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BIO-ZOOLOGY
VOLUME - I
Content Creation
The wise
possess all
II
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CONTENTS
BIO-ZOOLOGY
UNIT I
Chapter 1 The Living World 01
UNIT II
Chapter 3 Tissue Level of Organisation 49
UNIT III
Chapter 5 Digestion and Absorption 98
III
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HOW TO USE
THE BOOK
Superfluous information about a personality or day to
day life experience relating to the content
*V
Career options in Zoology
Courses Institutions Professions and Scope for Future Studies
Medical course ▶ AIIMS, New Delhi Civil surgeon / Civil assistant surgeon in central and state govt hospitals and in private
◉ MBBS – Allopathy ▶ JIPMER sector. Specialist in various medical fields like Cardiologist, Endocrinologist, Neurologist,
◉ MD ◉ MS ▶ Government & Private Medical Colleges Orthopedician, Paediatrician, Haematologist, Pathologist and Anaesthetist.
◉ BUMS – Unani ◉ BNYS _ Naturopathy ▶ AFMC, AMU
◉ BHMS – Homeopathy ◉ BDS _ Dental ◉ Cardiology ◉ Pulmonology ◉ Nephrology ◉ Diabetology ◉ Dermatology,
◉ BAMS – Ayurveda ◉ BSMS _ Siddha ◉ Anaesthesiology ◉ Ophthalmology ◉ Obstetrics and Gynaecology
Veterinary Course ▶ State Veterinary Universities & Colleges (Veterinary Surgeon/ Veterinary Assiatant Surgeon in central and state govt
◉ B. V. Sc. (Bachelor of Veterinary Sciences) hospitals and in private sector).
Agri Courses ▶ IARI, Delhi (Agriculture Officer in state and central government service and other
◉ B. Sc. (Agriculture) ▶ Agriculture Universities & Colleges private employment oppurtunites )
V
◉ B. Tech (Agriculture) ◉ Agricultural Engineer ◉ Environmental Sciences
◉ B. Sc. (Horticulture) ◉ Agronomist ◉ Fruit Sciences and
◉ B. Sc. (Forestry) ◉ Bioinformatics Horticultural Technology
◉ B. Sc. (Sericulture) ◉ Entomologist ◉ Plant Pathology
Post graduation and Doctorate courses in National and
◉ B. Sc. (Nursing) ences (AIIMS), New Delhi, Bhopal, ◉ Pharmacy Occupational therapist
◉ B. Sc. (Trauma Care Management) Bhubaneswar, Jodhpur, Patna, Raipur, ◉ Anaesthesia Technician ◉ Operation Theatre Technician
◉ B. Pharm, D. Pharm Rishikesh. ◉ Cardiac Technician ◉ Ophthalmic Assistant
◉ BPT (Bachelor of Physiotherapy) ▶ JIPMER, Puducherry ◉ Dental Mechanic ◉ Physiotherapst
◉ BOT (Bachelor of Occupational Therapy) ▶ All Government & Private Medical ◉ Health Inspector ◉ Radiographic Assistant
◉ B. Optom. (Bachelor of Optometry) Colleges ◉ Medical Imaging & Technician ◉ Radiotherapy Technician
◉ Medical Lab Techician ◉ Rehabilitation Technician
◉ Medical X-ray Technican ◉ Respiratory Therapy Technician
◉ Blood Transfusion Technician
General Courses Government Arts and Zoo keepers, Creators, Bird watchers in Airports and Lab Technician.
◉ B.Sc. Zoology ◉ B.Sc. Food Technology Science Colleges in TamilNadu
◉ B.Sc. Dietician & Nutritionist ◉ B.Sc. Dairy Technology
◉ B.Sc. Sericulture ◉ B.Sc. Mass Communication
◉ B.Sc. Oceanography ◉ B.Sc. Multimedia
◉ B.Sc. Forensic Sciences ◉ B.Sc. 3D Animation
Bachelor of Science and Education (BSc, B.Ed) Regional Institute of Education BT.Assistant (Science teacher for secondary level)
M.phil in Education IDGC Ph.D (Mysore, Ajmeer, Bhopal,Bhuvaneswar),
Shillong
*Civil Service Exams for all india services (IAS, IPS, IFoS) and other central services &*Other service exams conducted by TNPSC, IBPS, NDA, CDS, SSC and RRB.
