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Chapter 1: Introduction
1.1 Initiative
The plasma antenna R&D project has proceeded over the last year at the
Australian National University in response to a DSTO (Defence Science and
Technology Organization) contract to develop a new antenna solution that
minimizes antenna delectability by radar. Since then, an investigation of the
wider technical issues of existing antenna systems has revealed areas where
plasma antennas might be useful. The project attracts the interest of the
industrial groups involved in such diverse areas as fluorescent lighting,
telecommunications and radar. Plasma antennas have a number of potential
advantages for antenna design.
When a plasma element is not energized, it is difficult to detect by radar. Even
when it is energized, it is transparent to the transmissions above the plasma
frequency, which falls in the microwave region. Plasma elements can be
energized and de–energized in seconds, which prevents signal degradation.
When a particular plasma element is not energized, its radiation does not affect
nearby elements. HF CDMA Plasma antennas will have low probability of
intercept( LP) and low probability of detection( LPD ) in HF communications.
Initial studies have concluded that a plasma antenna's performance is equal to a
copper wire antenna in every respect. Plasma antennas can be used for any
transmission and/or modulation technique: continuous wave (CW), phase
modulation, impulse, AM, FM, chirp, spread spectrum or other digital
techniques. And the plasma antenna can be used over a large frequency range
up to 20GHz and employ a wide variety of gases (for example neon, argon,
helium, krypton, mercury vapor and xenon). The same is true as to its value as a
receive antenna.
1.2 Organization of the Report
This report provides an overview of the subject Augmented Reality, its
requirements and applications.
The outline of the report is as follows –
Chapter 2 provides the historical background of the subject.
Chapter 3 provides idea about the hardware requirements for the
implementation of the subject in daily life. It also introduces different
technologies used for the implementation.
all of our revenues. Initial studies have concluded that a plasma antenna's
performance is equal to a copper wire antenna in every respect. Plasma antennas
can be used for any transmission and/or modulation technique: continuous wave
(CW), phase modulation, impulse, AM, FM, chirp, spread spectrum or other
digital techniques. And the plasma antenna can be used over a large frequency
range up to 20GHz and employ a wide variety of gases (for example neon,
argon, helium, krypton, mercury vapor and Zenon). The same is true as to its
value as a receive antenna.
1)No antenna ringing provides an improved signal to noise ratio and reduces
multipath signal distortion.
2)Reduced radar cross section provides stealth due to the non-metallic elements.
3)Changes in the ion density can result in instantaneous changes in bandwidth
over wide dynamic ranges.
4)After the gas is ionized, the plasma antenna has virtually no noise floor.
5)While in operation, a plasma antenna with a low ionization level can be
decoupled from an adjacent high-frequency transmitter.
make the real target appear to disappear or move about randomly. It is used
effectively to protect aircraft from guided missiles. Most air forces use ECM to
protect their aircraft from attack. It has also been deployed by military ships and
recently on some advanced tanks to fool laser/IR guided missiles. It is
frequently coupled with stealth advances so that the ECM systems have an
easier job.
7)Phased array element replacements.
8) EMI/ECI mitigation
9)Detection and tracking of ballistic missiles
10)Side and back lobe reduction
Military antenna installations can be quite sophisticated and just the antenna
portion of a communications or radar installation on a ship or submarine can
cost in the millions of dollars. Plasma antenna technology has commercial
applications in telemetry, broad-band communications, ground penetrating
radar, navigation, weather radar, wind shear detection and collision avoidance,
high-speed data (for example Internet) communication spread spectrum
communication, and cellular radiation protection.
1.7ADVANTAGES:
The advantage of a plasma antenna is that it can appear and disappear in a few
millionths of a second. This means that when the antenna is not required, it can
be made to disappear, leaving behind the gas – filled column that has little
effect on the electromagnetic fields in the proximity of the tube. The same will
be true for fibre glass and plastic tubes, which are also under consideration. The
other advantage of plasma antenna is that even when they are ionized and in use
at the lower end of the radio spectrum, say HF communications, they are still
near transparent to fields at microwave frequencies. The same effect is observed
with the use of ionosphere, which is plasma. Every night amateur radio
operators bounce their signals off the ionosphere to achieve long distance
communications, whilst microwave satellite communication signals pass
through the ionosphere.
