COMPLEMENTARY HELP TO THE ENGLISH

COURSE

PARTS OF SPEECH

In grammar, to understand the structure of a sentence, it is divided into eight

classes or “eight parts of speech”.
And the very beginning of knowledge of grammar is to know the parts of
speech. The parts of speech are:

NOUNS PRONOUNS
VERBS PREPOSITIONS
ADJECTIVES CONJUNGTIONS
ADVERBS INTERJECTIONS or EXCLAMATIONS

I.- NOUNS.

A noun is the name of any object, place, animal, thing or person. There
are four kinds of nouns:

a.-) COMMON NOUNS: Are the names of objects, creatures or animals.

We also say common nouns are the names of classes of objects and the
names are common to all of these objects. Examples: pen, ink, paper,
house, machinery, ship, picture, star, ball.

b.-) PROPER NOUNS: The names of persons and places: and some
times the specific names of animals, ships, buildings, and so on. We also
say that a proper noun is the special name of one particular object.
Example: James, Mary, February, Buckingham Palace, Washington,
New York, Bogotá, Peter. Etc

c.-) COLLECTIVE NOUNS: Are the names of collections or group of

things. One noun referring to a number of individuals collected together
as a group: example: a heard of cattle, a flack of birds, a crowd of
people, army of soldiers, a fleet of ships, a pack of cards, a choir of
angels.

d.-) ABSTRACT NOUNS: Are names which do not exist except as

qualities of persons or things. The name of some qualities or non-
material thing. Example; height, beauty, breadth, redness, charity,
invisibility.

Nouns have Number, Gender, and Case.

- Number tells us about whether the noun is singular (one object) or

plural (more than one object).
 Singular Plural
House Houses
- Gender tells us whether the noun is masculine, feminine, neuter or
common (either masculine or feminine).

Masculine Man Neuter chair

Feminine Woman Common child

GENDER
Gender is the classification of nouns according to the sex.
1. Names of Males are of the masculine Gender: man, lion.
2. Names of Females are of the Feminine Gender: woman,
lioness.
3. Names that can be used of Male or Female are of the
Common Gender: child, fowl.
4. Names of things without life are of the Neuter Gender: table,
spade.

- Case shows us the relationship of the noun to the rest of the

sentence.

PLURAL OF NOUNS

1. Most English nouns form the plural by adding an “s” to the singular
form.
Cat- Cats; pen - pens; book - books

2. Some nouns ending in “f” or “fe” change the “f” into “ve” before
adding the “ s” or “es” in the plural.
Calf, calves Knife, Knives loaf, loaves
Half, halves leaf leaves thief, thieves

3. Nouns ending in “y” preceded by a consonant change the –y into –I

before adding –es.
Lady, ladies cry, cries fly, flies

When the -y is preceded by a vowel, add -s only:

Boy, boys day, days donkey, donkeys

4. Most nouns ending in –o preceded by a consonant, add -es to the

singular to form the plural-

Cargo, cargoes hero, heroes’ tomato, tomatoes

Echo, echoes potato, potatoes volcano, volcanoes
5. Nouns which end in a hissing sound usually add –es in the plural.

Box, boxes dish, dishes loss, losses

Larch, larches fish, fishes wish, wishes
 Church, churches glass, glasses bush, bushes

6. Some nouns form the plural by changing the vowel sound of the word.

Foot, feet man, men tooth, teeth

Goose, geese mouse, mice woman, women

7. Some nouns have the same for for the plural as they have for the
singular.
Deer, deer sheep, sheep
Salmon, salmon swine, swine

8. Compound nouns usually change the most important word into the
plural.
Brother in law, brothers in law
Vice chairman, vice chairmen
Court martial, courts martial

9. Some nouns have an irregular plural form.

Child, children penny, pence (also pennies)

Ox, oxen brother, brethren

HELPING LIST OF WORDS (NOUNS) BY GENDER

Masculine Feminine Masculine Feminine

Baron baroness host hostess anfitriona
Boy girl husband wife
Bridegroom bride Jew Jewess judia
Duke duchess king queen
Lord lady poet poetess
Lion lioness emperor empress
Prince princess fiancé fiancée
Hero heroine widower widow viuda
Wizard witch Mayor Mayoress
Patron patroness Prophet Prophetess
Priest priestess Master señor /amo mistress

II. - PRONOUNS

A PRONOUN is a word that stands instead of a noun. Or also we say that a

pronoun is a word used in place of a noun.

Kinds of Pronouns
Pronouns are classified as fallows:

A.)- PERSONAL PRONOUN

B.)- POSSESIVE PRONOUN
 C.)- DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN
D.)- RELATIVE PRONPOUN
E.)- REFLEXIVE PRONOUN
F.)- INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN
G.)- DISTRIBUTIVE PRONOUN
H.)- INDEFINAITE PRONOUN
I.)- EMPHASIZING PRONOUN

PERSONAL PRONOUNS:
The personal pronouns are:

I I have a name
YOU you have a book
HE he has a name
SHE she has a name
IT it has a name

WE we have our home

YOU you have two cars
THEY they have some cows

POSSESIVE PRONOUN
The possessive Pronoun stands instead of the noun.
The possessive pronouns are.

