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DC Circuit Theory
DC Circuit Theory
The fundamental relationship between voltage, current and resistance in an electrical or electronic circuit is
called Ohm’s Law.
All materials are made up from atoms, and all atoms consist of protons, neutrons and electrons. Protons,
have a positive electrical charge. Neutrons have no electrical charge (that is they are Neutral), while
Electrons have a negative electrical charge. Atoms are bound together by powerful forces of attraction
existing between the atoms nucleus and the electrons in its outer shell.
When these protons, neutrons and electrons are together within the atom they are happy and stable. But if we
separate them from each other they want to reform and start to exert a potential of attraction called a
potential difference.
Now if we create a closed circuit these loose electrons will start to move and drift back to the protons due to
their attraction creating a flow of electrons. This flow of electrons is called an electrical current. The
electrons do not flow freely through the circuit as the material they move through creates a restriction to the
electron flow. This restriction is called resistance.
Then all basic electrical or electronic circuits consist of three separate but very much related electrical
quantities called: Voltage, ( v ), Current, ( i ) and Resistance, ( Ω ).
Electrical Voltage
Voltage, ( V ) is the potential energy of an electrical supply stored in the form of an electrical charge.
Voltage can be thought of as the force that pushes electrons through a conductor and the greater the voltage
the greater is its ability to “push” the electrons through a given circuit. As energy has the ability to do work
this potential energy can be described as the work required in joules to move electrons in the form of an
electrical current around a circuit from one point or node to another.
Then the difference in voltage between any two points, connections or junctions (called nodes) in a circuit is
known as the Potential Difference, ( p.d. ) commonly called the Voltage Drop.
The Potential difference between two points is measured in Volts with the circuit symbol V, or lowercase
“v“, although Energy, E lowercase “e” is sometimes used to indicate a generated emf (electromotive force).
Then the greater the voltage, the greater is the pressure (or pushing force) and the greater is the capacity to
do work.
A constant voltage source is called a DC Voltage with a voltage that varies periodically with time is called
an AC voltage. Voltage is measured in volts, with one volt being defined as the electrical pressure required
to force an electrical current of one ampere through a resistance of one Ohm. Voltages are generally
expressed in Volts with prefixes used to denote sub-multiples of the voltage such as microvolts ( μV = 10-6
V ), millivolts ( mV = 10-3 V ) or kilovolts ( kV = 103 V ). Voltage can be either positive or negative.
Batteries or power supplies are mostly used to produce a steady D.C. (direct current) voltage source such as
5v, 12v, 24v etc in electronic circuits and systems. While A.C. (alternating current) voltage sources are
available for domestic house and industrial power and lighting as well as power transmission. The mains
voltage supply in the United Kingdom is currently 230 volts a.c. and 110 volts a.c. in the USA.
General electronic circuits operate on low voltage DC battery supplies of between 1.5V and 24V dc The
circuit symbol for a constant voltage source usually given as a battery symbol with a positive, + and
negative, – sign indicating the direction of the polarity. The circuit symbol for an alternating voltage source
is a circle with a sine wave inside.
Voltage Symbols
A simple relationship can be made between a tank of water and a voltage supply. The higher the water tank
above the outlet the greater the pressure of the water as more energy is released, the higher the voltage the
greater the potential energy as more electrons are released.
Voltage is always measured as the difference between any two points in a circuit and the voltage between
these two points is generally referred to as the “Voltage drop“. Note that voltage can exist across a circuit
without current, but current cannot exist without voltage and as such any voltage source whether DC or AC
likes an open or semi-open circuit condition but hates any short circuit condition as this can destroy it.
Electrical Current
Electrical Current, ( I ) is the movement or flow of electrical charge and is measured in Amperes, symbol
i, for intensity). It is the continuous and uniform flow (called a drift) of electrons (the negative particles of an
atom) around a circuit that are being “pushed” by the voltage source. In reality, electrons flow from the
negative (–ve) terminal to the positive (+ve) terminal of the supply and for ease of circuit understanding
conventional current flow assumes that the current flows from the positive to the negative terminal.
Generally in circuit diagrams the flow of current through the circuit usually has an arrow associated with the
symbol, I, or lowercase i to indicate the actual direction of the current flow. However, this arrow usually
indicates the direction of conventional current flow and not necessarily the direction of the actual flow.
Conventional Current Flow
Conventionally this is the flow of positive charge around a circuit, being positive to negative. The diagram
at the left shows the movement of the positive charge (holes) around a closed circuit flowing from the
positive terminal of the battery, through the circuit and returns to the negative terminal of the battery. This
flow of current from positive to negative is generally known as conventional current flow.
This was the convention chosen during the discovery of electricity in which the direction of electric current
was thought to flow in a circuit. To continue with this line of thought, in all circuit diagrams and schematics,
the arrows shown on symbols for components such as diodes and transistors point in the direction of
conventional current flow.
Then Conventional Current Flow gives the flow of electrical current from positive to negative and which
is the opposite in direction to the actual flow of electrons.
Electron Flow
The flow of electrons around the circuit is opposite to the direction of the conventional current flow being
negative to positive.The actual current flowing in an electrical circuit is composed of electrons that flow
from the negative pole of the battery (the cathode) and return back to the positive pole (the anode) of the
battery.
This is because the charge on an electron is negative by definition and so is attracted to the positive terminal.
This flow of electrons is called Electron Current Flow. Therefore, electrons actually flow around a circuit
from the negative terminal to the positive.
Both conventional current flow and electron flow are used by many textbooks. In fact, it makes no
difference which way the current is flowing around the circuit as long as the direction is used consistently.
The direction of current flow does not affect what the current does within the circuit. Generally it is much
easier to understand the conventional current flow – positive to negative.
In electronic circuits, a current source is a circuit element that provides a specified amount of current for
example, 1A, 5A 10 Amps etc, with the circuit symbol for a constant current source given as a circle with an
arrow inside indicating its direction.
Current is measured in Amps and an amp or ampere is defined as the number of electrons or charge (Q in
Coulombs) passing a certain point in the circuit in one second, (t in Seconds).
Electrical current is generally expressed in Amps with prefixes used to denote micro amps ( μA = 10-6A ) or
milliamps ( mA = 10-3A ). Note that electrical current can be either positive in value or negative in value
depending upon its direction of flow around the circuit.
Current that flows in a single direction is called Direct Current, or D.C. and current that alternates back
and forth through the circuit is known as Alternating Current, or A.C.. Whether AC or DC current only
flows through a circuit when a voltage source is connected to it with its “flow” being limited to both the
resistance of the circuit and the voltage source pushing it.
Also, as alternating currents (and voltages) are periodic and vary with time the “effective” or “RMS”, (Root
Mean Squared) value given as Irms produces the same average power loss equivalent to a DC current I average .
Current sources are the opposite to voltage sources in that they like short or closed circuit conditions but
hate open circuit conditions as no current will flow.
Using the tank of water relationship, current is the equivalent of the flow of water through the pipe with the
flow being the same throughout the pipe. The faster the flow of water the greater the current. Note that
current cannot exist without voltage so any current source whether DC or AC likes a short or semi-short
circuit condition but hates any open circuit condition as this prevents it from flowing.
Resistance
Resistance, ( R ) is the capacity of a material to resist or prevent the flow of current or, more specifically,
the flow of electric charge within a circuit. The circuit element which does this perfectly is called the
“Resistor”.
Resistance is a circuit element measured in Ohms, Greek symbol ( Ω, Omega ) with prefixes used to denote
Kilo-ohms ( kΩ = 103Ω ) and Mega-ohms ( MΩ = 106Ω ). Note that resistance cannot be negative in value
only positive.
Resistor Symbols
The amount of resistance a resistor has is determined by the relationship of the current through it to the
voltage across it which determines whether the circuit element is a “good conductor” – low resistance, or a
“bad conductor” – high resistance. Low resistance, for example 1Ω or less implies that the circuit is a good
conductor made from materials such as copper, aluminium or carbon while a high resistance, 1MΩ or more
implies the circuit is a bad conductor made from insulating materials such as glass, porcelain or plastic.
A “semiconductor” on the other hand such as silicon or germanium, is a material whose resistance is half
way between that of a good conductor and a good insulator. Hence the name “semi-conductor”.
Semiconductors are used to make Diodes and Transistors etc.
Resistance can be linear or non-linear in nature, but never negative. Linear resistance obeys Ohm’s Law as
the voltage across the resistor is linearly proportional to the current through it. Non-linear resistance, does
not obey Ohm’s Law but has a voltage drop across it that is proportional to some power of the current.
Resistance is pure and is not affected by frequency with the AC impedance of a resistance being equal to its
DC resistance and as a result can not be negative. Remember that resistance is always positive, and never
negative.
A resistor is classed as a passive circuit element and as such cannot deliver power or store energy. Instead
resistors absorbed power that appears as heat and light. Power in a resistance is always positive regardless of
voltage polarity and current direction.