The following technological concepts are important to plasma antennas:
1.Higher power
Increased power can be achieved in the plasma antenna than in the
corresponding metal antenna because of lower Ohmic losses. Plasmas have a
much wider range of power capability than metals as evident from low powered
plasma in fluorescent bulbs to extremely high-powered plasmas in the Princeton
University experimental fusion reactors.
In this range, a high-powered plasma antenna is still low powered plasma. Since
plasmas do not melt, the plasma antennas can provide heat and fire resistance.
The higher achievable power and directivity of the plasma antenna can enhance
target discrimination and track ballistic missiles at the S and X band.
2. Enhanced bandwidth
- By the use of electrodes or lasers the plasma density can be controlled. The
theoretical calculations on the controlled variation of plasma density in space
and time suggest that greater bandwidth of the plasma antenna can be achieved
than the corresponding metal antenna of the same geometry. This enhanced
bandwidth can improve discrimination.
3. EMI/ECI
- The plasma antenna is transparent to incoming electromagnetic signals in the
low density or turned off mode. This eliminates or diminishes EMI/ECI thereby
producing stealth. Several plasma antennas can have their electron densities
adjusted so that they can operate in close proximity and one antenna can operate
invisible to others. In this physical arrangement mutual side lobe and back lobe
clutter is highly reduced and hence jamming and clutter is reduced.
4. Higher efficiency and gain
- Radiation efficiency in the plasma antenna is higher due to lower Ohmic
losses in the plasma. Standing wave efficiency is higher because phase
conjugate matching with the antenna feeds can be achieved by adjusting the
plasma density and can be maintained during reconfiguration. Estimates
indicate a 20db improvement in antenna efficiency.
Chapter 2
LITERATURE SURVEY
A newer application of the plasma antenna is in the development and evolution
of anti-crash features found on many newer makes and models of automobiles.
Integrated with the on board computer system of the automobiles, the feature
can interface with wireless technology to identify potential crash incidents and
take evasive measures to prevent or at least lessen the severity of the impact.
Newer systems with plasma antenna technology can note when a vehicle
traveling in front has stopped suddenly and automatically begin to reduce speed
and apply breaks in order to avoid a collision. In a similar approach, this type of
technology can also identify situations in which the driver is veering slightly
onto the shoulder and take specific steps to get the car back on the road. For
travellers who may be weary and not concentrating on the road properly,
technology of this type can go a long way toward preventing injuries and even
minimizing the number of deaths from road related accidents
This is a fundamental change from traditional antenna design that generally
employs solid metal wires as the conducting element. We believe our plasma
antenna offers numerous advantages including stealth for military applications
and higher digital performance in commercial applications. We also believe our
technology can compete in many metal antenna applications. Our initial efforts
have focused on military markets. General Dynamics' Electric Boat Corporation
sponsored over $160,000 of development in 2000 accounting for substantially
all of our revenues.
The design further provides the opportunity to construct an antenna that can be
compact and dynamically reconfigured for frequency, direction, bandwidth,
gain and beam width. Plasma antenna technology will enable antennas to be
designed that are efficient, low in weight and smaller in size than traditional
solid wire antennas.
Chapter 3
CONSTRUCTION AND ANALYSIS
3.1. Experimental Setup of Plasma Antenna
The plasma antenna is constructed from the 12 mm outer diameter and 10 mm
inner diameter and 10 mm inner diameter glass tube, and in-side is filled with
Ar gas. On both side of the tube are two hollow cathode type cylindrical
electrodes shown in figure 4.1.Two wires connect electrodes with a high voltage
power sup-ply. When the plasma is first turned on, the applied volt-age has to
exceed the breakdown voltage of roughly 1.5 KV, and then the discharge turns
into current control mode at a fixed voltage of 800 V - 850 V. The discharge
current ranges from 5A to 25A, the diameter of the plasma column is about 18
mm.
Figure 4.1. The Structure of The Plasma Antenna Excited By High Voltage.
The diagram and the experimental photos of the mono-pole plasma antenna
excited by the surface wave are given in Figures 4.2. The plasma frequency of
the AC-biased plasma antenna is about 8 GHz. A network analyzer is connected
to two copper foils that couple the signal to the plasma antenna. The copper
foils are 3 cm wide, two coupling locations were tested, at the bottom end and at
the center of the tube, but only the end coupling case is presented here.