Mine
Yours
His
Hers
Its

Ours
Yours
Theirs

DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS

The demonstrative pronouns are:

THIS
THAT
THESE
THOSE
THE FORMER: Is used for the first of two
THE LATER: Is used for the second of two
SUCH: Is used predicatively to mean so great or of that kind.
RELATIVE PRONOUNS

The Relative Pronouns are WHO (nominative), WHOM (objective), WHOSE

(possessive), WHICH, THAT, WHAT, and occasionally AS and BUT. They
have the same the same form for singular or plural.

The relative pronoun stands instead of a noun and also joins sentences. The
noun to which it refers is called its ANTECEDENT.

WHO, WHOM and WHOSE are used of persons. Example:

The man who spoke was mi father
The man whom you saw was my brother
He is a writer whose style is most attractive.

WHICH, as a relative pronoun is used only of THINGS or ANIMALS example?

The current, which is very rapid, make the river dangerous.

My dog, which was lost, has been found.

THAT is used for persons or things. Example:

My brother that is in Bogotá has sent me a letter.
This is the house that Jack built.

THE REFLEXIVE PRONOUN

The Reflexive Pronouns are:

SINGULAR PLURAL
Myself himself ourselves
Thyself herself yourselves
Yourself itself themselves
Oneself

The reflexive pronouns show that the action performed by the doer passes back
to him; so the subject and the object of the sentence are the same person.

THE INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN

The interrogative Pronouns are: Who, whose, which and what. They are used
to ask questions.
Who and whose are used for persons, e.g. Who are you? Whose is this book?

Which is selective; it can be used for persons or things when one or more out
of as number is referred to, e.g.
Which of these words is the right one to use?
Which of these men did you see?

What is general in meaning, e.g. What did he say?. What are you doing?
THE DISTRIBUTIVE PRONOUN
The distributive pronouns are each, either, and neither.
They are very similar to the distributive adjectives. The difference is that when
they stand instead of the noun, they are pronoun; when they qualify the nouns
they are adjectives,
Each of the men received a reward. (Pronoun)
Each man received a reward. (Adjective)

THE INDEFINAITE PRONOUN

The indefinite Pronouns are: all, some, any, one, they, something, nobody,
etc.
They refer to things or people in a vague or general way.
All, some, any, one, can also be used as adjectives.

III. - VERBS

A VERB is a doing word. A verb expresses an action or a state. Is a word by

which we make a statement or ask a question.
A verb is one which has person, number, and tens.
A verb is a word with which we can make an assertion (statement). What is
asserted is either an ACTION or a STATE. Example:

I hit the ball ……. (Action)

He is asleep ……. (State)

SUBJECTS and PREDICATES

The person or thing about which we make the statement is called the SUBJECT
of the verb, and what we say (“or predicate”) about the subject is called the
PREDICATE. A Predicate must contain a verb; in fact the verb is often referred
to as the predicate of a subject.

SUBJECT PREDICATE
The clouds moved across the sky.
Nelson was a great sailor
That you are late is not my fault,
My brother open the door

A verb agrees with its subjects in number and person.

1. - Number ……….. Singular or Plural

2. - Person …………. First, second, or third
3. - Tense ………….. Present, past or future
4. - Voice …………….Active or passive.
5. - Mood …………… infinitive, indicative, imperative or subjunctive.

1. - NUMBER
Refers to the number of people or thing that make up the subject of a verb,
either one (singular) or more than one (plural). A verb agrees with it subject in
number: that is if the subject is singular, the verb must be in singular, and if the
subject is plural the verb must be plural. Example:

James runs fast. (Singular)

John and James come home. (Plural)
The voters elected him. (Plural)

2. - PERSON
The Person speaking is the first person (I, We), the person spoken to is in the
second person (you), and the person or object spoken about is in the third
person (he, she, it, and they). A verb agrees with its subject in number and
person. Example:

James runs fast (third person singular)

You are not working (second person singular)
We cannot come (first person plural)

3. – TENSE
Tense shows the time at which the action of the verb takes place.
Action may take place in the present, the past or the future, and may be simple,
continuums or perfect (that is, completed) example:

Simple Continuous Perfect

Present I work I am working I have worked
Past I worked I was working I had worked
Future I shall work I shall be working

4. – VOICE
Voice tells us whether the subject does the action or suffers the action.
A verb is in the active voice when the subject when the subject performs the
action and in the passive voice when the subject has the action done to it.

I chose the book. (Active)

He and John carried the bag. (Active)
The book was chosen by me. (Passive)
The bag was carried by them. (Passive)

5. – MOOD
Mood is the way in which the verb describes different kinds or moods of action.
There are four moods: Infinitive, Indicative, Imperative, and Subjunctive.
 a. – INFINITIVE The infinitive is the form of the verb before it is applied.
Is the form of the verb which denotes actions or states without
reference to number, person or case. In English it generally occurs or
use with “to” before it.

To work, to run, to play.

The infinitive has three functions. It may be used as a noun, an adjective,
or an adverb.