For very low values of resistance, for example milli-ohms, ( mΩ ) it is sometimes much easier to use the
reciprocal of resistance ( 1/R ) rather than resistance ( R ) itself. The reciprocal of resistance is called
Conductance, symbol ( G ) and represents the ability of a conductor or device to conduct electricity.
In other words the ease by which current flows. High values of conductance implies a good conductor such
as copper while low values of conductance implies a bad conductor such as wood. The standard unit of
measurement given for conductance is the Siemen, symbol (S).
The unit used for conductance is mho (ohm spelt backward), which is symbolized by an inverted Ohm sign
℧. Power can also be expressed using conductance as: p = i2/G = v2G.
The relationship between Voltage, ( v ) and Current, ( i ) in a circuit of constant Resistance, ( R ) would
produce a straight line i-v relationship with slope equal to the value of the resistance as shown.
By knowing any two values of the Voltage, Current or Resistance quantities we can use Ohms Law to find
the third missing value. Ohms Law is used extensively in electronics formulas and calculations so it is “very
important to understand and accurately remember these formulas”.
To find the Voltage, ( V )
[ V = I x R ] V (volts) = I (amps) x R (Ω)
To find the Current, ( I )
[ I = V ÷ R ] I (amps) = V (volts) ÷ R (Ω)
To find the Resistance, ( R )
[ R = V ÷ I ] R (Ω) = V (volts) ÷ I (amps)
It is sometimes easier to remember this Ohms law relationship by using pictures. Here the three quantities of
V, I and R have been superimposed into a triangle (affectionately called the Ohms Law Triangle) giving
voltage at the top with current and resistance below. This arrangement represents the actual position of each
quantity within the Ohms law formulas.
Ohms Law Triangle
Transposing the standard Ohms Law equation above will give us the following combinations of the same
equation:
Then by using Ohms Law we can see that a voltage of 1V applied to a resistor of 1Ω will cause a current of
1A to flow and the greater the resistance value, the less current that will flow for a given applied voltage.
Any Electrical device or component that obeys “Ohms Law” that is, the current flowing through it is
proportional to the voltage across it ( I α V ), such as resistors or cables, are said to be “Ohmic” in nature,
and devices that do not, such as transistors or diodes, are said to be “Non-ohmic” devices.
and again, transposing the basic Ohms Law equation above for power gives us the following combinations
of the same equation to find the various individual quantities:
So we can see that there are three possible formulas for calculating electrical power in a circuit. If the
calculated power is positive, (+P) in value for any formula the component absorbs the power, that is it is
consuming or using power. But if the calculated power is negative, (–P) in value the component produces or
generates power, in other words it is a source of electrical power such as batteries and generators.
As well as using the Ohm’s Law Pie Chart shown above, we can also put the individual Ohm’s Law
equations into a simple matrix table as shown for easy reference when calculating an unknown value.
Ohms Law Matrix Table
Voltage [ V = I x R ] = 2 x 12Ω = 24V
Current [ I = V ÷ R ] = 24 ÷ 12Ω = 2A
Resistance [ R = V ÷ I ] = 24 ÷ 2 = 12 Ω
Power [ P = V x I ] = 24 x 2 = 48W
Power within an electrical circuit is only present when BOTH voltage and current are present. For example,
in an open-circuit condition, voltage is present but there is no current flow I = 0 (zero), therefore V*0 is 0 so
the power dissipated within the circuit must also be 0. Likewise, if we have a short-circuit condition, current
flow is present but there is no voltage V = 0, therefore 0*I = 0 so again the power dissipated within the
circuit is 0.
As electrical power is the product of V*I, the power dissipated in a circuit is the same whether the circuit
contains high voltage and low current or low voltage and high current flow. Generally, electrical power is
dissipated in the form of Heat (heaters), Mechanical Work such as motors, Energy in the form of radiated
(Lamps) or as stored energy (Batteries).
Electrical power can also be defined as the rate of by which energy is transferred. If one joule of work is
either absorbed or delivered at a constant rate of one second, then the corresponding power will be
equivalent to one watt so power can be defined as “1Joule/sec = 1Watt”. Then we can say that one watt is
equal to one joule per second and electrical power can be defined as the rate of doing work or the
transferring of energy.
Electrical Power and Energy Triangle
or to find the various individual quantities:
We said previously that electrical energy is define as being watts per second or joules. Although electrical
energy is measured in Joules it can become a very large value when used to calculate the energy consumed
by a component.
For example, if a 100 watt light bulb is left-“ON” for 24 hours, the energy consumed will be 8,640,000
Joules (100W x 86,400 seconds), so prefixes such as kilojoules (kJ = 103J) or megajoules (MJ = 106J) are
used instead and in this simple example, the energy consumed will be 8.64MJ (mega-joules).
But dealing with joules, kilojoules or megajoules to express electrical energy, the maths involved can end up
with some big numbers and lots of zero’s, so it is much more easier to express electrical energy consumed in
Kilowatt-hours.
If the electrical power consumed (or generated) is measured in watts or kilowatts (thousands of watts) and
the time is measure in hours not seconds, then the unit of electrical energy will be the kilowatt-hours,
(kWhr). Then our 100 watt light bulb above will consume 2,400 watt hours or 2.4kWhr, which is much
easier to understand the 8,640,000 joules.
1 kWhr is the amount of electricity used by a device rated at 1000 watts in one hour and is commonly called
a “Unit of Electricity”. This is what is measured by the utility meter and is what we as consumers purchase
from our electricity suppliers when we receive our bills.
Kilowatt-hours are the standard units of energy used by the electricity meter in our homes to calculate the
amount of electrical energy we use and therefore how much we pay. So if you switch ON an electric fire
with a heating element rated at 1000 watts and left it on for 1 hour you will have consumed 1 kWhr of
electricity. If you switched on two electric fires each with 1000 watt elements for half an hour the total
consumption would be exactly the same amount of electricity – 1kWhr.
So, consuming 1000 watts for one hour uses the same amount of power as 2000 watts (twice as much) for
half an hour (half the time). Then for a 100 watt light bulb to use 1 kWhr or one unit of electrical energy it
would need to be switched on for a total of 10 hours (10 x 100 = 1000 = 1kWhr).
Now that we know what is the relationship between voltage, current and resistance in a circuit, in the next
tutorial relating to DC Circuits, we will look at the Standard Electrical Units used in electrical and electronic
engineering to enable us to calculate these values and see that each value can be represented by either
multiples or sub-multiples of the standard unit.
The standard units of electrical measurement used for the expression of voltage, current and resistance are
the Volt [ V ], Ampere [ A ] and Ohm [ Ω ] respectively.
These electrical units of measurement are based on the International (metric) System, also known as the SI
System with other commonly used electrical units being derived from SI base units.
Sometimes in electrical or electronic circuits and systems it is necessary to use multiples or sub-multiples
(fractions) of these standard electrical measuring units when the quantities being measured are very large or
very small.
The following table gives a list of some of the standard electrical units of measure used in electrical
formulas and component values.
Standard Electrical Units of Measure
Electrical Measuring
Symbol Description
Parameter Unit
Unit of Electrical Potential
Voltage Volt V or E
V = I × R
Unit of Electrical Current
Current Ampere I or i
I = V ÷ R
Unit of DC Resistance
Resistance Ohm R or Ω
R = V ÷ I
Reciprocal of Resistance
Conductance Siemen G or ℧
G = 1 ÷ R
Unit of Capacitance
Capacitance Farad C
C = Q ÷ V
Unit of Electrical Charge
Charge Coulomb Q
Q = C × V
Unit of Inductance
Inductance Henry L or H
VL = -L(di/dt)
Unit of Power
Power Watts W
P = V × I or I2 × R
Impedance Ohm Z Unit of AC Resistance
Z2 = R2 + X2
Unit of Frequency
Frequency Hertz Hz
ƒ = 1 ÷ T
Multiples and Sub-multiples
There is a huge range of values encountered in electrical and electronic engineering between a maximum
value and a minimum value of a standard electrical unit. For example, resistance can be lower than 0.01Ω or
higher than 1,000,000Ω. By using multiples and submultiple’s of the standard unit we can avoid having to
write too many zero’s to define the position of the decimal point. The table below gives their names and
abbreviations.
Prefix Symbol Multiplier Power of Ten
Terra T 1,000,000,000,000 1012
Giga G 1,000,000,000 109
Mega M 1,000,000 106
kilo k 1,000 103
none none 1 100
centi c 1/100 10-2
milli m 1/1,000 10-3
micro µ 1/1,000,000 10-6
nano n 1/1,000,000,000 10-9
pico p 1/1,000,000,000,000 10-12
So to display the units or multiples of units for either Resistance, Current or Voltage we would use as an
example:
1kV = 1 kilo-volt – which is equal to 1,000 Volts.
1mA = 1 milli-amp – which is equal to one thousandths (1/1000) of an Ampere.
47kΩ = 47 kilo-ohms – which is equal to 47 thousand Ohms.
