip distance when testing a 3/4" plate with a 70° wedge?
A) 4.1" B) 1.0" C) 2.1" D) .51"

15. What is the skip distance when testing a 1" plate with a 45° wedge?
g
A) 3.2" B) 2.0" C) 1.4" D) 2.8"
16. What is the skip distance when testing a 25mm plate with a 61° wedge?
A) 24mm B) 45mm C) 63mm D) 90mm
17. What is the v-path when testing a 3/8" plate with a 71° wedge?
A) 2.8" B) .40" C) 2.3" D) 3.0"
18. What is the v-path when testing a 7/8" plate with a 62° wedge?
A) .90" B) 2.5" C) 4.6" D) 3.7"
19. What is the v-path when testing a 30mm plate with a 60° wedge?
A) 60mm B) 90mm C) 120mm D) 35mm
20. What is the length of a leg when testing a 3" plate with a 45° wedge?
A) 4.2" B) 2.1" C) 3.0" D) 1.8"
21. What is the length of a leg when testing a 3/16" plate with an 80° wedge?
A) 1.1" B) 2.2" C) .85" D) 3.4"
22. What is the length of a leg when testing a 15mm plate with a 60° wedge?
A) 9mm B) 17mm C) 30mm D) 90mm
23. Calculate the surface distance to a reflector that occurs at 42% FSW on a 10" range, when
using a 60° wedge. A) 4.2" B) 3.6" C) 4.6" D) 5.2"
using a 70° wedge. A) 1.7" B) 3.6" C) 2.2" D) 2.4"
using a 45° wedge. A) 2.1" B) .55" C) .90" D) 1.1"
26. Calculate the depth of a reflector that occurs at 62% FSW on a 5" range, when using a 45°
wedge to scan a 2" thick weld. A) 2.2" B) 1.1" C) 1.8" D) 3.5"
wedge to scan a 1.5" plate. A) 1.8" B) .94" C) .45" D) 1.6"
wedge to scan a 2.25" plate. A) 1.3" B) .45" C) .94" D) 1.6"

SECTION TWO – Angle Beam Inspection
g
1. An area to be inspected by shear waves should first be checked for: A) flaws that are
perpendicular to the surface B) porosity C) laminations D) thickness variations.
2. The function of DAC curves is to compensate for: A) penetration B) resolution

C) attenuation D) frequency variations.
3. The most severe rating in the AWS rating system is:

A) -1 B) -3 C) +6 D) -6.
4. The angle of refraction on a wedge does not change. A) true B) false
5. The number of decibels required to put the signal from a flaw in a test piece at the reference
line is the: A) reference level B) test level C) signature D) indication level.
6. The basic probe movement that allows the operator to find flaws not parallel to the axis of the
weld is: A) orbital B) rotational C) lateral D) lineal
7. Type of IIW block that has a slot and no crescent:

A) Type 1 B) Type V1 C) Type2
8. In cylinder inspection, the ID notch peaks:

A) at the end of leg 1 B) at the end of leg 2 C) at the end of the V-path
9. Setting a DAC curve on a block with a ¾-T hole, the 2/8, 3/8, and 7/8 node positions can be
found with the probe on the same side of the block. A) true B) false
10. In a dB rating system, a flaw rated as a “+2” is always rejectable. A) true B) false

SECTION THREE – Flaw Identification and Evaluation
g
1. Flaws that appear on the CRT have a characteristic signal shape due to their reflective
properties; this is called a: A) signature B) response C) characterization
2. Flaws are usually evaluated based upon their signal amplitude and A) shape
B) acoustic impedance C) size
3. Multiple signals with quick rise times that are very close to each other on the CRT would most
likely be: A) an inclusion B) a lamination C) a crack D) porosity
4. When shear wave testing a test piece 1.75 “ thick with a 60° wedge, a signal occurs on screen
with a sound path of 7 “; this signal is: A) the bottom of the test pieceB) a surface indication
C) in the middle of the test piece
HINT: either calculate the length of a leg and compare to the SP; or, calculate the depth.
5. The 20 dB drop method is used for determining the type and orientation of the flaw. A) true
B) false
6. Inherent flaws are formed when the material is: A) machined B) forged C) molten
7. Fatigue cracking is a Service discontinuity. A) true B) false
8. Dual element transducers are normally chosen for corrosion testing. A) true B) false

