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Distinctive Feature Theory By Anmar Ahmed

The Theoretical Basis to the Distinctive Features

There are three main approaches that have influenced the definition of distinctive
: features
A-The first is the theory of distinctive oppositions which goes back mainly to the
. Russian phonologist Nicolay Trubetzkoy
B-The second is the acoustic approach , which was first introduced by Danish
. Linguist Roman Jakobson
C-There is approach introduced by Noam Chomsky and Morris Halle in their
. influential book , the sound pattern of English
Trubetzkoy's Theory

The theory of distinctive oppositions goes back to Nikolay Trubetzkoy , it was an

attempt classifying properties of distinctive operative in natural languages .He defines
: a taxonomy of phonological contrasts that is of meaning changing oppositions

There are oppositions within the system – 1

There are relations between opposite members – 2

There are types of oppositional extent – 3

Oppositions within the system can be defined according to Trubetzkoy in four

: ways

Segments stand in bilateral oppositions : the sum of the phonetic opposition is – 1

common to both members of the opposition is common to these two members
only . /p/ and /b/ stand in bilateral opposition because they are oral labial stops and
there are no other consonants in English which come under the heading oral labial
stops

Segment stands in multilateral opposition if there is more than one phonetic – 2

property , that keeps them apart , for example in language like Korean , the system of
plosives has always three members , voiced unaspirated plosives , voiceless
unaspirated plosives and voiceless aspirated plosives . There are two differentiating
features , plus + , minus – voice and plus + , minus – aspiration , so a multilateral
. oppositions
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Oppositions can be defined as proportional if the relation between its members is – 3

identical with relations between the members of another opposition or several other
oppositions within the system . The difference between t and d in English is identical
. with that of k and g , that is we have a proportional relation

4- Opposition can be defined as isolated if no other segments stand in the same

relation in the language , for example , the opposition between /r/ and /l/ in English is
isolated since no other segments stand in the same opposition .

Opposite members can also be defined in terms of the relation of the oppositions :

1-In privative opposition one member carries a phonetic property which the other
member lacks , in other words privative oppositions are relationships of presence
verses the absence of the feature , for example voicing in English between/t/ voiced
un aspirated plosive and /d/ voiceless aspirated plosive .

2-Oppositions in which the members are characterized by different degree or

graduation of the same properties are defined as gradual . This type of relationship
holds for vowels where the property tongue high is a matter of degree rather than of
binarity.

3-If the relationship between the members of an opposition can be considered

logically equivalent it is defined as equipollent . A typical case is the opposition in
English between /p/ verses /t/ and /t/ verses /k/ , unlike with vowels is not possible to
speak of a continuum from labial to velar and distinguish the consonant by means of
degrees of backness , rather the different places of articulation constitute and
equipollent relation .

The extent of an opposition can also be defined in Trubetzkoy Taxonomy :

1-When two members of an opposition can occur in all positions the opposition is
referred to as constant , this is almost the case for English in /t/ and /d/ .

2-The opposition between the segment is called Neutralizable , if there are context
where only one of the opposition member can be found , a classic example of
neutralizable opposition comes from German where the opposition between voiced
and voiceless consonants as /t/ and /d/ disappear in final position , or from present day
English , where the opposition between /t/ and /d/ is neutralized after , s .
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Jacobson's Theory

Jakobson aimed at description of the oppositions operatives in language together

with his Swedish Colleague Gunnar Fant and the American phonologist Morris
Halle. He proposed the system of binary features , now called distinctive that capture

phonological contrasts , rather than describe the phonetic segments themselves .

A feature is defined as binary if it has two values : one of which is designated as

plus the value and other is minus the particular value , in many cases a binary
approach is only phonologically significant and those oppositions which Trubetzkoy
termed privative , for example the feature nasal is binary phonologically , phonetically
however is a matter of degree , since some speech sounds can be more or less heavily
nasalized , probably , due to the availability of a spectrograph , which enabled
phonologists to analyze speech sounds acoustically , Jakobson features were acoustic
character , he defined three features group :

Major class features-1

Features for vowels , Features for consonants-2

3-Secondary articulation features .

Major class features , they have been introduced to distinguish major classes of
segments , vowels , consonants and segments in between , nasals , liquids and glides ,
however there is disagreement about the number and type of major class features .
Jakobson introduced the feature consonantal and nasal .

In Jacobson's approach all vowels were assigned the major class feature , minus
consonantal . The three parameters of tongue height , tongue position and lip rounding
are accounted additional features based on acoustic measurements came in :

A-Diffuse , B-Compact , C-Grave , D-Flat

A-The feature diffuse relates to all segments whose energy concentration can
primarily be found in all region central to the frequency spectrum , this defines
vowels such /i/ and /u/ as well as most non alveolar consonants as plus diffuse .

