Electrical Principles

Learner Workbook
(Learner Copy)
CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................................... 3
AIM..................................................................................................................................................... 3
OBJECTIVE....................................................................................................................................... 3
EXERCISE 1...................................................................................................................................... 4
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A VOLTMETER AND AN AMMETER........................................................6
EXERCISE 2...................................................................................................................................... 6
HOW TO MEASURE VOLTAGE AND CURRENT................................................................................8
EXERCISE 3...................................................................................................................................... 8
CAPACITANCE................................................................................................................................... 15
EXERCISE 4.................................................................................................................................... 15
VOLTAGE AND CURRENT CURVES FOR A CAPACITOR............................................................17
EXERCISE 5.................................................................................................................................... 17
MAGNETISM....................................................................................................................................... 20
EXERCISE 6.................................................................................................................................... 22
MOVING COIL METER....................................................................................................................... 24
PRACTICAL EXERCISE 7 - MOVING COIL METER......................................................................25
ATOMS................................................................................................................................................ 29
EXERCISE 8.................................................................................................................................... 30
ELECTRO MOTIVE FORCE............................................................................................................... 31
BATTERY............................................................................................................................................ 32
EXERCISE 9.................................................................................................................................... 32
D.C. GENERATOR.............................................................................................................................. 33
A.C. GENERATOR.............................................................................................................................. 34
ALTERNATING CURRENT (A.C.)................................................................................................... 35
DIRECT CURRENT (D.C.)............................................................................................................... 36
PROPERTIES OF ELECTRICAL SIGNALS.......................................................................................38
ROOT MEAN SQUARE (RMS) VALUES............................................................................................39
RELAYS.............................................................................................................................................. 40
EXERCISE 10.................................................................................................................................. 40
EXERCISE 11.................................................................................................................................. 42

Learner Workbook (Learner Copy) Page 2 of 43

INTRODUCTION

AIM

 To cover the basic principles required to become an Electrician

OBJECTIVE

 To understand the theory and practical circuits within the course

Learner Workbook (Learner Copy) Page 3 of 43

 EXERCISE 1

1. What is the definition of Voltage?

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2. Name the Unit of Voltage?

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3. What is the symbol for Voltage?

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4. What is the definition of Current?

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5. Name the Unit of Current?

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6. What is the symbol for Current?

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Learner Workbook (Learner Copy) Page 4 of 43

 7. What is the definition of Resistance?

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8. What is the name given to Unit for Resistance?

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9. What is the symbol for Resistance?

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Learner Workbook (Learner Copy) Page 5 of 43

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A VOLTMETER AND AN AMMETER

To understand the difference between a voltmeter and an ammeter and the

resistance it offers when we connect it to the circuits, first, check that the meter is set
to read voltage.

Red lead to '+'

Black lead to ‒

These settings are correct for the multimeter to read 'voltage' and 'resistance'.

EXERCISE 2

With a partner, set one meter to read 'ohms' and the other meter to read 'voltage'.
Connect the two 'red' leads and the two 'black' leads together, and press firmly.

Notice that the resistance of the Voltmeter is very high

1. Does the voltmeter have a high resistance?

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Look at the whole of the meter display before recording the reading.

Change one meter to read 'current' - Change the 'red' lead to the 'current range' of
the meter by unplugging it and moving it across.

Red lead to '+A'

Black lead to ‒

2. On the resistance meter connect the two leads together. What is the
'resistance' of the two leads?

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3. Connect the two 'red' leads together and the two black leads together.
What is the meter reading?

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Learner Workbook (Learner Copy) Page 6 of 43

 EXERCISE 2 (continued)

4. Take away the 'lead resistance' from the 'meter reading'. What is the
resistance of the 'Ammeter'?

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5. Does the ammeter have a low resistance?

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Learner Workbook (Learner Copy) Page 7 of 43

HOW TO MEASURE VOLTAGE AND CURRENT

EXERCISE 3

1. On the diagram below, draw wires to show how the voltage of a battery is
measured.

2. To measure voltage the meter is connected in what?

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3. On the circuit below, draw wires to show how the current is measured.

4. To measure current the meter is connected in what?

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Learner Workbook (Learner Copy) Page 8 of 43

 EXERCISE 3 (continued)

5. What is the 'golden rule' to measure current?

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6. Using the digital multimeter, set the power supply to 6.00V. Measure the
current drawn by the 6v lamp.