We hope to pass. (Noun- infinitive, object of the verb hope)

This is an occasion to remember. (Adjective – infinitive).

Qualifying the noun occasion
We played to win. (Adverb – infinitive- modifying the verb played)

The infinitive can form part of a phrase and may then take an object or a
complement. Example:

He worked to make money. (Object)

He wanted to be rich. (Complement)

b. - The indicative is used for:

Making statements, and called the affirmative.
The sun is shining

Making negative statements, and called the negative.

The sun is not shining.

Asking questions, and called the interrogative..

Where is his house?

Asking negative questions, and called the interrogative –negative.

How tall you have grown!

c. - The imperative mood is used for giving orders or commands. The

subject is omitted but understood.
Imperative affirmative: Run!
Imperative negative: Do not run

d. - The subjunctive is used to express:

(I) a wish example: I wish I were rich
(II) A doubt, example: I question if that boy be speaking the truth.
(III) An unlikely event, example: If he were king.

CONJUGATION OF VERBS

Verbs are regularly conjugated in present, past and past participle.

LIST OF REGULAR VERBS

Present Past Past Participle

Awake awoke awoke or awaked
Abide abode abode
Arise arose arisen
Awake awoke awoke
Be was been
Bear bore borne, born
Become became become
Beat beat beaten
Begin began begun
Behold beheld beheld
Bend bent bent
Bid bade, bid bidden, bid
Bind bound bound
Bite bit bitten
Bleed bled bled
Blow blew blown
Break broke broken
Breed bred bred
Bring brought brought

Build built built

Burn burnt burnt
Burst burst burst
Buy bought bought
Cast cast cast
Catch caught caught
Choose chose chosen
Cling clung clung
Come came came
Clothe clothed clothed
Cost cost cost
Creep crept crept
Crow crew, crowed crowed
Cut cut cut
Deal dealt dealt
Do did done
Dig dug dug
Draw drew drawn
Dream dreamt dreamt
Dream dreamed dreamed
Drink drank drunk, drunken
Drive drove driven
Dwell dwelt dwelt
Eat ate eaten
Fall fell fallen
Feed fed fed
Present Past Past Participle
Feel felt felt
Fight fought fought
Find found found
Flee fled fled
Fling flung flung
Fly flew flown
Forbid forbade forbidden
Forget forgot forgotten
Forgive forgave forgiven
Forsake forsook forsaken
Freeze froze frozen
Get got got, gotten
Give gave given
Go went gone
Grind ground ground
Grow grew grown
Hang hung, hanged hung, hanged
Have had had
Hide hid hidden, hid
Hit hit hit
Hear heard heard
Hold held held
Hurt hurt hurt
Keep kept kept
Kneel knelt knelt
Know knew known
Knit knit, knitted knit, knitted
Lay laid laid
Lead led led
Lean leant, leaned leant, leaned
Leap leapt leapt
Learn learnt, learned learnt, learned
Leave left left
Lend lent lent
Lie lay lain
Let let let
Light lit, or lighted lit, or lighted
Lose lost lost
Make made made
Mean meant meant
Meet met met
Mistake mistook mistook
Mow mowed mowed
Outdo outdid outdid
Overcome overcame overcame
Overdo overdid overdid
Overdraw overdrew overdrew
Overhear overheard overheard
Partake partook partook
Present Past Past Participle
Pay paid paid
Put put put
Read read read
Rid rid rid
Ride rode ridden
Ring rang rung
Rise rose risen
Rot rotted rotted. Rotten
Run ran run
Saw sawed sawn
Say said said
See saw seen
Seek sought sought
Sell sold sold
Send sent sent
Set set set
Sew sewed sewn
Shake shook shaken
Shave shaved shaved, shaven
Shear sheared sheared, shorn
Shed shed shed
Shine shone shone
Shoe shod shod (To shoe the horse)
Shoot shot shot
Show showed shown
Shrink shrank shrunk, shrunken
Shrive shrove shriven
Shut shut shut
Sing sang sung
Sink sank sunk
Sit sat sat
Slay slew slain
Sleep slept slept
Slide slid slid
Sling slung slung
Slink slunk slunk
Slit slit slit
Smell smelt smelt
Smite smote smitten (golpear)
Speak spoke spoken
Sow sowed sown
Speed sped sped
Spell spell spell
Spend spent spent
Spill spilt spilt
Spin span, or spun spun
Spit spat spat
Split split split
Present Past Past Participle
Spoil spoilt, spoiled spoilt, spoiled
Spread spread spread
Spring sprang sprung
Stand stood stood
Stave stove, or staved stove, or staved
Steal stole stolen
Stick stock stuck
Sting stung stung
Stink stank stank
Strew strewed strewn
Stride strode stridden
Strike struck struck, stricken
String strung strung
Strive strove striven
Swear swore sworn
Sweep swept swept
Swell swelled swelled or swollen
Swim swam swum
Swing swung swung
Take took taken
Teach taught taught
Tear tore torn
Tell told told
Think thought thought
Thrive throve, thrived thriven, thrived
Throw threw thrown
Thrust thrust thrust
Tread trod trodden
Undergo underwent undergone
Underlie underlay underlain
Understand understood understood
Undertake undertook undertaken
Wake woke waked
Ware wore worn
Weave wove woven
Weep wept wept
Win won won
Wind wound wound
Withdraw withdrew withdrawn
Withhold withheld withheld
Withstand withstood withstood
Wring wrung wrung
Write wrote written

The Participle = Participio

The Participle is a VERBAL ADJECTIVE and is the form of the verb that is
used:
 a. - To help to form a tense, example: I am speaking. He had written.