B-The feature compact relates to all segments with low energy concentration in the
. narrow central region of spectrum this defines the low vowels as compact
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C- The feature grave relates to all segments whose energy concentration can primarily
be found in a narrow region of the low frequencies of frequency spectrum , this
defines all back vowels as plus grave and the feature flat relates to all segments with
weak or low energy concentration in the upper regions of frequency spectrum , this
defines most back vowels as plus flat.

In Jacobson's features system all segments specified as plus consonantal qualified

as a consonant , this feature distinguishes sounds with low energy and substantiation
obstruction from non consonantal sounds , among the features assigned to such
segments are plus , minus diffuse , plus minus grave and plus , minus flat , they were
also used for vowels and This has also been clarified in advance. Additional feature
were primarily articulatory in character , the feature :

voice correlates with vocal cord action , a speech sounds is voice and has the -1
feature plus voice if the vocal cords vibrate , if it has the feature minus voice the
glottis is opened

Nasal sound are produced by lowering the velum and lowing the air to pass out - 2
laud through the nasal cavity , non nasal or oral sounds are produced with the velum
. raised to prevent the passage of air through the nose

3-Continuant sounds a lowing the air to flow through the mid sagittal region of the
vocal tract , sounds produced with a sustain closing are defined as minus continuant ,
hence , vowels , glides , liquids and fricatives are plus continuant . Plosives and
laterals are minus continuant .

The feature strident or sharpness of noise was introduced by Roman Jakobson to -4

distinguish consonants involving high energy and high frequency from consonants
involving low energy and low frequency , it distinguishes noisy consonants like [ s ]
{ + strident } from More mellow consonant like so alveolar fricatives are classified
as plus strident , whereas dental and labiodental ones and post alveolar ones are
defined as minus strident . In order to capture aspects of secondary articulation such
as labialization , palatalization , extra , the following acoustic features were
introduced , flat the feature which refers to the weakening of up frequencies , sharp
the strengthening of up frequencies and checked the higher rate of energy discharge
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Chomsky and Halle's Theory

The most influential approach of our time is the sound pattern of English
approach , which is essentially a book published in 1968 by Noam Chomsky and
: Morris Halle , and they defined distinctive features in two ways

A- as units that captures phonological contrast and patterns of languages and

B- as means that describe phonetic content of segments

The sound pattern of English system can be divided , into three general groups of
features ,

1- Major class features

2 – primary placement features

3 – additional features .

Major class features :

1-Like Jakobson , Chomsky and Halle used , the feature consonantal to distinguish
consonants from vowels , they defined all those sounds as plus consonantal , that are
produced with some sort of constriction in the vocal tract , at least equal to that found
in fricative consonants .

2- Sounds that have the feature syllabic are those which constitute peaks of syllables ,
non syllabic sounds are those in the margin of syllables , So if there is a word
composed of a consonant + a vowel + a consonant + a consonant, then the first
consonant is + const and – syllable , the vowel is – cons , + syll , the consonant is +
cons , - syll and the last one is + cons , - syll

3-speech sounds and that last major class feature , can be defined as sonorant if the
pressure of air behind the constriction is proximately equal to the imbedded air
pressure , according to the amount of sonority all speech sounds can be rent , where
one is the heist degree of sonority and five the lowest , the three heist , that is vowels
liquids and nasals are defined as plus + sonorant , the two lowest , plosives and
fricatives are minus – sonorant .

primary placement features : A set of primary placement features supplements

major class features , vowels can be defined using four , such placement features (
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high , low , back , round ) , if they involve a high tongue position , they referred to as
+ high , if the tongue in a low position the feature assigned to them as +low and if the
back of the tongue is involved they specified as + back , finally , distinctive feature
round is used for vowels that involved lip rounding , it distinguishes the primary set
of cardinal vowels from the secondary set .

Consonants are defined by two features that defined them on the bases of the place
of constriction , that is from labial to uvular :

1- the feature coronal refers to the activity of the blade of the tongue this involves all
those sounds are produced between the dental and palatal alveolar region.

2-the feature anterior is associated with all those coronal consonants which are
produced with primary constriction located at or in front of alveolar ridge , that is with
labial dental and alveolar consonants .

Additional features : additional features in the sound pattern of English approach

what taken over from Jakobson for examples features , continuant and strident what
is continuant correlates with distinguishing between plosives and non plosives and
feature strident noisy fricative from less noisy consonants , Chomsky and Halle added
delayed release which was introduced to distinguish plain plosives from affricate
consonants , the later ones the affricates involve a delayed release of the oral closure
due to the frication component preceding the plosives that's .
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References

Chomsky , N & Halle , M . ( 1968 ) . The Sound Pattern of English . London : Harper
& Row Publishers

Clark , J & Yallop , C . ( 1994 ) . An Introduction to Phonetics and Phonology .

London : Blackwell Publishers

Ladefoged , P & Ferrari , S . ( 2012 ) . Vowels and Consonants . London : Blackwell

Publishers

Larry , H . ( 1975 ) . Phonology : Theory and Analysis . Washington DC : Library of

Congress

Odden , D . ( 2005 ) . Introducing Phonology . Cambridge : Cambridge University

Press