Draw a diagram showing how the circuit would look.

7. The voltage equals six, what does the current equal?

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8. What would happen if you connected your lamp to a 12v supply? (Explain
your answer)

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Learner Workbook (Learner Copy) Page 9 of 43

 EXERCISE 3 (continued)

9. How can this problem be overcome and how does it protect the lamp?

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10. Draw a diagram of your circuit below so that the lamp will work off 12v.

11. Work out the value of the component required.

Learner Workbook (Learner Copy) Page 10 of 43

 EXERCISE 3 (continued)

A Resistor of your calculated value is not available, the nearest in stock is 100Ω.

Although the colour bands say it is 100Ω, due to manufacturing tolerances it is rare it
is exactly 100Ω.

12 Measure your resistor with the multimeter set on Ω and calculate the
supply voltage required.

Measured Value =

13. Draw a circuit below (the lamp voltage is still 6v).

14. Calculate the voltage across the resistor and the supply voltage.

15. Set the supply voltage to 10.98V and the lamp will glow at the correct
brightness.

Learner Workbook (Learner Copy) Page 11 of 43

 EXERCISE 3 (continued)

16. Set the power supply accurately to the voltage calculated above with the
digital meter.

Fill the results in Table 1 below.

Calculated V
V across lamp
across R
Measured V Measured V
across R across lamp
Calculated I Measured I
Table 1

17. Draw a circuit below for a supply voltage approximately 24v.

18. Calculate the value of the component required.

19. The nearest value would be 270Ω, rework calculations to find the required
supply voltage.

Learner Workbook (Learner Copy) Page 12 of 43

 EXERCISE 3 (continued)

20. Fill in Table 2 below.

Calculated V V across lamp

across R

Measured V Measured V
across R across lamp

Calculated I Measured I

Table 2

21. What do you notice about the 270Ω resistor? Explain what is happening
and why.

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22. What would happen if you connect the circuit shown below?

270Ω

24V
CH328_Circuit 3

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Learner Workbook (Learner Copy) Page 13 of 43

 EXERCISE 3 (continued)

23. Calculate the current flowing in the circuit.

24. Looking at the results of the above calculation, what would the resistor do?

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Learner Workbook (Learner Copy) Page 14 of 43

CAPACITANCE

A capacitor can be considered to be like a small rechargeable battery. It can store

electrical charge.

A basic capacitor consists of two plates separated by an insulator, called the

'Dielectric'.

The unit of capacitance is the 'Farad' though we usually find fractions of a Farad -
microfarad (μF) and nanofarad (nF).

EXERCISE 4

1. What governs the size of a capacitor?

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Capacitor
1,000µF

+ 10V –
CH329_Capacitor

Electrolytic Capacitor (polarity conscious

Electrolytic Capacitor (non-polarity conscious)

Symbol 'C' Denotes a Capacitor

2. Connect up the above circuit. What does the lamp do?

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Learner Workbook (Learner Copy) Page 15 of 43

 EXERCISE 4 (continued)

Remember that the capacitor is like a small re-chargeable battery. When the current
is flowing, the lamp will light; when the current is not flowing the lamp will be unlit.

3. What is happening to the current?

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4. What is the voltage across the capacitor doing whilst current is flowing?

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5. What limits the current when the circuit is first turned on?

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Learner Workbook (Learner Copy) Page 16 of 43

 VOLTAGE AND CURRENT CURVES FOR A CAPACITOR

We will now look at the voltage and current curves for a capacitor.

Obviously it takes time for the capacitor to charge up. The formula for the charge
time for a capacitor is T = R x C

Where T is in seconds
R is in ohms
C is in Farads (The Farad is the unit of Capacitance)

For our capacitor, 4µ7 (T wants to be about 5 seconds)

EXERCISE 5

1. Work out 'R' (Assume T = 4.7S)

2. If a capacitor is fully discharged what opposition to the flow of current

does it offer?

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3. To set the ammeter to the correct range, work out the maximum current
flowing in the circuit.

The charge and discharge curves for a capacitor are 'exponential' curves.

After 1 time constant (5 seconds) the capacitor will have charged up to 63.2% of the
supply voltage. This leaves 36.8% left. After 2 time constants, it will have charged
up to 63.2% + (63.2% of the 36.8% that was left), etc.