SECTION FOUR – Equipment Quality Control
g
1. When testing the dB accuracy of a flaw detector, with every increase of 6dB all signals on
screen should increase by: A) 100% B) 50% C) 200% D) 75%
2. When doing a horizontal linearity check of a flaw detector, you are checking to see that all
signals on screen should maintain the same height proportions regardless of the gain setting.
A) true b) false
3. A narrow band transducer would normally be desirable when looking for a defect that is:
A) near the entry surface of the test piece B) smaller than .0001" in diameter C) located at a
considerable depth in a coarse grained material D) both b and c
4. Beam profiles are used in determining: A) beam symmetry B) distance to the peak point
C) the smallest critical defect that the probe can detect D) both a and b
5. A transducer certification shows the real time wave form and the: A) beam profile
B) frequency spectrum C) distance to the peak point D) all of the above
6. An ASTM specification details the performance guidelines for flaw detectors and another
one is for performance of transducers. A) true B) false
7. The center frequency has the highest amplitude on the spectrum. A) true B) false
A B
Vertical = 2dB/div
8. “A” is the Frequency Spectrum and “B” is the Real Time Waveform A) true B) false
9. The Pulse Length is calculated from the real time waveform A) true B) false
10. The Peak Frequency needs to be calculated A) true B) false
11. The Bandwidth is expressed in microseconds. A) true B) false
12. The Percent Bandwidth is calculated from the Bandwidth and the Center Frequency
A) true B) false

g
SECTION FIVE – Special Instrument Features
1. This feature allows the instrument to monitor a critical area of the test piece: A) interface
triggered delay B) electronic DAC C) a gate D) screen delay
2. This feature allows the instrument to monitor the backwall of a test piece while scanning a
critical area of the test piece at large gain settings: A) backwall gating B) backwall attenuator
C) interface triggered delay D) electronic DAC
3. To be able to take digital measurements, use the gating circuits and the ____ control to
calibrate the instrument: A) Zero/probe delay B) Screen delay C) neither A or B

ANSWERS - SECTION 1
g
1. TT = ___2 (6”) = 12 = .000048 SEC (48uSEC)
250,000 in/sec 250,000 in/sec
P.PI = 5 X .000048 SEC = .000240 SEC
P.PRR = __1 = __1 = 4167PPS (B)

P.PI .000240 SEC
2. B
3. A
4. SINγ = C X 1.22 = .25 X 106 IN/SEC X 1.22 = .25 X 1.22
DF (.25 “) (10 MHz) 2.5
SINγ = .10 x 1.2 = .1220 γ = 7.0° (A)

5. B
6. B
7. N = D2F = (.25”)2 (2.25MHz) = .0625 X 2.25 = .1406 = .20” (C)
4C 4(.18 x 106 IN/SEC) .72 .72
8. D
9. B
10. SINα = C1 = 1.48KM/SEC = .3442 α = 20° (B)
C2 4.3KM/SEC
11. A
12. D
13. B
14. SKIP = 2T X TANB 2(.75”) X TAN 70 = 1.5” X 2.747 = 4.1 (A)
15. B
16. D
17. VP = 2T 2(.375”) = .75” = 2.3” (C)
COSB COS71° .3256
18. D
19. C
20. LEG = T 3” = 3” = 4.2” (A)
COSβ COS45° .7071
21. A
22. C
23. SP = .42 X 10 = 4.2”, SURF = 4.2” X SIN60° = 4.2” X .8660 = 3.6” (B)
24. A
25. D
26. SP = .62 X 5 = 3.1” Depth = SP X COS45° = 3.1” X .7071 = 2.2” (leg 2)