100uF = 100 micro-farads – which is equal to 100 millionths (100/1,000,000) of a Farad.
1kW = 1 kilo-watt – which is equal to 1,000 Watts.
1MHz = 1 mega-hertz – which is equal to one million Hertz.
To convert from one prefix to another it is necessary to either multiply or divide by the difference between
the two values. For example, convert 1MHz into kHz.
Well we know from above that 1MHz is equal to one million (1,000,000) hertz and that 1kHz is equal to one
thousand (1,000) hertz, so one 1MHz is one thousand times bigger than 1kHz. Then to convert Mega-hertz
into Kilo-hertz we need to multiply mega-hertz by one thousand, as 1MHz is equal to 1000 kHz.
Likewise, if we needed to convert kilo-hertz into mega-hertz we would need to divide by one thousand. A
much simpler and quicker method would be to move the decimal point either left or right depending upon
whether you need to multiply or divide.
As well as the “Standard” electrical units of measure shown above, other units are also used in electrical
engineering to denote other values and quantities such as:
• Wh – The Watt-Hour, The amount of electrical energy consumed by a circuit over a period of
time. Eg, a light bulb consumes one hundred watts of electrical power for one hour. It is commonly
used in the form of: Wh (watt-hours), kWh (Kilowatt-hour) which is 1,000 watt-hours or MWh
(Megawatt-hour) which is 1,000,000 watt-hours.
• dB – The Decibel, The decibel is a one tenth unit of the Bel (symbol B) and is used to represent
gain either in voltage, current or power. It is a logarithmic unit expressed in dB and is commonly
used to represent the ratio of input to output in amplifier, audio circuits or loudspeaker systems.
For example, the dB ratio of an input voltage (V IN) to an output voltage (VOUT) is expressed as
20log10 (Vout/Vin). The value in dB can be either positive (20dB) representing gain or negative (-
20dB) representing loss with unity, ie input = output expressed as 0dB.
• θ – Phase Angle, The Phase Angle is the difference in degrees between the voltage waveform and
the current waveform having the same periodic time. It is a time difference or time shift and
depending upon the circuit element can have a “leading” or “lagging” value. The phase angle of a
waveform is measured in degrees or radians.
• ω – Angular Frequency, Another unit which is mainly used in a.c. circuits to represent the Phasor
Relationship between two or more waveforms is called Angular Frequency, symbol ω. This is a
rotational unit of angular frequency 2πƒ with units in radians per second, rads/s. The complete
revolution of one cycle is 360 degrees or 2π, therefore, half a revolution is given as 180 degrees or π
rad.
• τ – Time Constant, The Time Constant of an impedance circuit or linear first-order system is the
time it takes for the output to reach 63.7% of its maximum or minimum output value when subjected
to a Step Response input. It is a measure of reaction time.
In the next tutorial about DC circuit theory we will look at Kirchhoff’s Circuit Law which along with Ohms
Law allows us to calculate the different voltages and currents circulating around a complex circuit.
Here, the three currents entering the node, I 1, I2, I3 are all positive in value and the two currents leaving the
node, I4 and I5 are negative in value. Then this means we can also rewrite the equation as;
I1 + I2 + I3 – I4 – I5 = 0
The term Node in an electrical circuit generally refers to a connection or junction of two or more current
carrying paths or elements such as cables and components. Also for current to flow either in or out of a node
a closed circuit path must exist. We can use Kirchhoff’s current law when analysing parallel circuits.
Starting at any point in the loop continue in the same direction noting the direction of all the voltage drops,
either positive or negative, and returning back to the same starting point. It is important to maintain the same
direction either clockwise or anti-clockwise or the final voltage sum will not be equal to zero. We can use
Kirchhoff’s voltage law when analysing series circuits.
When analysing either DC circuits or AC circuits using Kirchhoffs Circuit Laws a number of definitions
and terminologies are used to describe the parts of the circuit being analysed such as: node, paths, branches,
loops and meshes. These terms are used frequently in circuit analysis so it is important to understand them.
Common DC Circuit Theory Terms:
• Circuit – a circuit is a closed loop conducting path in which an electrical current flows.
• Path – a single line of connecting elements or sources.
• Node – a node is a junction, connection or terminal within a circuit were two or more circuit
elements are connected or joined together giving a connection point between two or more branches.
A node is indicated by a dot.
• Branch – a branch is a single or group of components such as resistors or a source which are
connected between two nodes.
• Loop – a loop is a simple closed path in a circuit in which no circuit element or node is encountered
more than once.
• Mesh – a mesh is a single open loop that does not have a closed path. There are no components
inside a mesh.
Note that:
Components are said to be connected together in Series if the same current value flows through all the
components.
Components are said to be connected together in Parallel if they have the same voltage applied across
them.
A Typical DC Circuit
One simple method of reducing the amount of math’s involved is to analyse the circuit using Kirchhoff’s
Current Law equations to determine the currents, I1 and I2 flowing in the two resistors. Then there is no need
to calculate the current I3 as its just the sum of I1 and I2. So Kirchhoff’s second voltage law simply becomes:
Equation No 1 : 10 = 50I1 + 40I2
Equation No 2 : 20 = 40I1 + 60I2
therefore, one line of math’s calculation have been saved.
These equations can be solved quite quickly by using a single mesh impedance matrix Z. Each element ON
the principal diagonal will be “positive” and is the total impedance of each mesh. Where as, each element
OFF the principal diagonal will either be “zero” or “negative” and represents the circuit element connecting
all the appropriate meshes.
First we need to understand that when dealing with matrices, for the division of two matrices it is the same
as multiplying one matrix by the inverse of the other as shown.
having found the inverse of R, as V/R is the same as V x R -1, we can now use it to find the two circulating
currents.
Where:
[ V ] gives the total battery voltage for loop 1 and then loop 2
[ I ] states the names of the loop currents which we are trying to find
[ R ] is the resistance matrix
[ R-1 ] is the inverse of the [ R ] matrix
and this gives I1 as -0.143 Amps and I2 as -0.429 Amps
As : I3 = I1 – I2
The combined current of I3 is therefore given as : -0.143 – (-0.429) = 0.286 Amps
This is the same value of 0.286 amps current, we found previously in the Kirchhoffs circuit law tutorial.
In the above circuit, node D is chosen as the reference node and the other three nodes are assumed to have
voltages, Va, Vb and Vc with respect to node D. For example;
As Va = 10v and Vc = 20v , Vb can be easily found by:
again is the same value of 0.286 amps, we found using Kirchhoff’s Circuit Law in the previous tutorial.
From both Mesh and Nodal Analysis methods we have looked at so far, this is the simplest method of
solving this particular circuit. Generally, nodal voltage analysis is more appropriate when there are a larger
number of current sources around. The network is then defined as: [ I ] = [ Y ] [ V ] where [ I ] are the
driving current sources, [ V ] are the nodal voltages to be found and [ Y ] is the admittance matrix of the
network which operates on [ V ] to give [ I ].
Thevenin’s Theorem
Thevenin theorem is an analytical method used to change a complex circuit into a simple equivalent circuit
consisting of a single resistance in series with a source voltage
In the previous three tutorials we have looked at solving complex electrical circuits using Kirchhoff’s
Circuit Laws, Mesh Analysis and finally Nodal Analysis. But there are many more “Circuit Analysis
Theorems” available to choose from which can calculate the currents and voltages at any point in a circuit.
In this tutorial we will look at one of the more common circuit analysis theorems (next to Kirchhoff´s) that
has been developed, Thevenin’s Theorem.
Thevenin’s Theorem states that “Any linear circuit containing several voltages and resistances can be
replaced by just one single voltage in series with a single resistance connected across the load“. In other
words, it is possible to simplify any electrical circuit, no matter how complex, to an equivalent two-terminal
circuit with just a single constant voltage source in series with a resistance (or impedance) connected to a
load as shown below.
Thevenin’s Theorem is especially useful in the circuit analysis of power or battery systems and other
interconnected resistive circuits where it will have an effect on the adjoining part of the circuit.
Thevenin’s equivalent circuit
As far as the load resistor RL is concerned, any complex “one-port” network consisting of multiple resistive
circuit elements and energy sources can be replaced by one single equivalent resistance Rs and one single
equivalent voltage Vs. Rs is the source resistance value looking back into the circuit and Vs is the open
circuit voltage at the terminals.
For example, consider the circuit from the previous tutorials.
Firstly, to analyse the circuit we have to remove the centre 40Ω load resistor connected across the terminals
A-B, and remove any internal resistance associated with the voltage source(s). This is done by shorting out
all the voltage sources connected to the circuit, that is v = 0, or open circuit any connected current sources
making i = 0. The reason for this is that we want to have an ideal voltage source or an ideal current source
for the circuit analysis.
The value of the equivalent resistance, Rs is found by calculating the total resistance looking back from the
terminals A and B with all the voltage sources shorted. We then get the following circuit.