Electronically speaking the capacitor is said to be charged after 5T (time constants).

Learner Workbook (Learner Copy) Page 17 of 43
EXERCISE 5 (continued)

4. Set the power supply to 10.0V and connect up the circuit below.
Make sure that the capacitor is discharged - momentarily connect a piece of wire
between the two ends of the capacitor; make the connection several times. Turn on
the power supply.

TIME (S) VOLTAGE CURRENT

1MΩ 0
2.5
R
'C' 5
4µ7F 10
15
V
20
+ 10V –
CH330_Circuit 4 25
30
Table 3
5. Complete Table 3 above. V
V
6. Plot a graph using the information entered
in table 3 above. I
Your graph should look like the example to right
when plotted.
0 T

Learner Workbook (Learner Copy) Page 18 of 43

 EXERCISE 5 (continued)

7. At time zero what is the voltage on the capacitor?

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8. At time zero what is the current through the capacitor?

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9. In your own words describe why the above is so?

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This is how you start some single-phase motors. (This is worth remembering if an
A.C. Machines Course is to be undertaken).

Tip for remembering the above 'C I V I L'

In a Capacitive Circuit Current (I) leads the Voltage (V) by 90° as in the graph
shown previously.

The Rotation of Phasor diagrams (which is covered later) is anti-clockwise.

Learner Workbook (Learner Copy) Page 19 of 43

MAGNETISM

Certain types of iron ore possess the property of attracting small pieces of iron. This
property is known as 'magnetism' and, as the ore possesses magnetism in its natural
state, it is known as a 'natural' magnet.

It was found that this magnetism could be transferred to iron or steel when the iron or
steel was said to be magnetised and could in turn attract other pieces of iron or steel.

If iron filings are sprinkled onto a piece of paper with a magnet underneath, 'lines of
force' will appear, similar to those indicated in figure 1 below.

Lines of Force

Bar Magnet

Figure 1 - Lines of Force

The lines of force are in the direction of north to south poles of the magnet.

Similar experiments have been done and it has been found that 'like' poles repel
each other and 'opposite' poles attract.

With a compass needle held near a conductor carrying current it was noted that the
needle was deflected. If the current were switched off then the needle would go back
to pointing towards the North Pole.

Plotting the lines of force round the conductor resulted in Figure 2 below.

CH331_Lines of Force

Figure 2 - Lines of Force

Learner Workbook (Learner Copy) Page 20 of 43

MAGNETISM (continued)
The cross and the dot represent which way the current is flowing in the central circle
conductor. Imagine you are throwing a dart at a dartboard. You see the cross
feathers of the dart last and so convention says the current is flowing away from you
and into dartboard. Likewise current flowing out of the dartboard would mean the
current is flowing towards you, as you would see the point (dot) of the arrow first.

Mr Fleming devised a rule to remember this called the 'Corkscrew' Right Hand Rule.

Direction of Magnetic Field

F
Corkscrew CH332_Right-hand Screw Rule

Figure 3 - Corkscrew Right Hand Rule

Imagine you are screwing a screw in. The point of the screw would be the point of
the corkscrew (or dart), the head would be the handle of the corkscrew (or cross
feathers of a dart). Rotating your hand would indicate the lines of force around that
conductor, assuming the current was flowing away from you as in this case.

If a conductor is wound into a coil, the lines of force that would be achieved if we
plotted them out, are shown in figure 4 below. These lines represent a bar magnet
as shown previously in figure 1.

N S

CH333_Lines of Force

Figure 4 - Lines of Force

Learner Workbook (Learner Copy) Page 21 of 43

MAGNETISM (continued)

Introducing an iron or magnetic core increases the lines of flux and you get a
stronger magnet.

Electron
Flow

Figure 5 - Lines of Flux without Iron Core

Electron
Flow

Figure 6 - Lines of Flux with Iron Core

An iron core inside a coil becomes magnetised and adds lines of flux increasing the
strength of the field. All lines of flux pass through the iron for maximum effect.

EXERCISE 6

1. Is it Voltage or Current that produces the magnetic field?

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Learner Workbook (Learner Copy) Page 22 of 43

 EXERCISE 6 (continued)

To apply what has been learned so far, carry out the following task.