B.- As an adjective qualifying a noun or its equivalent, example: the

singing bird; the broken bottles; being tired of work, the men went home.

THE GERUND

The gerund is a VERBAL NOUN ending in –ing.

A gerund is a word ending in –ing which is made from a verb but is used as a
noun. Example:
Swimming keeps you fit.
Seeing is believing.

When is necessary a gerund can have some of the qualities of a verb. For
example:
It can take an object: “He likes eating pineapple”

We can use gerunds in the fallowing ways:

a. - As the object of a verb: “I like playing football”
b. - After a preposition: “ He is good at drawing people”
c. - As the subject of a verb: “smoking is bad for you”
d. - After certain verbs: “This shirt needs repairing”

IV. - ADJECTIVES
An adjective is a word which describes or qualifies a Noun or a Pronoun.
It adds to its meaning, but limits its application. Example: the new book, the
black sheep.

An adjective tells us more about a noun. Example: a purple tie. It gives us

more additional information about the tie.

Kinds of Adjectives

We can mention the fallowing kinds of adjectives:

 ADJECTIVES OF QUALITY: Which show what kind; e.g. a brave boy; a

German student.
 ADJECTIVE OF QUANTITY: Which tell how many or how much. These
may be :
a) Definite, e.g. one, two, etc
b) Indefinite, e.g. all, some, several, half, no

 POSSESIVE ADJECTIVES: which show possession, ex: My, her, its,

our, their, etc.
 DISTRIBUTIVE ADJECTIVE: which show that the persons or things
denoted by the noun are taken singly or in separate lots, e.g each,
every, either,

Each is used for one of two, or one of many number exciding two, e.g
each one of the two boys gained a prize.

 DESCRIPTIVE ADJECTIVES: These adjectives show what kind of

noun, by describing quality or state. E.g.
A brave soldier. A hot day. The blue sea
A large town A lazy boy A lovely flower

 QUANTITATIVE ADJECTIVES: These show how much or how many

are referred to. In this group, you may find:
a. - Indefinite numerals. Tell us of number or quantity
without saying exactly what the number is.
All, some, enough, none, many, few, several, sundry
(diversos)
b. - Definite numerals. Tell us an exact number. E.g.
One, two, three first, second, Twofold, double,
Four, etc. Third, fourth, threefold, triple,
Fifth, etc. Treble, etc.
 INTERROGATIVE ADJECTIVES. These introduce a question.
Which train must I take?
What money shall I require?

 DISTRIBUTIVE ADJECTIVES. These adjectives show what that the

things referred to are to be taken separately.
The boys and girls each brought a pen and a pencil.
The prisoner would answer neither question.
Let every body speak for him self.

 POSSESIVE ADJECTIVES. These adjectives show that a thing is

possessed or owned by a particular person.
Singular Plural

First person my our

Second person thy your
Third person his, her, its their

 DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVES. These adjectives point out the

person or thing referred to. This, that, yonder, certain, another,
other.

Do this work
Who is that man?
Go into yonder field
A certain man spoke to me
 I will come another day
I prefer the other shirt
I will not put up with such treatment.

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES

There are three degrees of comparison of adjectives: POSITIVE,

COMPARATIVE, and SUPERLATIVE

 An adjective in its first form is in the positive degree:

Warm, large, frightful
 COMPARATIVE. When we are comparing two things. The adjective is in
the comparative degree. It is formed:
a. - by adding -er to the positive, e.g. clear, clearer; warm,
warmer; large, larger; big, bigger.
b. By using more with the positive degree. e.g more beautiful;

SUPERLATIVE. When we are comparing more than two things, the adjective is
in the superlative degree.
a. - by adding -est.; clear, clearest; war, warmest; large, largest
b. - by using most. Beautiful, most beautiful; benevolent, most
benevolent.
For adjectives of more than two syllables, we use the word more before the
adjective to form the comparative, and most to form the superlative.

Positive Comparative Superlative

Beautiful more beautiful most beautiful
Benevolent more benevolent most benevolent

SOME IRREGULAR COMPARISON

There are some exceptions in forming the comparative and superlative in

adjectives. Please take a look of the fallowing adjectives below.

Positive Comparative Superlative

Good better Best

Bad worse worst
Far farther farthest
Little less least
Much more most
Many more most
Late later latest
Late latter last

FORMING ADJECTIVE

Adjectives can be formed by adding -y to some words.