Find the Equivalent Resistance (Rs)
The voltage Vs is defined as the total voltage across the terminals A and B when there is an open circuit
between them. That is without the load resistor RL connected.
Find the Equivalent Voltage (Vs)
We now need to reconnect the two voltages back into the circuit, and as V S = VAB the current flowing
around the loop is calculated as:
This current of 0.33 amperes (330mA) is common to both resistors so the voltage drop across the 20Ω
resistor or the 10Ω resistor can be calculated as:
VAB = 20 – (20Ω x 0.33amps) = 13.33 volts.
or
VAB = 10 + (10Ω x 0.33amps) = 13.33 volts, the same.
Then the Thevenin’s Equivalent circuit would consist or a series resistance of 6.67Ω and a voltage source of
13.33v. With the 40Ω resistor connected back into the circuit we get:
and from this the current flowing around the circuit is given as:
which again, is the same value of 0.286 amps, we found using Kirchhoff’s circuit law in the previous circuit
analysis tutorial.
Thevenin’s theorem can be used as another type of circuit analysis method and is particularly useful in the
analysis of complicated circuits consisting of one or more voltage or current source and resistors that are
arranged in the usual parallel and series connections.
While Thevenin’s circuit theorem can be described mathematically in terms of current and voltage, it is not
as powerful as Mesh Current Analysis or Nodal Voltage Analysis in larger networks because the use of
Mesh or Nodal analysis is usually necessary in any Thevenin exercise, so it might as well be used from the
start. However, Thevenin’s equivalent circuits of Transistors, Voltage Sources such as batteries etc, are very
useful in circuit design.
Nortons Theorem
Nortons theorem is an analytical method used to change a complex circuit into a simple equivalent circuit
consisting of a single resistance in parallel with a current source
Norton on the other hand reduces his circuit down to a single resistance in parallel with a constant current
source.
Nortons Theorem states that “Any linear circuit containing several energy sources and resistances can be
replaced by a single Constant Current generator in parallel with a Single Resistor“.
As far as the load resistance, RL is concerned this single resistance, RS is the value of the resistance looking
back into the network with all the current sources open circuited and I S is the short circuit current at the
output terminals as shown below.
Nortons equivalent circuit
The value of this “constant current” is one which would flow if the two output terminals where shorted
together while the source resistance would be measured looking back into the terminals, (the same as
Thevenin).
For example, consider our now familiar circuit from the previous section.
To find the Nortons equivalent of the above circuit we firstly have to remove the centre 40Ω load resistor
and short out the terminals A and B to give us the following circuit.
When the terminals A and B are shorted together the two resistors are connected in parallel across their two
respective voltage sources and the currents flowing through each resistor as well as the total short circuit
current can now be calculated as:
with A-B Shorted Out
If we short-out the two voltage sources and open circuit terminals A and B, the two resistors are now
effectively connected together in parallel. The value of the internal resistor Rs is found by calculating the
total resistance at the terminals A and B giving us the following circuit.
Having found both the short circuit current, Is and equivalent internal resistance, Rs this then gives us the
following Nortons equivalent circuit.
Nortons equivalent circuit
Ok, so far so good, but we now have to solve with the original 40Ω load resistor connected across terminals
A and B as shown below.
Again, the two resistors are connected in parallel across the terminals A and B which gives us a total
resistance of:
The voltage across the terminals A and B with the load resistor connected is given as:
Then the current flowing in the 40Ω load resistor can be found as:
Once again and using Nortons theorem, the value of current for I 3 is still calculated as 0.286 amps, which we
found using Kirchhoff´s circuit law in the previous tutorials.
In our Thevenin equivalent circuit above, the maximum power transfer theorem states that “the maximum
amount of power will be dissipated in the load resistance if it is equal in value to the Thevenin or Norton
source resistance of the network supplying the power“.
In other words, the load resistance resulting in greatest power dissipation must be equal in value to the
equivalent Thevenin source resistance, then RL = RS but if the load resistance is lower or higher in value than
the Thevenin source resistance of the network, its dissipated power will be less than maximum.
For example, find the value of the load resistance, RL that will give the maximum power transfer in the
following circuit.
Then by using the following Ohm’s Law equations:
We can now complete the following table to determine the current and power in the circuit for different
values of load resistance.
Table of Current against Power
RL (Ω) I (amps) P (watts) RL (Ω) I (amps) P (watts)
0 4.0 0 25 2.0 100
5 3.3 55 30 1.8 97
10 2.8 78 40 1.5 94
15 2.5 93 60 1.2 83
20 2.2 97 100 0.8 64
Using the data from the table above, we can plot a graph of load resistance, RL against power, P for different
values of load resistance. Also notice that power is zero for an open-circuit (zero current condition) and also
for a short-circuit (zero voltage condition).
Graph of Power against Load Resistance
From the above table and graph we can see that the Maximum Power Transfer occurs in the load when the
load resistance, RL is equal in value to the source resistance, RS that is: RS = RL = 25Ω. This is called a
“matched condition” and as a general rule, maximum power is transferred from an active device such as a
power supply or battery to an external device when the impedance of the external device exactly matches the
impedance of the source.
One good example of impedance matching is between an audio amplifier and a loudspeaker. The output
impedance, ZOUT of the amplifier may be given as between 4Ω and 8Ω, while the nominal input impedance,
ZIN of the loudspeaker may be given as 8Ω only.
Then if the 8Ω speaker is attached to the amplifiers output, the amplifier will see the speaker as an 8Ω load.
Connecting two 8Ω speakers in parallel is equivalent to the amplifier driving one 4Ω speaker and both
configurations are within the output specifications of the amplifier.
Improper impedance matching can lead to excessive power loss and heat dissipation. But how could you
impedance match an amplifier and loudspeaker which have very different impedances. Well, there are
loudspeaker impedance matching transformers available that can change impedances from 4Ω to 8Ω, or to
16Ω’s to allow impedance matching of many loudspeakers connected together in various combinations such
as in PA (public address) systems.
The maximum power transfer can be obtained even if the output impedance is not the same as the load
impedance. This can be done using a suitable “turns ratio” on the transformer with the corresponding ratio of
load impedance, ZLOAD to output impedance, ZOUT matches that of the ratio of the transformers primary turns
to secondary turns as a resistance on one side of the transformer becomes a different value on the other.
If the load impedance, ZLOAD is purely resistive and the source impedance is purely resistive, ZOUT then the
equation for finding the maximum power transfer is given as:
Where: NP is the number of primary turns and NS the number of secondary turns on the transformer. Then by
varying the value of the transformers turns ratio the output impedance can be “matched” to the source
impedance to achieve maximum power transfer. For example,
Generally, small high frequency audio transformers used in low power amplifier circuits are nearly always
regarded as ideal for simplicity, so any losses can be ignored.
In the next tutorial about DC circuit theory, we will look at Star Delta Transformation which allows us to
convert balanced star connected circuits into equivalent delta and vice versa.
As we have already seen, we can redraw the T resistor network above to produce an electrically equivalent
Star or Υ type network. But we can also convert a Pi or π type resistor network into an electrically
equivalent Delta or Δ type network as shown below.
Pi-connected and Equivalent Delta Network
Having now defined exactly what is a Star and Delta connected network it is possible to transform the Υ
into an equivalent Δ circuit and also to convert a Δ into an equivalent Υ circuit using a the transformation
process.
This process allows us to produce a mathematical relationship between the various resistors giving us a Star
Delta Transformation as well as a Delta Star Transformation.
These circuit transformations allow us to change the three connected resistances (or impedances) by their
equivalents measured between the terminals 1-2, 1-3 or 2-3 for either a star or delta connected circuit.
However, the resulting networks are only equivalent for voltages and currents external to the star or delta
networks, as internally the voltages and currents are different but each network will consume the same
amount of power and have the same power factor to each other.
Compare the resistances between terminals 1 and 2.
This now gives us three equations and taking equation 3 from equation 2 gives:
Then, re-writing Equation 1 will give us:
Adding together equation 1 and the result above of equation 3 minus equation 2 gives:
Then to summarize a little about the above maths, we can now say that resistor P in a Star network can be
found as Equation 1 plus (Equation 3 minus Equation 2) or Eq1 + (Eq3 – Eq2).