2. How does the bell shown below work?

Battery Bell Push

Spring
Soft Iron Armature

Contact Point
Electromagnet
Bell

Hammer

CH334_Electric Bell

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Learner Workbook (Learner Copy) Page 23 of 43

MOVING COIL METER

3. Label parts 1 to 8 on diagram below.

1 1.
2
2.
8
3.

4.
7

5.

6.
6
5
7.

4 8.
3

CH335_Moving Coil Meter

Figure 7 - Moving Coil Meter

Figure 8 - Assembled Arrangement of Moving Coil

Learner Workbook (Learner Copy) Page 24 of 43

 PRACTICAL EXERCISE 7 - MOVING COIL METER

1. In your own words explain how the moving coil meter works. You must
include the current path through the coil, the magnetic field around the
coil and permanent magnet field.

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Learner Workbook (Learner Copy) Page 25 of 43

 PRACTICAL EXERCISE 7 - MOVING COIL METER (continued)

VOLTMETER

As mentioned previously, current produces the magnetic field around a conductor. A

typical moving coil meter movement has a full scale current (F.S.D.) of 100µA and a
coil resistance of 3K65Ω.

2. Work out the voltage drop across the coil when at F.S.D.

3. How can the meter be made to read voltage with a F.S.D. of 10V?

Draw a circuit and work out the component value.

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Learner Workbook (Learner Copy) Page 26 of 43

 PRACTICAL EXERCISE 7 - MOVING COIL METER (continued)

4. What is the total resistance of the voltmeter?

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5. How does this reading compare with the digital voltmeter?

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AMMETER

6. How can the moving coil be modified to read 0 to 1A? (Draw a diagram to
indicate how this would be done, working out the components required)

Current splits up in a parallel circuit. If 1A is to be measured, then a resistor will

have to be connected in parallel with the meter.

Learner Workbook (Learner Copy) Page 27 of 43

 PRACTICAL EXERCISE 7 - MOVING COIL METER (continued)

7. Work out the components required to modify the moving coil meter.

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8. What is the total resistance of the ammeter?

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9. How does this compare with the digital ammeter?

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Learner Workbook (Learner Copy) Page 28 of 43

 ATOMS

Protons +ve charge in the nucleus

Shells
Neutrons neutral (have no charge)
Electrons –ve charge orbiting the nucleus

Maximum number of electrons in atom

shells:

2 in the first shell

8 in the second
18 in the third
32 in the fourth Figure 9 - Copper Atom

Figure 9 above right shows a Copper Atom. It has 29 protons and 29 electrons.

In the core (nucleus) of the atom are

Nucleus
protons and neutrons. Around the
Outer Shell containing only one Electron
nucleus are the electrons, which are
orbiting three dimensionally in
defined orbits.

The outer most electron is called the

'valence' shell.

The number of protons in an atom

equals the number of electrons.

CH086_ Flow of Electrons

Figure 10 - Flow of Electrons

When the valence Positive Ions Free Electrons

electron in any atom
gains sufficient energy
from some outside
force, it can break away
from the parent atom
and become what is
called a free electron.

CH087_ Positive Ions & Free Electrons

Figure 11 - Positive Ions & Free Electrons

Learner Workbook (Learner Copy) Page 29 of 43

ATOMS (continued)

EXERCISE 8

1. What have you learnt about the valence shell?

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2. What have you learnt about electron flow in a conductor?

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Learner Workbook (Learner Copy) Page 30 of 43

ELECTRO MOTIVE FORCE

Electro Motive Force (EMF) - The rate at which energy is drawn from a source that
produces a flow of electricity in a circuit; expressed in volts.

EMF is generated when there is interaction between a conductor and a magnetic

field.

e = blv where b is the magnetic flux density measured in Tesla

l is the length of the conductor in metres

v is the velocity of the moving conductor in metres/second

Michael Faraday discovered this in the 1800's and no one really knows how moving
a conductor in a magnetic field generates an EMF.

EMF is the potential difference across a source of electricity when there is no current
through the source, that is, when the circuit is not closed.

It is the maximum potential difference across the source.

When the circuit is closed there is current inside the source, hence there is a drop of
potential across the internal resistance of the source. Therefore, the potential
difference across the terminals of the source will be less than the potential difference
when there is no current.

The maximum potential difference is called EMF of the source.

Voltage is the other word used for potential difference across any two points.