Rust Rusty Greed Greedy Wealth Wealthy
Storm Stormy Dirt Dirty Filth Filthy

Adjectives can also be formed by using the suffix – able, ible, adding them to
verbs or nouns, example.
Adapt adaptable rely reliable
Debate debatable use usable
Pay payable fashion fashionable
Like likeable advise advisable
Define indefinable

V. – ADVERBS

Adverbs are words that describe or attach themselves to a verb.

Adverbs tell HOW, WHEN, and WHERE a thing is done and so are called
Adverbs of Manner, Time and Place.
Adverbs also describe or modify other parts of speech, as Adjectives and
adverbs.
An adverb can modify, or add to the meaning of , a verb, an adjective, or
another adverb.

Adverbs have three uses:

a. - To modify a verb: He reads quickly.

b. - To modify an adjective: The work was very hard; an extremely sad case.
c. - To modify another adverb: He spoke very slowly

Adverbs can be:

1. - Of Time, saying when the action happened.

He visits his mother weekly

2. - Of place, saying where the action happened

Let him lie there.

3. - Of manner, saying how the action happened.

The boys ran quickly

4. - Of degree, saying how much,

The girl was nearly late for school.

5. - Interrogative, asking when, where, how.

Where have you put my fountain pen?

6. - Of cause or consequence: therefore, so, consequently. Such words are

sometimes clearly adverbs qualifying a verb.
He worked hard and so deserved to succeed.

MAKING ADVERBS.
Most Adverbs end in ly, ily, ically, although there are many which do not.
Example:
Here, there, seldom, almost, sometime, very, well, worse, often, etc,
do not take the endings mentioned above.

Exercise
Form Adverbs from the words given below:

Punctual punctually efficient efficiently

Skilful skillfully tragic tragically
Entire entirely day daily
Logic logically democratic democratically

The place of the adverbs

1. The adverb is generally placed before adjectives, other adverbs and past
participles, e.g., “He was very clever, and was exceedingly well
educated”
2. With a transitive verb, it generally comes after the object, e.g. “ he
banged the door noisily” But if the object is an infinitive, it may come
before, e.g. “They kindly asked me to stay at their house”
3. The adverbs never, often, always, seldom, sometimes, usually
precede the principal verb, e.g. I always Do that; I have often done that,
They will never Do that; But with the verb To Be, they fallow the verb,
e.g. He is never at home.
4. Adverbs of DEFINITE TIME, e.g. yesterday, today, tomorrow, are
placed at the end of the sentence; or if we wish to emphasize the time, t
the beginning, e.g. I went to his house yesterday, or yesterday I went to
his house.
5. If an adverb of time and an adverb of place are used together the latter
precedes the former, e.g. we went there yesterday.

VI, - THE PREPOSITION

A preposition is a word which is used with a noun or pronoun to show its

relation to some other word in the sentence.
We also say that a preposition is a word which is used to show the way in which
other words are connected. Prepositions may be single words such as: by,
from, over under, or they may be more complex and composed of several
words such as: apart from, in front of, in spite of, instead of.

Where are Prepositions used?

Prepositions are usually fallowed by a noun or a pronoun, a verb with –ing or a

wh- clause. In the fallowing sentences, in is a preposition:
Write your name in the book
This tea is too sweet; there is too much sugar in it
There is absolutely no point in complaining
I’m very interesting in what you have just said
Prepositions are not used in front of infinitives or clauses beginning with that:
I was astonished at the news
He was astonished by the news

What do prepositions mean?

In English we make frequent use of prepositions to express basic relationships
between words. They can be relationships of time and place, reason, manner,
means, and reaction. Examples:

Reason I did it because of my father/ for my mother/ out of duty

Manner She spoke with a smile/ in a soft voice
Means I came by bus/ on foot/ in a taxi

A particular preposition can often be used to express more than one kind of
relationship, for example “by”.

Time by next week

Place by the window
Means by working very hard

Principal prepositions,

The fallowing are some of the principal prepositions with sentences to illustrate
their use:

ABOUT
He looked about him
She tolled me every thing about the case
I shall see you about six o’clock.
This melon is about the biggest in the farm
The children quarrel about the food
Is Peter anywhere about?
He is honest about it
ABOVE
He is above cheating
The price of this car is above ten thousand dollars
Sara lives on the floor above Peter
The above examples

ACROSS
Please go across the road
Peter mother came across him at the moll
The horse is trying to go across the river
Lorna lives across the road

AFTER
I have had one trouble after another
He came after diner
 The boy was called after his grand father
He is after something
Charles will go after lunch
Brenda is sick; look after her
I will go home after the game
She finished her home work after all

AGAINTS
It’s no use running your head against a stone wall
I do it against my will
We vote against staying late
Smoking in the room is against the law
I have warned you against this danger

AHEAD
Tom is ahead of Carl
Lorna will get ahead in her English class
Please drive with care. There is danger ahead on the corner
When you ride your bike, look ahead to see where you are going
He drove the car full speed ahead

ALONG
You walk along the road
Francis says he can get along with you
There are many houses all along the road side
He knew it all along
The launch is along -side

AROUND
They are always hanging around the streets corner
He likes to travel around the country
I wrap the towel around my waist

AT
There are many ways to use the `reposition at-
(Place): He is at home now
(Time). He came on Saturday at 4 o’clock in the after noon.
(Verbs of motion). We arrived at Victoria station.
(Verbs of emotion) He was amused at me

I am at work The teacher is at school

We come at once He will start at once playing basket ball.
The bank will lend money at any rate
The oranges were sold at fifty pesos each.
These apples are soled at one thousand pesos each

OTHER IMPORTANT PREPOSITIONS

There are many other prepositions used in English:
Away, back, before, behind, below, between, beyond, by, down, except,
for, forth, from, in, into, near, of, off, on, opposite, out, over, per, round,
through, to, together, towards, under, up, with, without, etc.
All the above words are preposition, and are frequently used in English.