Actual depth = 2T = 2.2 = 4” - 2.2” = 1.8” (C)
27. B
28. A

SECT. 2 SECT. 3 SECT. 4 SECT 5
g
1. C 1. A 1. A 1. C
2. C 2. C 2. B 2. B
3. D 3. D 3. C 3. A
4. B 4. B 4. D
5. D 5. B 5. B
6. B 6. C 6. A
7. B 7. A 7. B
8. A 8. A 8. B
9. B 9. A
10 B 10. B
11. B
12. A

Ultrasonic Inspection Fundamentals

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Ultrasonic Inspection Fundamentals

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

g

Ultrasonic Level II Issue 11/05 1

B. Math of Ultrasound ……………………………………………………………………………………17

C. Angle Beam Inspection……………………………………………………………………………….49

E. Equipment Quality Control……………………………………………………………………………85

F. Special Instrument Features……………………………………………………………………………99

2 Issue 11/05 Ultrasonic Level II

Welcome to the GE Inspection Technologies Training.

THIS IS A GRADED COURSE WITH TWO SEPARATE GRADES:

Example: Quiz grades: 89, 79, 92 would give an average of 87%

Ultrasonic Level II Issue 11/05 3

Course Location: ________________________

Course Dates: __________________________

Phone Number: ________________________

4 Issue 11/05 Ultrasonic Level II

Ultrasonic Level II Issue 11/05 5

6 Issue 11/05 Ultrasonic Level II

• Particle motion is parallel to direction of wave travel

SHEAR WAVE (T)

• Particle motion is perpendicular to direction of wave travels only in solids

• Particle motion is elliptical

• Changing of sound wave from one mode to another

ACOUSTIC IMPEDANCE (Z)

• The resistance of a material to the propagation of sound

Ultrasonic Level II Issue 11/05 7

% Reflected Pressure at 0 degree incidence R = Z2 - Z 1

• The rate at which sound travels through a material

• Cycle: A complete repetition of particle motion

WAVE THEORY PROBLEMS

1. What is the wavelength of a 15 MHz shear wave in a titanium rod?

λ = C/F = .12 X 106 IPS = .008”

2. What is the frequency if the straight beam wavelength is .111” in aluminum?

F = C/λ = .25 X 106 IPS = 2.25 MHz

8 Issue 11/05 Ultrasonic Level II

SINγ = C X 1.22 Where D = Crystal Diameter

N = D2F Where N = Distance to end of near field (peak point)

ULTRASONIC EQUIPMENT ENERGY PATH

Ultrasonic Level II Issue 11/05 9

DIGITAL FLAW DETECTORS

• Advantages of a digital machine: Precise control of the test conditions

Ultrasonic Level II Issue 11/05 11

• Provides an air free interface

DISTANCE AMPLITUDE CORRECTION - DAC

• Method to evaluate flaw size/severity compensating for attenuation in the part

• Ability to overcome attenuation

Ability to distinguish reflectors that are close together

12 Issue 11/05 Ultrasonic Level II

• Amount of sound in a given area

• A measure of the response of a given size reflector at a given distance.

ANGLE BEAM DISTANCES

Ultrasonic Level II Issue 11/05 13

IMMERSION TESTING – The Main Alternative To Contact Testing

• Involves submerging the test piece in a tank of liquid or water (couplant).

• Thickness testing and disbond location method

14 Issue 11/05 Ultrasonic Level II

“Recommended Practice # SNT-TC-1A”.

The American Society for Nondestructive

Ultrasonic Level II Issue 11/05 15

16 Issue 11/05 Ultrasonic Level II

Ultrasonic Level II Issue 11/05 17

18 Issue 11/05 Ultrasonic Level II

Pulse Repetition Rate

P.PI = 5 x TT = 5 x sec = _sec

free field intensities are shown

As the material thickness_, a ___refracted angle would normally be