Figure 12 below shows a simple diagram which may help in the understanding of
this.

Output Terminals
Internal Resistance of the Source
EMF Generating the Voltage
CH339_Electro Motive Force

Figure 12 - Electro Motive Force

Learner Workbook (Learner Copy) Page 31 of 43

BATTERY

A battery consists of two plates separated by an electrolyte (an electrically

conducting fluid). On one plate there is an excess of electrons, and on the other
plate there is a deficiency of electrons. If we connect two wires to the battery and
connect the other ends to a lamp then the electrons will flow around the circuit, be
opposed by the filament, which will glow hot and give off light. Once all the available
extra electrons on the plate have disappeared then the battery will be flat.

Primary Cells - These are batteries, which cannot be recharged. Once they are used
(flat) they have to be thrown away.

Secondary Cells - This type of battery can be recharged. During the recharging
process the discharge process is reversed, that is, the electrons are put back where
they were initially stored.

Ampere Hour Capacity (A.H.C.) - Batteries have an 'Ampere Hour Capacity'. A

typical battery in a car might have a 100 A.H.C. This means the amperes of
discharge are multiplied by the hours.

Example - If the discharge rate was 5 A.H., then 100/5 = 20 hours, that is, the
battery will last 20 hours before it becomes flat.

It could be discharged at 20 A.H., then 100/20 = 5 hours before it is flat.

EXERCISE 9

1. A caravan leisure battery has a rating of 120 A.H. If the lights take 5 A.H.,
and the heater motor takes 10 A.H., how long will the battery last?

2. If the battery was recharged at 5 A.H. How long would it take?

Learner Workbook (Learner Copy) Page 32 of 43

D.C. GENERATOR

When a conductor is moved in a magnetic field emf is generated. As the coil of wire
rotates then when the coil is parallel to the lines of force - no lines are cut so no
voltage is generated. When the coil is at 90o to the lines of force, it cuts at the
maximum rate and so maximum emf is generated.

Figure 13 - Basic D.C. Generator

In figure 13 above, the maximum concentration of lines of force are when the coil is
horizontal, that is, at the ends of the poles of the magnet, so this is where the emf is
greatest.

Consider 0o is vertical, when the coil is moving clockwise it reaches its maximum emf
at 90o. It carries on moving to 180o where the voltage induced is again zero. During
the first 180o it has risen to a maximum and fallen to zero. This is repeated during
the next 180o.

The output is a series of positive or negative pulses, as the pulses do not go through
zero then it is said to be unidirectional voltage pulses.

Learner Workbook (Learner Copy) Page 33 of 43

A.C. GENERATOR

In this case the moving permanent magnet is the armature and the stationary non-
permanent magnet is the stator.

In the graph shown if figure 14 below, the red curve indicates strength of the field
induced by the stator. Note how the induced field strength changes in both
magnitude and polarity as the armature magnet rotates. This is illustrated by the
changing size of the N and S.

The blue curve indicates the output voltage which is proportional to the rate of
change of the field strength.

A B C D E
+100
Blue Curve
Red Curve
0
Induced Field Strength
Output Voltage
-100 CH342_A.C. Generator Graph.

Figure 14 - Basic A.C. Generator

Note how the output voltage is related to the rotation of the armature magnet. As
either pole of the armature magnet swings nearest a pole of the stator (points A, E
and C on graph) the rate of change of the strength of the induced magnetic field in
the stator is smallest and the resulting output voltage is passing through zero. When
the swinging armature magnet is at right angles to the poles of the stator (points C
and D), the induced flux is changing most rapidly and the voltage across the coil is at
its highest value (positive or negative).

Learner Workbook (Learner Copy) Page 34 of 43

A.C. GENERATOR (continued)

As the armature completes one revolution after another, the two curves on the graph
repeat themselves. The form of these curves in known as a 'sine curve' (or sine
wave). One complete cycle of the sine curve relates to one revolution of the
armature or 360 degrees of rotation. It can be seen that the voltage curve is a
quarter of a cycle behind the field strength curve. In other words, the two curves are
out of phase by 90 degrees.

A.C. generators with permanent magnet armatures are generally small; such as
bicycle generators (in the pre-LED era). Large A.C. generators, such as those used
for power generation, do not have permanent magnet armatures. They have an
electromagnet powered by a small D.C. generator (called an exciter) usually located
on the drive shaft.