Similarly, to find resistor Q in a star network, is equation 2 plus the result of equation 1 minus equation 3
or Eq2 + (Eq1 – Eq3) and this gives us the transformation of Q as:
and again, to find resistor R in a Star network, is equation 3 plus the result of equation 2 minus equation 1
or Eq3 + (Eq2 – Eq1) and this gives us the transformation of R as:
When converting a delta network into a star network the denominators of all of the transformation formulas
are the same: A + B + C, and which is the sum of ALL the delta resistances. Then to convert any delta
connected network to an equivalent star network we can summarized the above transformation equations as:
Delta to Star Transformations Equations
If the three resistors in the delta network are all equal in value then the resultant resistors in the equivalent
star network will be equal to one third the value of the delta resistors. This gives each resistive branch in the
star network a value of: RSTAR = 1/3*RDELTA which is the same as saying: (RDELTA)/3
One final point about converting a star resistive network to an equivalent delta network. If all the resistors in
the star network are all equal in value then the resultant resistors in the equivalent delta network will be
three times the value of the star resistors and equal, giving: RDELTA = 3*RSTAR
Voltage Sources
A Voltage Source is a device that generates an exact output voltage which, in theory, does not change
regardless of the load current
We have seen throughout this Basic Electronics Tutorials website that there are two types of elements
within an electrical or electronics circuit: passive elements and active elements. An active element is one that
is capable of continuously supplying energy to a circuit, such as a battery, a generator, an operational
amplifier, etc. A passive element on the other hand are physical elements such as resistors, capacitors,
inductors, etc, which cannot generate electrical energy by themselves but only consume it.
The types of active circuit elements that are most important to us are those that supply electrical energy to
the circuits or network connected to them. These are called “electrical sources” with the two types of
electrical sources being the voltage source and the current source. The current source is usually less
common in circuits than the voltage source, but both are used and can be regarded as complements of each
other.
An electrical supply or simply, “a source”, is a device that supplies electrical power to a circuit in the form
of a voltage source or a current source. Both types of electrical sources can be classed as a direct (DC) or
alternating (AC) source in which a constant voltage is called a DC voltage and one that varies sinusoidally
with time is called an AC voltage. So for example, batteries are DC sources and the 230V wall socket or
mains outlet in your home is an AC source.
We said earlier that electrical sources supply energy, but one of the interesting characteristic of an electrical
source, is that they are also capable of converting non-electrical energy into electrical energy and vice versa.
For example, a battery converts chemical energy into electrical energy, while an electrical machine such as a
DC generator or an AC alternator converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.
Renewable technologies can convert energy from the sun, the wind, and waves into electrical or thermal
energy. But as well as converting energy from one source to another, electrical sources can both deliver or
absorb energy allowing it to flow in both directions.
Another important characteristic of an electrical source and one which defines its operation, are its I-V
characteristics. The I-V characteristic of an electrical source can give us a very nice pictorial description of
the source, either as a voltage source and a current source as shown.
Electrical Sources
Electrical sources, both as a voltage source or a current source can be classed as being either independent
(ideal) or dependent, (controlled) that is whose value depends upon a voltage or current elsewhere within the
circuit, which itself can be either constant or time-varying.
When dealing with circuit laws and analysis, electrical sources are often viewed as being “ideal”, that is the
source is ideal because it could theoretically deliver an infinite amount of energy without loss thereby
having characteristics represented by a straight line. However, in real or practical sources there is always a
resistance either connected in parallel for a current source, or series for a voltage source associated with the
source affecting its output.
An ideal voltage source is defined as a two terminal active element that is capable of supplying and
maintaining the same voltage, (v) across its terminals regardless of the current, (i) flowing through it. In
other words, an ideal voltage source will supply a constant voltage at all times regardless of the value of the
current being supplied producing an I-V characteristic represented by a straight line.
Then an ideal voltage source is known as an Independent Voltage Source as its voltage does not depend on
either the value of the current flowing through the source or its direction but is determined solely by the
value of the source alone. So for example, an automobile battery has a 12V terminal voltage that remains
constant as long as the current through it does not become to high, delivering power to the car in one
direction and absorbing power in the other direction as it charges.
On the other hand, a Dependent Voltage Source or controlled voltage source, provides a voltage supply
whose magnitude depends on either the voltage across or current flowing through some other circuit
element. A dependent voltage source is indicated with a diamond shape and are used as equivalent electrical
sources for many electronic devices, such as transistors and operational amplifiers.
While not best practice for circuit analysis, ideal voltage sources can be connected in parallel provided they
are of the same voltage value. Here in this example, two 10 volt voltage source are combined to produce 10
volts between terminals A and B. Ideally, there would be just one single voltage source of 10 volts given
between terminals A and B.
What is not allowed or is not best practice, is connecting together ideal voltage sources that have different
voltage values as shown, or are short-circuited by an external closed loop or branch.
Badly Connected Voltage Sources
However, when dealing with circuit analysis, voltage sources of different values can be used providing there
are other circuit elements in between them to comply with Kirchoff’s Voltage Law, KVL.
Unlike parallel connected voltage sources, ideal voltage sources of different values can be connected
together in series to form a single voltage source whose output will be the algebraic addition or subtraction
of the voltages used. Their connection can be as: series-aiding or series-opposing voltages as shown.
Voltage Source in Series
Series aiding voltage sources are series connected sources with their polarities connected so that the plus
terminal of one is connected to the negative terminal of the next allowing current to flow in the same
direction. In the example above, the two voltages of 10V and 5V of the first circuit can be added, for a V S of
10 + 5 = 15V. So the voltage across terminals A and B is 15 volts.
Series opposing voltage sources are series connected sources which have their polarities connected so that
the plus terminal or the negative terminals are connected together as shown in the second circuit above. The
net result is that the voltages are subtracted from each other. Then the two voltages of 10V and 5V of the
second circuit are subtracted with the smaller voltage subtracted from the larger voltage. Resulting in a V S of
10 – 5 = 5V.
The polarity across terminals A and B is determined by the larger polarity of the voltage sources, in this
example terminal A is positive and terminal B is negative resulting in +5 volts. If the series-opposing
voltages are equal, the net voltage across A and B will be zero as one voltage balances out the other. Also
any currents (I) will also be zero, as without any voltage source, current can not flow.
You may have noticed that a practical voltage source closely resembles that of a Thevenin’s equivalent
circuit as Thevenin’s theorem states that “any linear network containing resistances and sources of emf and
current may be replaced by a single voltage source, V S in series with a single resistance, R S“. Note that if the
series source resistance is low, the voltage source is ideal. When the source resistance is infinite, the voltage
source is open-circuited.
In the case of all real or practical voltage sources, this internal resistance, R S no matter how small has an
effect on the I-V characteristic of the source as the terminal voltage falls off with an increase in load current.
This is because the same load current flows through RS.
Ohms law tells us that when a current, (i) flows through a resistance, a voltage drop is produce across the
same resistance. The value of this voltage drop is given as i*RS. Then VOUT will equal the ideal voltage
source, VS minus the i*RS voltage drop across the resistor. Remember that in the case of an ideal source
voltage, RS is equal to zero as there is no internal resistance, therefore the terminal voltage is same as VS.
Then the voltage sum around the loop given by Kirchoff’s voltage law, KVL is: V OUT = VS – i*RS. This
equation can be plotted to give the I-V characteristics of the actual output voltage. It will give a straight line
with a slope –RS which intersects the vertical voltage axis at the same point as V S when the current i = 0 as
shown.
Practical Voltage Source Characteristics
Therefore, all ideal voltage sources will have a straight line I-V characteristic but non-ideal or real practical
voltage sources will not but instead will have an I-V characteristic that is slightly angled down by an amount
equal to i*RS where RS is the internal source resistance (or impedance). The I-V characteristics of a real
battery provides a very close approximation of an ideal voltage source since the source resistance R S is
usually quite small.
The decrease in the angle of the slope of the I-V characteristics as the current increases is known as
regulation. Voltage regulation is an important measure of the quality of a practical voltage source as it
measures the variation in terminal voltage between no load, that is when I L = 0, (an open-circuit) and full
load, that is when IL is at maximum, (a short-circuit).
As with have the voltages and currents in a simultaneous equation form, to find V S we will first multiply
VOUT1 by five, (5) and VOUT2 by two, (2) as shown to make the value of the two currents, (i) the same for both
equations.
Having made the co-efficients for RS the same by multiplying through with the previous constants, we now
multiply the second equation VOUT2 by minus one, (-1) to allow for the subtraction of the two equations so
that we can solve for VS as shown.
Knowing that the ideal voltage source, VS is equal to 150 volts, we can use this value for equation V OUT1 (or
VOUT2 if so wished) and solve to find the series resistance, RS.
Then for our simple example, the batteries internal voltage source is calculated as: V S = 150 volts, and its
internal resistance as: RS = 2Ω. The I-V characteristics of the battery are given as:
Battery I-V Characteristics
Current Sources
A Current Source is an active circuit element that is capable of supplying a constant current flow to a
circuit regardless of the voltage developed across its terminals
As its name implies, a current source is a circuit element that maintains a constant current flow regardless of
the voltage developed across its terminals as this voltage is determined by other circuit elements. That is, an
ideal constant current source continually provides a specified amount of current regardless of the impedance
that it is driving and as such, an ideal current source could, in theory, supply an infinite amount of energy.
So just as a voltage source may be rated, for example, as 5 volts or 10 volts, etc, a current source will also
have a current rating, for example, 3 amperes or 15 amperes, etc.