Figure 4.2. The Structure of The Monopole Plasma Antenna Excited By Surface
Wave
In Figure 4.3, the gain of the AC-biased plasma antenna and the plasma antenna
excited by surface wave are. schematically presented, from which we can see
that the AC-biased plasma antenna has a larger gain compared to the plasma
antenna excited by the surface wave, when the electron-ion temperature and the
density of the plasma antenna are both high.
Figure 4.3. The Gain of The Plasma Antenna AC-Biased And The Plasma
Antenna Excited By The Surface Wave.
In the Figure 4.4, the gain of the plasma antenna of AC-biased and the surface
wave excited in the lower electron temperature are given, the plasma density of
antenna and the electron temperature of plasma antenna are both low. From
Figure 4.4, it can be found that when the frequency of signal is below 4 GHz,
the plasma antenna excited by the surface wave has a larger gain, when the
frequency of the signal is above 4 GHz, the AC-biased plasma antenna has a
larger gain. It also can be concluded that the AC-biased plasma antenna has a
larger gain than that of the plasma antenna excited by the surface wave in most
cases.
Figure 4.4. The Gain Of The Plasma Antenna AC-Biased And The Plasma
Antenna Excited By The Surface Wave.
In Figure 4.5, the gain of AC-biased plasma antenna of the different excited
power are given, from the results above, it can found that the different excited
power will lead to the different gain of the plasma antenna, and the higher
excited power can cause the higher gain of the plasma antenna, and when the
power is high enough and the density of the plasma antenna changes slightly
and the gain of the plasma antenna presents stable and reaches the larger value.
From the figures mentioned above, We can conclude that the plasma antenna of
AC-biased and excited by the surface wave exhibit the same general trend of
rising gain, especially when the frequency is above 8 GHz.
A plasma can be generated from neutral molecules that are separated into
negative electrons and positive ions by an ionization process (e.g., laser heating
or spark discharge). The positive ions and neutral particles are much heavier
than the electrons, and therefore the electrons can be considered as moving
through a continuous stationary fluid of ions and neutrals with some viscous
friction. Furthermore, the propagation characteristics of electromagnetic (EM)
waves in a uniform ionized medium can be inferred from the equation of motion
of a single “typical” electron. Such a medium is called a “cold plasma.” This
model would be rigorous if the ionized medium was comprised entirely of
electrons that do not interact with the background particles (neutrals and ions)
and posses thermal speeds that are negligible with respect to the phase velocity
of the EM wave.
The intrinsic impedance of the plasma medium is
Figure 3.1 shows the magnitude of the reflection coefficient at an infinite plane
boundary between plasma and free space, which is given by the formula
The impedance of free space is ho 377 ohms. From the figure 3.1 it is evident
that at frequencies below the plasma frequency, the plasma is a good reflector.
Loss is plotted in Figure 3.2 for several electron densities. This shows that
plasma can be a good absorber once the EM wave enters the plasma medium, a
feature that has been exploited in the design of plasma radar absorbing material
(RAM) for stealth applications.
Figure 3.2: Loss In db/m Below The Plasma Frequency For Several Electron
Densities (v=0).
For neutral plasma the positive and negative charges are uniformly distributed,
so that on a macroscopic scale it is electrically neutral. Plasma oscillations (or
space-charge oscillations) can arise when a disturbance causes a displacement
of the charges, which sets up an electric field that acts to restore them to their
equilibrium positions. However, inertia carries the charges back past their
neutral positions and an opposite electric field is set up. In the absence of
collisions (damping) the back and forth plasma oscillations continue
indefinitely.
Plasma antenna technology employs ionized gas enclosed in a tube (or other
enclosure) as the conducting element of an antenna. This is a fundamental
change from traditional antenna design that generally employs solid metal wires
as the conducting element. Ionized gas is an efficient conducting element with a
number of important advantages. Since the gas is ionized only for the time of
transmission or reception, "ringing" and associated effects of solid wire antenna
design are eliminated. The design allows for extremely short pulses, important
to many forms of digital communication and radars.