ALTERNATING CURRENT (A.C.)

Alternating Current (A.C.) flows one way, then the other way, continually reversing
direction. Figure 15 below shows A.C. from a power supply; this shape is called a
'sine wave'.

Current or Voltage
+
0
Time
‒

CH343_A. C. Sine Wave

Figure 15 - A.C. Sine Wave

An A.C. voltage is continually changing between positive (+) and negative (-). The
rate of changing direction is called the frequency of the A.C. and it is measured in
hertz (Hz) which is the number of forwards-backwards cycles per second.

Current or Voltage
+
0
Time
‒

CH344_A.C. Sine Wave

Figure 16 - A.C. Sine Wave

The triangular signal shown in figure 16 above is A. C. because it changes between

positive (+) and negative (‒).

Learner Workbook (Learner Copy) Page 35 of 43

 ALTERNATING CURRENT (continued)

Mains electricity in the UK has a frequency of 50Hz. An A.C. supply is suitable for
powering some devices such as lamps and heaters but almost all electronic circuits
require a steady D.C. supply, see figure 17 below.

Voltage
Amplitude Peak-peak voltage

0
Time
Time Period

CH345_D.C. Supply
Figure 17 - D.C. Supply

DIRECT CURRENT (D.C.)

Direct Current (D.C.) always flows in the same direction, but it may increase and
decrease. D.C. voltage is always positive (or always negative), but it may increase
and decrease, see figure 18 below.

From a battery or regulated Current or Voltage

power supply, this is ideal for +
electronic circuits.
0
Time
‒
Figure 18 - Steady D.C.
CH346_Steady D.Cl

Electronic circuits normally require a steady D.C. supply which is constant at one
value or a smooth D.C. supply which has a small variation called 'ripple'. Cells,
batteries and regulated power supplies provide steady D.C. which is ideal for
electronic circuits, see figure 19 below.

From a smoother power Current or Voltage

supply, this is suitable for +
some electronics.
0
Time
‒
Figure 19 - Smooth D.C.
CH347_Smooth D.C.

Learner Workbook (Learner Copy) Page 36 of 43

 DIRECT CURRENT (continued)

Power supplies contain a transformer which converts the mains A.C. supply to a safe
low voltage A.C. Then the A.C. is converted to D.C. by a bridge rectifier but the
output is varying D.C. which is unsuitable for electronic circuits, see figure 20 below.

From a power supply without Current or Voltage

smoothing, this is not +
suitable for electronics.
0
Time
‒
Figure 20 - Varying D.C.
CH348_Varying D.C.

Some power supplies include a capacitor to provide smooth D.C. which is suitable
for less-sensitive electronic circuits - lamps, heaters and motors, will work with any
D.C. supply.

Learner Workbook (Learner Copy) Page 37 of 43

PROPERTIES OF ELECTRICAL SIGNALS

An electrical signal is a voltage or current which conveys information, usually it

means a voltage. The term can be used for any voltage or current in a circuit.

The voltage-time graph illustrated in figure 21 below shows various properties of an

electrical signal. In addition to the properties labelled on the graph, there is
frequency, which is the number of cycles per second.

The diagram shows a 'sine wave' but these properties apply to any signal with a
constant shape.

Voltage
Peak Voltage
RMS Voltage

0
Time

CH349_Volatag/time Graph

Figure 21 - Voltage/Time Graph

DEFINITIONS
Amplitude The maximum voltage reached by the signal. It is
measured in volts 'V'
Peak Voltage Another name for amplitude
Peak-peak Voltage Twice the peak voltage (amplitude). When reading an
oscilloscope trace, it is usual to measure peak-peak voltage
Time period The time taken for the signal to complete one cycle. It is
measured in seconds 's', but time periods tend to be short
so milliseconds 'ms' and microseconds 'µs' are often used.
1ms = 0.001s and 1µs = 0.000001s
Frequency The number of cycles per second.
Frequency is measured in hertz 'Hz', but frequencies tend
to be high so kilohertz 'kHz' and megahertz 'MHz' are often
used
1kHz = 1000Hz and 1MHz = 1000000Hz
1 1
Frequency = Time period =
Time Period Frequency
Mains electricity in the UK has a frequency of 50Hz, so it
has a time period of 1/50 = 0.02s = 20ms
Table 4

Learner Workbook (Learner Copy) Page 38 of 43

ROOT MEAN SQUARE (RMS) VALUES

The value of an A.C. voltage is continually changing from zero up to the positive
peak, through zero to the negative peak and back to zero again. Clearly for most of
the time it is less than the peak voltage, so this is not a good measure of its real
effect.