VII. - THE CONJUNCTION

A conjunction is a word that joins words or sentences together.

Conjunctions are words which join together two or more similar parts of speech,
or two or more phrases or clauses.
Here are some examples:
Joining similar parts of speech;
I will eat fruit or fish or bread.

Joining phrases:
He laughed and he danced and he sang.

There are two kinds of conjunctions:

1. Coordinating conjunctions, which join together equivalent parts of

speech, phrases, or clauses, as in the above examples. The coordinating
conjunctions can join sentences by replacing full stops, question marks
and exclamation marks. The main coordinating conjunctions are:
And, but, or, either, neither, for, yet, moreover.

2. Subordinating conjunctions, which introduce a clause of less

importance than the main clause. Common subordinating conjunctions
are:
If, unless, as, because, since, although, after, before, except,
that, though, toll, until, while, whether, than, as well as, as
soon as, (etc), seeing that, in order that, so as, and yet.

Examples
I shall speak the truth, though the heavens fall.
As you are here, we may as well discuss our plans.
This is the worst accident that has happened since the railway
was constructed.
I will do the work if I have time.
He said that he could go

3. Some conjunctions are used in pairs and are known as correlative

conjunctions.
Money can be both a blessing and accurse.
We must choose either bus or taxi to go home.
As the twig bends, so the tree grows.
Not only are they heavy but they are also bulky.
Whether they leave or stay, the result will be the same.
VII. - INTERJECTIONS

The interjection is used to express some sudden feeling, but does not enter into
the construction of the sentence. These are words which are thrown in to
express a feeling or an attitude but which do not form an essential part of the
grammatical structure of the sentence. The most usual interjections or
exclamations are; O! Oh! Ah! What! Well done! Dear me! Good heavens!
Wow! Sh! Bravo! Ha! Hush! Hooray! Hurrah! Etc,
Please note the exclamation mark after the interjections.

SENTENCES
Now that the parts of speech have been specified above, now we can think
about forming sentences and to learn more in grammar.

When we want to express our thoughts we use a group of words. A group of

words that makes complete sense is a sentence.
A sentence is a group of words that makes complete sense. It must contain a
finite verb. It is used for three purposes: To make a statement, to make a
question, and to express a wish or command.

Statement: The drug pusher was arrested while drinking in the bar.
John can speak French.
The boy will do the work.
That is Mary’s bicycle.

Question:Is your taxi discomposed?

Is that Mary’s bicycle?
Can John speak French?
Will the boy do the work?
Have you had your lesson?
Command: Catch that man!
Be quiet!
Please come here
Come here please
Jane, answer the question
Please close the dore

Commands, questions and statements can be structured as simple or

compound or complex sentences.

SIMPLE SENTENCES

A simple sentence has just one finite ver. A finite verb is a verb that has a
subject.
Catch that man. (You catch that man.)
The drug pusher was arrested while drinking in the bar.
A long sequence of simple sentences would be very monotonous but if they are
used sensitively they can be very effective.

ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES

To analyze a sentence is to break it up into its separate parts and to show how
those parts are related to one another.

Every sentence is made up of two parts.

(1) What we speak about.
(2) What we say about it.

What we speak about is the SUBJECT.. The word or group of words that we
speak about in a sentence is called the subject. The subject is the “doer”
of the action.
What we say about it is the Subject is the PREDICATE. The predicate of a
sentence is the word or group of words that tells us something about the
subject.

Birds fly
In this sentence we speak about birds, and, therefore, “birds” is the SUBJECT.

We say they fly, therefore, “fly” is the PREDICATE.

The SUBJECT consists of “NAMING WORD.”

The PREDICATE consists of “DOING WORDS.”

There is generally a noun or a pronoun in the subject.

There is always a verb in the predicate.

TABULAR ANALYSIS

SUBJECT PREDICATE

Birds Fly

Some beautiful birds fly in and out of our barn

SUBJECT PREDICATE

Some beautiful birds Fly in and out of our barn

The farmer’s son is a very big boy.

 SUBJECT PREDICATE

The farmer’s son Is very big

Note. When there are more nouns than one in a sentence, we must be perfectly
clear which noun is the subject.