When gas is electrically charged, or ionized to a plasma state it becomes
conductive, allowing radio frequency (RF) signals to be transmitted or received.
We employ ionized gas enclosed in a tube as the conducting element of an
antenna. When the gas is not ionized, the antenna element ceases to exist.
Above the plasma frequency, its shape and dielectric properties can be designed
to act as a lens. For example, a column with circular cross section and varying
radial electron density can be used to scan a beam passing through it. This
concept has been demonstrated using a helicon wave to excite the plasma. The
frequency of the deflected beam was 36 GHz, the peak density approximately
7´1018 /m3, and the insertion loss ~2.0 dB. The sweep time for a 30-degree
scan was 200 microseconds, which was limited by the decay rate of the plasma.
Figure3.6 shows a comparison of radiation patterns from plasma and metal
reflector antennas. The plasma antenna shows lower side lobes, especially at
wide angles, due to its higher surface resistivity compared to a solid conductor.
charge wave that propagates down the walls of the tube and eventually ionizes
the gas inside.
Figure 3.9: The Surfatron Feed. Left: Operational Principle. Right: Hardware
Implementation
Microwave Devices:
4.6.1 Filters and Phase Shifters
One of the first proposed applications for plasmas was a microwave band pass
filter. Figure 3.14(a) shows one possible technique, where the plasma column is
either transparent, and the input signal is dissipated in the load, or reflective,
allowing the input signal to return to the circulator and exit the device.
Therefore, by changing the plasma parameters, and hence the plasma frequency,
the pass band of the filter can be modified. A second design is shown in Figure
3.14(b). a plasma operating near resonance generates azimuth and radial
components parallel to the probe. Away from resonance there are no field
components parallel to the pickup probe. Variants of these two circuits can also
serve as phase shifters. For the method in Figure 3.14(a) multiple plasma
columns could be inserted in one arm so that reflection from, or transmission
through, each plasma column is possible. Variable time delay can be obtained
by switching in different numbers of segments between the plasma columns.
(a)
(b)
Figure 3.14 Two Band Pass Filter Using Plasma
4.6.2. Microwave Tubes
5.2. Disadvantages
Ionization and decay times limit scanning
Plasma volumes must be stable and repeatable
Ionizer adds weight and volume
Ionizer increases power consumption
Not durable or flexible
Higher ionization energy than for a tube
5.3 Comparison
Table 5.1
Conventional Antenna Plasma Antenna
Copper-conducting material Plasma- Conducting material
Lower power
Low Efficiency, Gain Higher power due to ohmic loss
Large in size and more weight Higher Efficiency, Gain
More noisy
Small in size and less weight
Lower noise
5.4 Applications
Plasma antennas offer distinct advantages and can compete with most metal
antenna applications. The plasma antenna's advantages over conventional metal
elements are most obvious in military applications where stealth and electronic
warfare are primary concerns. Other important military factors are weight, size
and the ability to reconfigure.
Potential military applications include:
Shipboard/submarine antenna replacements.
Unmanned air vehicle sensor antennas.
IFF ("identification friend or foe") land-based vehicle antennas.
Stealth aircraft antenna replacements.
Broad band jamming equipment including for spread-spectrum emitters.
ECM (electronic counter-measure) antennas.
Phased array element replacements.
EMI/ECI mitigation
Detection and tracking of ballistic missiles
Side and back lobe reduction
Military antenna installations can be quite sophisticated and just the antenna
portion of a communications or radar installation on a ship or submarine can
cost in the millions of dollars.
Plasma antenna technology has commercial applications in telemetry, broad-
band Communications, ground penetrating radar, navigation, weather radar,
wind shear detection and collision avoidance, high-speed data (for example
Internet) communication spread spectrum communication, and cellular radiation
protection.
5.5 Conclusion:
The research may one day have far reaching applications from robust military
antennas through to greatly improved external television aerials. Antennas
constructed of metal can be big and bulky, and are normally fixed in place. The
fact that metal structures cannot be easily moved when not in use limits some
aspects of antenna array design. It can also pose problems when there is a
requirement to locate many antennas in a confined area.
REFERENCES
U. Inan and A. Inan, Electromagnetic Waves, Prentice-Hall, 2000.
ASI Technology Corporation web page: http://www.asiplasma.com
www.Wikipedia.com.