Ideal constant current sources are represented in a similar manner to voltage sources, but this time the
current source symbol is that of a circle with an arrow inside to indicates the direction of the flow of the
current. The direction of the current will correspond to the polarity of the corresponding voltage, flowing out
from the positive terminal. The letter “i” is used to indicate that it is a current source as shown.
Ideal Current Source
Then an ideal current source is called a “constant current source” as it provides a constant steady state
current independent of the load connected to it producing an I-V characteristic represented by a straight line.
As with voltage sources, the current source can be either independent (ideal) or dependent (controlled) by a
voltage or current elsewhere in the circuit, which itself can be constant or time-varying.
Ideal independent current sources are typically used to solve circuit theorems and for circuit analysis
techniques for circuits that containing real active elements. The simplest form of a current source is a
resistor in series with a voltage source creating currents ranging from a few milli-amperes to many hundreds
of amperes. Remember that a zero-value current source is an open circuit as R = 0.
The concept of a current source is that of a two-terminal element that allows the flow of current indicated by
the direction of the arrow. Then a current source has a value, i, in units of amperes, (A) which are typically
abbreviated to amps. The physical relationship between a current source and voltage variables around a
network is given by Ohm’s law as these voltage and current variables will have specified values.
It may be difficult to specify the magnitude and polarity of voltage of an ideal current source as a function of
the current especially if there are other voltage or current sources in the connected circuit. Then we may
know the current supplied by the current source but not the voltage across it unless the power supplied by
the current source is given, as P = V*I.
However, if the current source is the only source within the circuit, then the polarity of voltage across the
source will be easier to establish. If however there is more than one source, then the terminal voltage will be
dependent upon the network in which the source is connected.
Connecting two or more current sources in parallel is equivalent to one current source whose total current
output is given as the algebraic addition of the individual source currents. Here in this example, two 5 amp
current sources are combined to produce 10 amps as IT = I1 + I2.
Current sources of different values may be connected together in parallel. For example, one of 5 amps and
one of 3 amps would combined to give a single current source of 8 amperes as the arrows representing the
current source both point in the same direction. Then as the two currents add together, their connection is
said to be: parallel-aiding.
While not best practice for circuit analysis, parallel-opposing connections use current sources that are
connected in opposite directions to form a single current source whose value is the algebraic subtraction of
the individual sources.
Parallel Opposing Current Sources
Here, as the two current sources are connected in opposite directions (indicated by their arrows), the two
currents subtract from each other as the two provide a closed-loop path for a circulating current complying
with Kirchoff’s Current Law, KCL. So for example, two current sources of 5 amps each would result in zero
output as 5A -5A = 0A. Likewise, if the two currents are of different values, 5A and 3A, then the output will
be the subtracted value with the smaller current subtracted from the larger current. Resulting in a I T of
5 - 3 = 2A.
We have seen that ideal current sources can be connected together in parallel to form parallel-aiding or
parallel-opposing current sources. What is not allowed or is not best practice for circuit analysis, is
connecting together ideal current sources in series combinations.
Current Sources in Series
Current sources are not allowed to be connected together in series, either of the same value or ones with
different values. Here in this example, two current sources of 5 amps each are connected together in series,
but what is the resulting current value. Is it equal to one source of 5 amps, or is it equal to the addition of the
two sources, that is 10 amps. Then series connected current sources add an unknown factor into circuit
analysis, which is not good.
Also, another reason why series connected sources are not allowed for circuit analysis techniques is that they
may not supply the same current in the same direction. Series-aiding or series-opposing currents do not exist
for ideal current sources.
You may have noticed that a practical current source closely resembles that of a Norton’s equivalent circuit
as Norton’s theorem states that “any linear dc network can be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of
a constant-current source, IS in parallel with a resistor, RP“. Note that if this parallel resistance is very low,
RP = 0, the current source is short-circuited. When the parallel resistance is very high or infinite, R P ≈ ∞, the
current source can be modelled as ideal.
An ideal current source plots a horizontal line on the I-V characteristic as shown previously above. However
as practical current sources have an internal source resistance, this takes some of the current so the
characteristic of this practical source is not flat and horizontal but will reduce as the current is now splitting
into two parts, with one part of the current flowing into the parallel resistance, R P and the other part of the
current flowing straight to the output terminals.
Ohms law tells us that when a current, (i) flows through a resistance, (R) a voltage drop is produce across
the same resistance. The value of this voltage drop will be given as i*R P. Then VOUT will be equal to the
voltage drop across the resistor with no load attached. We remember that for an ideal source current, R P is
infinite as there is no internal resistance, therefore the terminal voltage will be zero as there is no voltage
drop.
The sum of the current around the loop given by Kirchoff’s current law, KCL is: I OUT = IS - VS/RP. This
equation can be plotted to give the I-V characteristics of the output current. It is given as a straight line with
a slope –RP which intersects the vertical voltage axis at the same point as IS when the source is ideal as
shown.
Practical Current Source Characteristics
Therefore, all ideal current sources will have a straight line I-V characteristic but non-ideal or real practical
current sources will have an I-V characteristic that is slightly angled down by an amount equal to V OUT/RP
where RP is the internal source resistance.
Then the open circuit voltage across the internal source resistance and terminals A and B (V AB) is calculated
at 1500 volts.
Part 2: If a 250 Ohm load resistor is connected to the terminals of the same practical current source,
calculate the current through each resistance, the power absorbed by each resistance and the voltage drop
across the load resistor. Draw the circuit.
2. Data given with load connected: IS = 3A, RP = 500Ω and RL = 250Ω
2a. To find the currents in each resistive branch, we can use the current-division rule.
2b. The power absorbed by each resistor is given as:
2c. Then the voltage drop across the load resistor, RL is given as:
We can see that the terminal voltage of an open-circuited practical current source can be very high it will
produce whatever voltage is needed, 1500 volts in this example, to supply the specified current. In theory,
this terminal voltage can be infinite as the source attempts to deliver the rated current.
Connecting a load across its terminals will reduce the voltage, 500 volts in this example, as now the current
has somewhere to go and for a constant current source, the terminal voltage is directly proportional to the
load resistance.
In the case of non-ideal current sources that each have an internal resistance, the total internal resistance (or
impedance) will be the result of combining them together in parallel, exactly the same as for resistors in
parallel.
An ideal dependent voltage-controlled current source, VCCS, maintains an output current, IOUT that is
proportional to the controlling input voltage, VIN. In other words, the output current “depends” on the value
of input voltage making it a dependent current source.
Then the VCCS output current is defined by the following equation: I OUT = αVIN. This multiplying constant
α (alpha) has the SI units of mhos, ℧ (an inverted Ohms sign) because α = IOUT/VIN, and its units will
therefore be amperes/volt.
An ideal dependent current-controlled current source, CCCS, maintains an output current that is proportional
to a controlling input current. Then the output current “depends” on the value of the input current, again
making it a dependent current source.
As a controlling current, IIN determines the magnitude of the output current, IOUT times the magnification
constant β (beta), the output current for a CCCS element is determined by the following equation:
IOUT = βIIN. Note that the multiplying constant β is a dimensionless scaling factor as β = IOUT/IIN, so therefore
its units would be amperes/amperes.
Here in this simple single junction example, the current IT leaving the junction is the algebraic sum of the
two currents, I1 and I2 entering the same junction. That is IT = I1 + I2.
Note that we could also write this correctly as the algebraic sum of: IT - (I1 + I2) = 0.
So if I1 equals 3 amperes and I2 is equal to 2 amperes, then the total current, IT leaving the junction will be 3
+ 2 = 5 amperes, and we can use this basic law for any number of junctions or nodes as the sum of the
currents both entering and leaving will be the same.
Also, if we reversed the directions of the currents, the resulting equations would still hold true for I 1 or I2. As
I1 = IT - I2 = 5 - 2 = 3 amps, and I2 = IT - I1 = 5 - 3 = 2 amps. Thus we can think of the currents entering the
junction as being positive (+), while the ones leaving the junction as being negative (-).
Then we can see that the mathematical sum of the currents either entering or leaving the junction and in
whatever direction will always be equal to zero, and this forms the basis of Kirchhoff’s Junction Rule, more
commonly known as Kirchhoff’s Current Law, or (KCL).
Resistors in Parallel
Let’s look how we could apply Kirchhoff’s current law to resistors in parallel, whether the resistances in
those branches are equal or unequal. Consider the following circuit diagram:
In this simple parallel resistor example there are two distinct junctions for current. Junction one occurs at
node B, and junction two occurs at node E. Thus we can use Kirchhoff’s Junction Rule for the electrical
currents at both of these two distinct junctions, for those currents entering the junction and for those currents
flowing leaving the junction.
To start, all the current, IT leaves the 24 volt supply and arrives at point A and from there it enters node B.
Node B is a junction as the current can now split into two distinct directions, with some of the current
flowing downwards and through resistor R1 with the remainder continuing on through resistor R2 via node C.
Note that the currents flowing into and out of a node point are commonly called branch currents.