COMPOUND SENTENCES

Two or more simple sentences joined by coordinating conjunctions form a

compound sentence.
If a sentence contains two or more principal clauses, it is called a compound
sentence

A sentence that is made of two or more simple sentences joined by a

conjunction, or conjunctions, is called a compound sentence.
Examples:
The boy opened the door and walked into the room
John works hard but Richard is lazy
Shall I write to him or will you telephone?
John went to the baker’s shop for a loaf and Ellen helped her mother in
the house but Margaret sat listening to the radio.

Each of the sentences in a compound sentence makes complete sense by it

self, but we don’t always repeat the subject of the first sentence.
For example; the boy or he is left out of the second part in the sentence:
The boy opened the door and walked in the room.

The sentences in a compound sentence are all of the same importance. The
joined sentences of a compound sentence are sometimes called
coordinating clauses. The coordinated clauses of a compound sentence
could stand by themselves (sometime with the subject supplied).
The boy opened the door. He walked into the room.

Exercises (to do home works)

RULES

Rule 1.- A verb must be of the same Person and Number as its
Nominative.
The man sings. I am. She is. We are.

EXERCISE
 Correct the following:
 The hills was covered with snow
 We was in the garden at the time.
 Some streets is very dark
 A man with his dog were at the door.
 There is five books here, not four
 There were a man here asking for you.

Rule 2.- Two or more Singular Nominatives connected by And, require a

verb in plural. Example: James and Mary often sing together.

EXERCISE
Correct the Following sentences
 The Captain and the mate was washed overboard.
 You and he was in the same class.
 These men and I am going to the meeting.
 The man and his wife was taking a walk.

Rule 3. - Two or more Singular Nominatives connected by OR or NOR

require a verb in singular.

Note.- If the nominatives differ in person, then the verb agrees with the
nearest one.

If one Nominative is plural, then the verb is plural.

Exercise

Correct the following sentences:

 Either my brother or I has regularly visited him.

 The King or his collaborators has betrayed the people.
 Either Robert or William have taken it.
 Neither the Captain nor the crew was saved.
 Either George or the gardener have pulled the flowers.

Each, every, either, neither, everyone, every body, nobody, no one, take a
singular verb.
Example.- Every body loves a sailor
No one tells me the truth.

Rule 4.- The verb To Be require same case after it as it has before.
Example. It was she who was to blame.

Correct the following:

 It was him you saw at the window.
 You new quite well it was me
 Whether was it her or her sister who sang?
  If I were him I would not reply.
 I believe it was her that caused the trouble.
 Do you know whom I was broke the jug?

Rule 5.- The Past Participle is used after the verbs, Have and Be.

Exercise
Correct the following:
 She has tore her new book
 He has went away an hour ago
 They have did it again
 The pipe were froze last week
 You should have came sooner
 He has drank all the milk

RULE 6.- Two negatives must not be used to express the same thing.
Example: “I do not want no more tea”, The correct way should be: “I do not
want any more tea”.

EXERCISE
Correct the following:-
 She could not speak no louder
 We have never seen none of them since.
 The hens have not had no more meat today.
 After the accident he couldn’t remember nothing.
 We never saw no food for two days.

.
WORD BUILDING
A word in its simplest form is called a “ROOT” or PRIMARY WORD, as black,
board, saw, dust, bed, room.
Now if we combine two of those primary words we get a COMPOUND WORD,
blackboard, sawdust, and bedroom.

Nouns
EXERCISE
a. - Form compound Nouns from the following words:-
House, wives, foot, ball, table, cloth, life, belt, door, tomb, out, boot,
black, stone, gentle, grand, man, mother, father, water, maid, shed, song,
school, servant, bird, master, milk, motor, pick, tooth, cart, cup, pot, tea,
egg, light, post, sky, lamp, yard, time, church, piece, car.

b. - Make sentences using these compounds.

Give some additional examples.

Adjectives
Adjectives may be formed by combining two words:
Example:.- Lion-hearted, everlasting.
EXERCISE:
Form compound Adjectives from the following words:
Head, world, in, strong, wide, land, hot, lasting, purse, white, ever, proud,
making, health, money, skill, giving, fashioned, full, blue, right, red,
spectacled, well, up, ill, old, deserved, hill.

Make sentences using these compounds.

Give additional examples.

Verbs
Form compound Verbs from the following words:-
Take, full, flow, over, fill, wit, out, draw, strip, hold, under, with, bid, say,
up, mine, for, gain, run, wash, safe, white, guard, stand.
Make sentences using these compounds.
Give additional examples.

FORMATION OF NOUNS, ADJECTIVES AND VERBS FROM

EACH OTHER,

Words are formed from each other in three ways:-

1. - By a CHANGE IN THE WORD ITSELF, as grieve, grief.
2. - BY A PREFEX, as come, income.
3. - BY a SUFFIX, as wise, wisdom.
Note:- Prefix is a syllable placed before a word.
Suffix is a syllable placed after a word.

NOUNS FORMED FROM NOUNS

1. - By a change in the word
NOUN NOUN

Arc arch
Bank bench
Dale dell

2. - By a Prefix
NOUN NOUN
Cycle bi-cycle
Rest un-rest
Justice in-justice
Noon after-noon

3. - By a Suffix.