Instead we use the 'root mean square voltage' (VRMS) which is 0.7 of the peak voltage
(Vpeak).
VRMS = 0.7 × Vpeak and Vpeak = 1.4 × VRMS

These equations also apply to current. They are only true for sine waves (the most
common type of A.C.) because the 0.7 and 1.4 are different values for other shapes.

The RMS 'value' is the 'effective value' of a varying voltage or current. It is the
equivalent steady D.C. (constant) value which gives the same effect.

For example, a lamp connected to a 6V RMS A.C. supply will light with the same
brightness when connected to a steady 6V D.C. supply. However, the lamp will be
dimmer if connected to a 6V peak A.C. supply because the RMS value of it is only
4.2V (it is equivalent to a steady 4.2V D.C.).

Note: It may help to think of the RMS value as a sort of average, but please
remember that it is NOT really the average. In fact the average voltage (or current)
of an A.C. signal is zero because the positive and negative parts exactly cancel out.

What do A.C. meters show, is it the RMS or peak voltage?

A.C. voltmeters and ammeters show the RMS value of the voltage or current. D.C.
meters also show the RMS value when connected to varying D.C. providing the D.C.
is varying quickly, if the frequency is less than about 10Hz the meter reading will
fluctuate instead.

What does '6V AC' really mean - is it the RMS or peak voltage?
If the peak value is meant it should be clearly stated, otherwise assume it is the RMS
value. In everyday use A.C. voltages (and currents) are always given as RMS values
because this allows a sensible comparison to be made with steady D.C. voltages
(and currents), such as from a battery.

For example, a 6V A.C. supply means 6V RMS, the peak voltage is 8.6V. The UK
mains supply is 230V A.C., this means 230V RMS therefore, the peak voltage of the
mains is about 320V.

What does root mean square (RMS) really mean?

First square all the values then find the average (mean) of these square values over
a complete cycle and find the square root of this average. That is the RMS value.
Confused? Ignore the maths (it looks more complicated than it really is); just accept
that RMS values for voltage and current are a much more useful quantity than peak
values.

Learner Workbook (Learner Copy) Page 39 of 43

RELAYS

Fixed Contacts
Moveable Contact

Armature

Spring

Coil

+
Coil de-energised Coil Energised
‒

CH350_Control Relay Operation

Figure 22 - Electromagnetic Control Relay Operation

EXERCISE 10
Draw and label a diagram and explain how a relay operates. (Draw a coil cut in
half and develop the magnetic field).

____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________

Learner Workbook (Learner Copy) Page 40 of 43

RELAYS (continued)

Figure 23 - Eight Pin Socket for Relay Figure 24 - Eleven Pin Socket for Relay

4 5
6
5 7
3 6
4 8

3 9
2 7

2 10
1 8
1 11

(D.C.)+L1 ‒(D.C.) L2

CH352_Eight Pin Socket CH353_Eleven Pin Socket

Figure 25 - Eight Pin Socket Figure 26 - Eleven Pin Socket

Figure 27 - Eight Pin Relay Figure 28 - Eleven Pin Relay

Learner Workbook (Learner Copy) Page 41 of 43

RELAYS (continued)

The symbol for a relay coil is a rectangle with a diagonal line through it.

EXERCISE 11

1. A normal control voltage for these relays is 24 volts. Measure the

resistance of the coil and work out the approximate current one of these
relays will take.

The Convention for drawing electrical circuits is that two vertical lines are drawn
down each side of the page. These two lines represent our supply, 'positive' on the
left and 'negative' on the right. Components are now drawn between these two
supply rails.

+ ‒

2. a) In the space below draw the above and include a switch and a
lamp in series.

b) In parallel to the above, draw a switch and resistor in series.

Learner Workbook (Learner Copy) Page 42 of 43

 EXERCISE 11 (continued)

3. Develop stop/start circuit and create stop/start boards.

Learner Workbook (Learner Copy) Page 43 of 43