We can use Ohm’s Law to determine the individual branch currents through each resistor as: I = V/R, thus:
For current branch B to E through resistor R1
From above we know that Kirchhoff’s current law states that the sum of the currents entering a junction
must equal the sum of the currents leaving the junction, and in our simple example above, there is one
current, IT going into the junction at node B and two currents leaving the junction, I1 and I2.
Since we now know from calculation that the currents leaving the junction at node B is I 1 equals 3 amps and
I2 equals 2 amps, the sum of the currents entering the junction at node B must equal 3 + 2 = 5 amps. Thus ΣIN
= IT = 5 amperes.
In our example, we have two distinct junctions at node B and node E, thus we can confirm this value for I T
as the two currents recombine again at node E. So, for Kirchhoff’s junction rule to hold true, the sum of the
currents into point F must equal the sum of the currents flowing out of the junction at node E.
As the two currents entering junction E are 3 amps and 2 amps respectively, the sum of the currents entering
point F is therefore: 3 + 2 = 5 amperes. Thus Σ IN = IT = 5 amperes and therefore Kirchhoff’s current law
holds true as this is the same value as the current leaving point A.
In this example there are four distinct junctions for current to either separate or merge together at nodes A,
C, E and node F. The supply current IT separates at node A flowing through resistors R1 and R2, recombining
at node C before separating again through resistors R3, R4 and R5 and finally recombining once again at node
F.
But before we can calculate the individual currents flowing through each resistor branch, we must first
calculate the circuits total current, IT. Ohms law tells us that I = V/R and as we know the value of V, 132
volts, we need to calculate the circuit resistances as follows.
Circuit Resistance RAC
Thus the equivalent circuit resistance between nodes A and C is calculated as 1 Ohm.
Circuit Resistance RCF
Thus the equivalent circuit resistance between nodes C and F is calculated as 10 Ohms. Then the total circuit
current, IT is given as:
Therefore, V = 132V, RAC = 1Ω, RCF = 10Ω’s and IT = 12A.
Having established the equivalent parallel resistances and supply current, we can now calculate the
individual branch currents and confirm using Kirchhoff’s junction rule as follows.
Thus, I1 = 5A, I2 = 7A, I3 = 2A, I4 = 6A, and I5 = 4A.
We can confirm that Kirchoff’s current law holds true around the circuit by using node C as our reference
point to calculate the currents entering and leaving the junction as:
We can also double check to see if Kirchhoffs Current Law holds true as the currents entering the junction
are positive, while the ones leaving the junction are negative, thus the algebraic sum is: I 1 + I2 - I3 - I4 - I5 = 0
which equals 5 + 7 – 2 – 6 – 4 = 0.
So we can confirm by analysis that Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) which states that the algebraic sum of the
currents at a junction point in a circuit network is always zero is true and correct in this example.
Kirchhoff’s Current Law Example No2
Find the currents flowing around the following circuit using Kirchhoff’s Current Law only.
IT is the total current flowing around the circuit driven by the 12V supply voltage. At point A, I 1 is equal to
IT, thus there will be an I1*R voltage drop across resistor R1.
The circuit has 2 branches, 3 nodes (B, C and D) and 2 independent loops, thus the I*R voltage drops around
the two loops will be:
Loop ABC ⇒ 12 = 4I1 + 6I2
Loop ABD ⇒ 12 = 4I1 + 12I3
Since Kirchhoff’s current law states that at node B, I1 = I2 + I3, we can therefore substitute current I1 for
(I2 + I3) in both of the following loop equations and then simplify.
Kirchhoff’s Loop Equations
We now have two simultaneous equations that relate to the currents flowing around the circuit.
Eq. No 1 : 12 = 10I2 + 4I3
Eq. No 2 : 12 = 4I2 + 16I3
By multiplying the first equation (Loop ABC) by 4 and subtracting Loop ABD from Loop ABC, we can be
reduced both equations to give us the values of I2 and I3
Eq. No 1 : 12 = 10I2 + 4I3 ( x4 ) ⇒ 48 = 40I2 + 16I3
Eq. No 2 : 12 = 4I2 + 16I3 ( x1 ) ⇒ 12 = 4I2 + 16I3
Eq. No 1 – Eq. No 2 ⇒ 36 = 36I2 + 0
Substitution of I2 in terms of I3 gives us the value of I2 as 1.0 Amps
Now we can do the same procedure to find the value of I 3 by multiplying the first equation (Loop ABC) by 4
and the second equation (Loop ABD) by 10. Again by subtracting Loop ABC from Loop ABD, we can be
reduced both equations to give us the values of I2 and I3
Eq. No 1 : 12 = 10I2 + 4I3 ( x4 ) ⇒ 48 = 40I2 + 16I3
Eq. No 2 : 12 = 4I2 + 16I3 ( x10 ) ⇒ 120 = 40I2 + 160I3
Eq. No 2 – Eq. No 1 ⇒ 72 = 0 + 144I3
Thus substitution of I3 in terms of I2 gives us the value of I3 as 0.5 Amps
As Kirchhoff’s junction rule states that : I1 = I2 + I3
The supply current flowing through resistor R1 is given as : 1.0 + 0.5 = 1.5 Amps
Thus I1 = IT = 1.5 Amps, I2 = 1.0 Amps and I3 = 0.5 Amps and from that information we could calculate the
I*R voltage drops across the devices and at the various points (nodes) around the circuit.
We could have solved the circuit of example two simply and easily just using Ohm’s Law, but we have used
Kirchhoff’s Current Law here to show how it is possible to solve more complex circuits when we can not
just simply apply Ohm’s Law.
Kirchhoff’s voltage law states that the algebraic sum of the potential differences in any loop must be equal
to zero as: ΣV = 0. Since the two resistors, R1 and R2 are wired together in a series connection, they are both
part of the same loop so the same current must flow through each resistor.
Thus the voltage drop across resistor, R 1 = I*R1 and the voltage drop across resistor, R 2 = I*R2 giving by
KVL:
We can see that applying Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law to this single closed loop produces the formula for the
equivalent or total resistance in the series circuit and we can expand on this to find the values of the voltage
drops around the loop.
Thus Kirchhoff’s voltage law holds true as the individual voltage drops around the closed loop add up to the
total.
Kirchhoff’s Circuit Loop
We have seen here that Kirchhoff’s voltage law, KVL is Kirchhoff’s second law and states that the algebraic
sum of all the voltage drops, as you go around a closed circuit from some fixed point and return back to the
same point, and taking polarity into account, is always zero. That is ΣV = 0
The theory behind Kirchhoff’s second law is also known as the law of conservation of voltage, and this is
particularly useful for us when dealing with series circuits, as series circuits also act as voltage dividers and
the voltage divider circuit is an important application of many series circuits.
Voltage Dividers
Voltage Divider circuits are used to produce different voltage levels from a common voltage source but the
current is the same for all components in a series cicruit
Voltage Divider Circuits are useful in providing different voltage levels from a common supply voltage.
This common supply can be a single supply either positive or negative, for example, +5V, +12V, -5V or
-12V, etc. with respect to a common point or ground, usually 0V, or it could be across a dual supply, for
example ±5V, or ±12V, etc.
Voltage dividers are also known as potential dividers, because the unit of voltage, the “Volt” represents the
amount of potential difference between two points. A voltage or potential divider is a simple passive circuit
that takes advantage of the effect of voltages being dropped across components which are connected in
series.
The potentiometer, which is a variable resistor with a sliding contact, is the most basic example of a voltage
divider as we can apply a voltage across its terminals and produce an output voltage in proportion to the
mechanical position of its sliding contact. But we can also make voltage dividers using individual resistors,
capacitors and inductors as they are two-terminal components which can be connected together in series.
Here the circuit consists of two resistors connected together in series: R 1, and R2. Since the two resistors are
connected in series, it must therefore follow that the same value of electric current must flow through each
resistive element of the circuit as it has nowhere else to go. Thus providing an I*R voltage drop across each
resistive element.
With a supply or source voltage, VS applied across this series combination, we can apply Kirchhoff’s
Voltage Law, (KVL) and also using Ohm’s Law to find the voltage dropped across each resistor derived in
terms of the common current, I flowing through them. So solving for the current (I) flowing through the
series network gives us:
The current flowing through the series network is simply I = V/R following Ohm’s Law. Since the current is
common to both resistors, (IR1 = IR2) we can calculate the voltage dropped across resistor, R 2 in the above
series circuit as being:
Likewise for resistor R1 as being:
Where: VR(x) is the voltage drop across the resistor, RX is the value of the resistor, and RT is the total
resistance of the series network. This voltage divider equation can be used for any number of series
resistances connected together because of the proportional relationship between each resistance, R and its
corresponding voltage drop, V. Note however, that this equation is given for an unloaded voltage divider
network without any additional resistive load connected or parallel branch currents.
The voltage drops across all three resistors should add up to the supply voltage as defined by Kirchhoff’s
Voltage Law (KVL). So the sum of the voltage drops is: V T = 6 V + 12 V + 18 V = 36.0 V the same value of
the supply voltage, VS and so is correct. Again notice that the largest resistor produces the largest voltage
drop.