Career options in Zoology
Master of science and Education (MSc, B.Ed) Regional Institute of Education PG.Assistant
(Mysore, Ajmeer, Bhopal,Bhuvaneswar) (Zoology, teachers, professors in collegeslectures and universities higher secondary level)
Master of science in Zoology Government arts and science colleges in Researchers in variegated subjects in zoology and life science, Scientist, Environmetolo-
TamilNadu - Madras University gyist, Dietician and Nutritionist
Master of science in Marine Zoology National institute of Oceanography Career opportunities in National Marine park and Marine Engineers
▶ Andhra University(Visakhapatnam)
▶ Anna University (Chennai)
▶ Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Marathwada
University Marine Research Laboratory
(Maharashtra)
▶ Bharathidasan University (Tiruchirappalli)
Master of science in zoology with ▶ Co-operative institute of health science ◉ Lab Technician ◉ Nuclear Medicine
specialization in Medical Microbiology (Kerala) ◉ Medical Imaging and techni- ◉ Health Inspector
▶ Dolphin institute of Bio-Medical and cian ◉ Blood transfusion technician
Natural Science (Dehradun) ◉ Respiratory therapy technician
▶ Himalayan University (Arunachal
Pradesh)
Master of philosophy and Ph.D in Zoology ▶ 4UBUF6OJWFSTJUJFT Professor, Research scholar
Scientist in University , Documentarist in National Geographic Channel, Animal
clinics, National parks, Museum Fisheries and aquaculture PharmaceuticBl companies,
animal trainers.
VI
Medicine Related Entrance Exams
Exam Selection Process & Test Pattern No. of Questions Tentative Schedule
NEET Physics 45 Form out: Last week of Jan.
www.aipmt.nic.in Chemistry 45 Last Date: 1st week of March
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Undergraduate Courses (UG) Undergraduate Courses (UG) Undergraduate Courses (UG) x MVSc
PG programme in Siddha x BVSc & AH
x MBBS x M B B S x B.Tech. (Dairy Technology)
x Maruthuvam x Animal Biochemistry
x B.Sc Nursing (post Certificate) x B Sc Nursing
Postgraduate Courses (PG) x Gunapadam x Animal Biotechnology
x B.Sc. (Hons.) Nursing x B Sc Allied medical Sciences
Microbiology x Pura Maruthuvam x Animal Genetics and Breeding
x Paramedical Courses (PM) x B.Sc. Medical Laboratory Technology x Dairy Microbiology
x Varma Maruthuvam x Animal Nutrition
x B.Sc. (Hons.) Opthalmic Techniques x B.Sc. Cardiac Laboratory Technology x Dairy Chemistry
x Siddhar Yoga Maruthuvam x Bio-Statistics
x B.Sc. (Hons.) Medical Technology x B.Sc. Dialysis Technology x Dairy Technology
x Kuzhandhai Maruthuvam x Epidemiology
x B.Sc. Neuro Technology x Dairy Engineering
Postgraduate Courses (PG) x Noi Nadal x Livestock Economics
x B.Sc. Nuclear Medicine Technology x Animal Biochemistry
x M.D/M.S/M.D.S x Nanju Maruthuvam x Livestock Production and Management
x B.Sc. Operation Theatre Technology x Animal Genetics & Breeding
x M.Ch. (5 year course) x Livestock Products Technology
x B.Sc. Perfusion Technology x Livestock Production &
x M.Sc. / M. Biotechnology PH.D PROGRAMME x Poultry Science
x B.Sc. Radiotherapy Technology Management
x Maruthuvam x Veterinary Bacteriology
x BASLP (Bachelor in Audiology & x Animal Nutrition
x Gunapadam x Veterinary Extension Education
Speech Language Pathology) x Animal Physiology
IARI x Sirappu Maruthuvam x Veterinary Gynaecology and Obstetrics
(Collaboration with AIISH, x Dairy Economics
VII
x Kuzhandai Maruthuvam x Veterinary Immunology
Undergraduate Courses (UG) Mysore. RCI approved) x Dairy Extension Education
x Noi Nadal x Veterinary Medicine
x Agricultural chemicals x Animal Biotechnology x Veterinary Parasitology
x Nanju Maruthuvam
x Agronomy Postgraduate Courses (PG) x Agronomy (Forage production) x Veterinary Pathology
x Bioinformatics x General Surgery x Animal Reproduction, Gynecology x Veterinary Pharmacology
x Entomology and Obstetrics
x Obstetrics & Gynaecology x Veterinary Physiology
x Horticulture x Food Quality and Safety
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UNIT
UNITI I C hCahpatpetre 1r 1
The
TheLiving
LivingWorld
World
Chapter Outline
Chapter Outline
1.1. Diversity in the Living world
1.2.1.1. Diversity
Need in the Living world
for Classification
1.3.1.2. Need forand
Taxonomy Classification
Systematics
1.4.1.3. Taxonomy
Three Domainsandof Systematics
life
1.5.1.4. Three Domains
Taxonomic of life
Hierarchy
1.6.1.5. Taxonomic Hierarchy
Nomenclature
“Our task“Our
musttaskbe to…embrace all living
must be to…embrace
1.7.1.6. Nomenclature
Concept of Species
creatures and theall
whole
livingofcreatures
nature and
anditsthe
beauty.