NOUN NOUN
Physic physic-ian
Peasant peasant- ry
Hero hero-ism
 Pilgrim pilgrim-age
EXERCISE
Form Nouns from the following nouns:- Day, eagle, farm, infant, slave, engine,
drug, friend, coat, sense, stream, king, coal, surgeon, workman, knight,
neighbor, music, cash, bank, patriot, refuge, ice, part, flower, shade.

NOUNS FORMED FROM ADJECTIVES

By a suffix.

ADJECTIVE NOUN
Apt aptitude
Absent absent-ee
Content content-ment
Merry merriment
Obedient obedience
Sincere sincerity
Decent decency

EXERCISE

a.- Form Nouns from the following Adjectives:- Strong, secure, vacant, young,
happy, rude, kind, transparent, royal, warm, feeble, wide, free, true, private,
deep, brilliant, long, just, innocent, hard, rapid, weak.

NOUNS FORMED FROM VERBS

1.- By a change in the word.

VERB NOUN VERB NOUN
Advise advice sell sale
Choose choice feed food

2.- By a prefix

VERB NOUN VERB NOUN

Cry out-cry look out-look

Fit mis –fit set on –set

3. - By a suffix.

VERB NOUN VERB NOUN

School school-ar govern govern-or

Extend exten-sion please pleasure
Spin spin-ster move move-ment

EXRECISE
Form Nouns from the following Verbs:- Feed, sail, explain, judge, excel, repent,
study, attend, preside, serve, abound, amuse, depart, agree, rebel, conquer,
manage, beg, occupy. Oppress, invent, inspect, create, prove, move, let, sing,
come, act.

- Make sentences containing these new nouns.

ADJECTIVES FORMED FROM NOUNS

1. - By a change in the word.

NOUN ADJECTIVE NOUN ADJECTIVE

Heat hot pride proud

2.- By a prefix.
NOUN ADJECTIVE
Door out- door

3.- By a suffix.
NOUN ADJECTIVE NOUN ADJECTIVE
Voice voice-less gold gold- den
Peril peril –ous skill skil – ful
Wealth wealthy autumn autumn-al

EXERCISE
Form Adjectives from the following Nouns:- Home, victory, joy, mountain,
people, anxiety, glory, fool, horror, ocean, guilt, toil, affection, courage, single,
circle, splendor, majesty, honour, wool, wool, poet, health, war, fate, leather,
nation, voice.

Make sentences containing the new formed adjectives.

ADJECTIVES FORMED FROM ADJECTIVES

1.- By a prefix.
ADJECTIVE ADJECTIVE ADJECTIVE ADJECTIVE
Happy un- happy secure un- secure
Agreeable un- agreeable responsible ir - responsible

2.- By a suffix.
ADJECTIVE ADJECTIVE
Many mani- fold

EXERCISE
Make adjectives from the following adjectives:-
Capable, legal, glad, ripe, blue, wise, honest, pure, regular, possible, noble,
true, agreeable, proper, holy, fair, safe, passable, religious.

b. - Make sentences containing the new formed adjectives.

ADJECTIVES FORMED FROM VERBS

By a suffix

VERB ADJECTIVE

Forget forget-full
Tire tire-some

EXERCISE
a) Form adjectives from the following verbs:- Read, allow, eat, move,
meddle, elect.
b) Ma sentences containing the new formed adjectives.

VERBS FORMED FROM NOUNS

In forming verbs from nouns, there are three ways to form verbs.

1.) By a change in the word.

NOUN VERB
Glass glaze
Drop drip
Cloth clothe
Knot knit

2.) By a Prefix.

NOUN VERB
Roll en-roll
Frost de-frost
3.-) By a Suffix
NOUN VERB
Length length-en
Magnet magnet-ise

EXERCISE
a) Form Verbs from the following Nouns:- frost, life, gold, knee, game, roll,
head, blood, knot, strength, danger, camp, prison.
b) Make sentences containing the new formed verbs from noun.

VERBS FORMED FROM ADJECTIVES

Verbs can be formed from adjectives in the following ways:

1.- By a change in the word.

ADJECTIVE VERB
Full fill
Hale heal

2.- By a prefix.
ADJECTIVE VERB
Fine re-fine
Able enable
Dim be-dim
Large en-large
3.- By a suffix

ADJECTIVE VERB
Simple simplify
Clear clarify
Dark darken
Civil civil-ise

EXERCISE
a) Form Verbs from the following adjectives:- pure, light, dark, calm, large,
numb, fine, full, clear, fertile, simple, just, rich, dim, feeble.

b) Make sentences with the new verbs formed from adjectives.

VERBS FORMED FROM VERBS

Verbs can be formed from verbs, by three ways:

1.- By a change in the word.

VERB VERB
Sit set
Wake watch

2.- By a Prefix
VERB VERB
Bid for-bid
Spell mis-spel

3. - By a Suffix
 VERB VERB
Beat batter
Shove shuffle

EXERCISE
a) Form Verbs from the following Verbs:- Rise, tie, do, believe, chat, lead,
behave, sprinkle, fall
b) Make sentences containing the new formed verbs.