Consider a long series of resistors connected to a voltage source, V S. Along the series network there are
different voltage tapping points, A, B, C, D, and E.
The total series resistance can be found by simply adding together the individual series resistance values
giving a total resistance, RT value of 15kΩ. This resistive value will limit the flow of current through the
circuit produced by the supply voltage, VS.
The individual voltage drops across the resistors are found using the equations above, so V R1 = VAB, VR2 =
VBC, VR3 = VCD, and VR4 = VDE.
The voltage levels at each tapping point is measured with respect to ground (0V). Thus the voltage level at
point D will be equal to VDE, and the voltage level at point C will be equal to VCD + VDE. In other words, the
voltage at point C is the sum of the two voltage drops across R3 and R4.
So hopefully we can see that by choosing a suitable set of resistive values, we can produce a sequence of
voltage drops which will have a proportional voltage value obtained from a single supply volatge. Note also
that in this example each output voltage point will be positive in value because the negative terminal of the
voltage supply, VS is grounded.
Using the two capacitors of 10uF and 22uF in the series circuit above, we can calculate the rms voltage
drops across each capacitor in terms of their reactance when connected to a 100 volts, 50Hz rms supply.
When using pure capacitors the sum of all the series voltage drops equals the source voltage, the same as for
series resistances. While the amount of voltage drop across each capacitors is proportional to its reactance, it
is inversely proportional to its capacitance.
As a result, the smaller 10uF capacitor has more reactance (318.3Ω) so therefore a greater voltage drop of 69
volts compared to the larger 22uF capacitor which has a reactance of 144.7Ω and a voltage drop of 31 volts
respectively. The current in the series circuit, IC will be 216mA, and is the same value for C1 and C2 as they
are in series.
One final point about capacitive voltage divider circuits is that as long as there is no series resistance,
purely capacitive, the two capacitor voltage drops of 69 and 32 volts will arithmetically be equal to the
supply voltage of 100 volts as the two voltages produced by the capacitors are in-phase with each other. If
for whatever reason the two voltages are out-of-phase with each other then we can not just simple add them
together as we would using Kirchhoffs voltage law, but instead phasor addition of the two waveforms is
required.
Where:
XL = Inductive Reactance in Ohms, (Ω)
π (pi) = a numeric constant of 3.142
ƒ = Frequency in Hertz, (Hz)
L = Inductance in Henries, (H)
If we know the voltage and frequency of the AC supply, we can calculate the reactances of the two inductors
and use them along with the voltage divider rule to obtain the voltage drops across each inductor as shown.
Inductive Voltage Divider
Using the two inductors of 10mH and 20mH in the series circuit above, we can calculate the rms voltage
drops across each capacitor in terms of their reactance when connected to a 60 volts, 200Hz rms supply.
Like the previous resistive and capacitive voltage division circuits, the sum of all the series voltage drops
across the inductors will equal the source voltage, as long as there are no series resistances. Meaning a pure
inductor. The amount of voltage drop across each inductor is proportional to its reactance.
The result is that the smaller 10mH inductor has less reactance (12.56Ω), so therefore less of a voltage drop
at 30 volts compared to the larger 20mH inductor which has a reactance of 25.14Ω and a voltage drop of 40
volts respectively. The current, IL in the series circuit is 1.6mA, and will be the same value for L 1 and L2 as
these two inductors are connected in series.
Current Dividers
Current Divider circuits have two or more parallel branches for currents to flow through but the voltage is
the same for all components in the parallel cicruit
Current Divider Circuits are parallel circuits in which the source or supply current divides into a number
of parallel paths. In a parallel connected circuit, all the components have their terminals connected together
sharing the same two end nodes. This results in different paths and branches for the current to flow or pass
along. However, the currents can have different values through each component.
The main characteristic of parallel circuits is that while they may produce different currents flowing through
different branches, the voltage is common to all the connected paths. That is V R1 = VR2 = VR3 … etc.
Therefore the need to find the individual resistor voltages is eliminated allowing branch currents to be easily
found with Kirchhoff’s Current Law, (KCL) and of course Ohm’s Law.
Here this basic current divider circuit consists of two resistors: R1, and R2 in parallel which splits the supply
or source current IS between them into two separate currents I R1 and IR2 before joining together again and
returning back to the source.
As the source or total current equals the sum of the individual branch currents, then the total current, I T
flowing in the circuit is given by Kirchoffs current law KCL as being:
IT = IR1 + IR2
As the two resistors are connected in parallel, for Kirchhoff’s Current Law, (KCL) to hold true it must
therefore follow that the current flowing through resistor R1 will be equal to:
IR1 = IT – IR2
and the current flowing through resistor R2 will be equal to:
IR2 = IT – IR1
As the same voltage, (V) is present across each resistive element, we can find the current flowing through
each resistor in terms of this common voltage as it is simply V = I*R following Ohm’s Law. So solving for
the voltage (V) across the parallel combination gives us:
Solving for IR1 gives:
Likewise, solving for IR2 gives:
Notice that the above equations for each branch current has the opposite resistor in its numerator. That is to
solve for I1 we use R2, and to solve for I2 we use R1. This is because each branch current is inversely
proportional to its resistance resulting in the smaller resistance having the larger current.
Note that the smaller 20Ω resistor has the larger current because by its very nature, current will always flow
through the path or branch of least resistance. This implies then that a short-circuit will produce maximum
current flow, while an open-circuit will result in zero current flow. Remember also that the equivalent
resistance, REQ of parallel connected resistors will always be less than the ohmic value of the smallest
resistor with the equivalent resistance decreasing as more parallel resistances are added.
Sometimes it is not necessary to calculate all the branch currents, if the supply or total current, I T is already
known, then the final branch current can be found by simply subtracting the calculated currents from the
total current as defined by Kirchhoffs current law.
2) Equivalent resistance REQ
3) Branch currents IR1, IR2, IR3
We can check our calculations as according to Kirchhoff’s Current Rule, all the branch currents will be
equal to the total current, so: I T = IR1 + IR2 + IR3 = 10 + 4 + 1 = 15 amperes, as expected. Thus we can see that
the total current, IT is divided according to a simple ratio determined by the branch resistances. Also, as the
number of resistors connected in parallel increases, the supply ot total current, I T will also increase for a
given supply voltage, VS as there are more parallel branches taking current.
Therefore, if a resistance has a fixed value of 10Ω, it will have an equivalent conductance of 0.1S and so on.
Because of the reciprocal, a high value of conductance represents a low value of resistance, and vice versa.
We can also use prefixes in the form of milli-Siemens, mS, micro-Siemens, uS and even nano-Siemens, nS
for very small conductances. So a resistor of 10kΩ will have a conductance of 100uS.
Using the Ohm’s Law equation for current in which I = V/R, we can define the branch currents using
conductance as being: I = V*G
In fact we can take this one step further by saying that the supply current to a our parallel resisive network
above is:
But we know from above that for a parallel connected circuit, voltage is common to all components and as
voltage equals current times resistance, V = I*R, we can therefore conclude that when using conductance,
the voltage is equal to current divided by conductance. That is V = I/G.
Then we can express the above equations for the current divider rule in relationship to conductance (G),
instead of the resistance (R) as being:
Current Divider Rule using Conductance
Likewise for the currents in parallel resistors R2 and R3 are given as:
You may have noticed that unlike the equations above for resistance, each branch current has the same
conductance in its numerator. That is to solve for I 1 we use G1, and to solve for I2 we use G2. This is because
the conductances are the reciprocals of the resistances.
Total supply current IS
Individual branch currents I1, I2 and I3
As conductance is the reciprocal or inverse of resistance, the equivalent resistance value of the example
circuit is simply 1/800uS which equals 1250Ω or 1.25kΩ, which is clearly less than the smallest resistor
value of R1 at 2kΩ.
Then we can see in this example that every coulomb of charge possesses an energy of 9 joules.
Transposing the standard formula above gives us the following combinations of the same equation:
2. An electric current of 3 Amperes flows through a resistor. How many coulombs of charge will flow
through the resistor in 90 seconds.
So we can see that electrical power is also the rate at which work is performed during one second. That is,
one joule of energy dissipated in one second. As electrical power is measured in Watts (W), therefore it must
be also be measured in Joules per Second. So we can correctly say that: 1 watt = 1 joule per second (J/s).
Electrical Power
1 watt (W) = 1 joule/second (J/s)
So if 1 watt = 1 joule/second, it therefore follows that: 1 Joule of energy = 1 watt per second, that is: Work
equals power times time. So electrical energy (the work done) is obtained by multiplying power by the time
in seconds that the charge (in the form of a current) flows. Thus units of electrical energy depend on the
units used for electric power and time. So if we measure electrical power in kilowatts (kW), and the time in
hours (h), then the electrical energy consumed equals kilowatts*hours or simply: kilowatt-hours.