whole”
1.8.1.7. Concept
Tools of Species
for study of Taxonomy of nature and itsEinstein
— Albert beauty.”
1.8. Tools for study of taxonomy — Albert Einstein
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4.9%
73.1
13% 31%
Insects
40%
Vertebrates
Mammal Birds Reptiles Amphibian
Fishes Invertebrates
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deserts. There are a variety of species waste lot of time in finding an item. In
that have been adapted successfully to the same way, libraries also organize the
live in diverse ecosystems. Ecosystem is books alphabetically or genres-wise into
a community of living organisms (plants autobiographies, novels, kids stories,
and animals), non-living environment science fictions, etc. Likewise it is nearly
(including minerals, climate, soil, water, impossible to study all the living organism
sunlight) and their interrelationships hence it becomes necessary to device some
(A.G. Tansley, 1935). The presence of a means and methods to make this possible
large number of species in a particular and this process is called classification.
ecosystem is called ‘biological diversity’ Classification is a process by which things
or in short ‘biodiversity’. The term are grouped in convenient categories,
biodiversity was first introduced by based on easily observable characters. The
Walter Rosen (1985), and defined by E.D. scientific term used for these categories
Wilson. is taxa (taxon–singular). Taxa indicates
categories at different levels, for example
Difference between the Living and Kingdom Animalia, includes multicellular
Non-living animals such as reptiles, mammals, etc.
Living organisms show a variety Based on their characteristics, all living
of unique characters different organisms can be classified into different
from non-living matter. The key taxa. This science of classification is
characters of living organisms are, called taxonomy. External and internal
cellular organization, nutrition, structures along with developmental
respiration, metabolism, growth, response processes and ecological information
to stimuli, movement, reproduction, of organisms are essential, as they
excretion, adaptation and homeostasis. form basis of the taxonomical studies.
Numerous scientists and taxonomists Hence, characterisation, identification,
have made tremendous contribution and nomenclature and classification are the
documentation in the observation and scientific stages that are basic to taxonomy.
study of even minute characters in living The basic need for classifications are:
organisms. Their keen observations have • To identify and differentiate closely
led to the classification of living organisms
related species
and the study of their interrelationships.
• To know the variation among the
species
1.2. Need for classification
• To understand the evolution of the
We come across many places where
species
things are arranged in specific categories.
• To create a phylogenetic tree
In super markets, the shelves can have
rows and columns of groceries, cosmetics, among the different groups
toys, stationeries, snacks and utensils. • To conveniently study living
If it is not arranged in a well organized organisms
manner, customers and sales persons will
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example, the ostrich, emu and penguin organisms. A modification of this system
are all birds but cannot fly. So Aristotle is the numerical taxonomy, which evolved
would not have classified them as birds. in the 1950s. This system evaluates the
In spite of these limitations Aristotle’s resemblances and differences through
classification system was followed for statistical methods followed by computer
more than 2000 years upto 1700. analyses to establish the numerical degree
After Aristotle, his student of relationship among individuals. Later
Theophrastus (372-287 BC) continued on biologists initiated studies on the
his research on the classification of evolutionary and genetic relationships
plants, and he was known as the “Father among organisms, which led to the emerge of
of Botany.” There was a huge gap till phylogenetic classification or cladistics.
16th century, then the English naturalist It is an evolutionary classification based
John Ray (1627–1705) wrote several on how a common ancestry was shared.
important works through his life. His Cladistic classification summarizes the
most important contribution was the genetic differences between all species
establishment of species as the ultimate in the ‘phylogenetic tree’. Ernst Haeckal
unit of taxonomy. In 1682 he published introduced the method of representing
the Methodus Plantarum Nova, which evolutionary relationships with the help
contained about 18,000 plant species, of a tree diagram known as cladogram.
a result of a relatively narrow species This system of classification takes
concept. His complicated classification into account ancestral characters (traits
was based on many combined characters, of basic body design which would be in
as opposed to earlier taxonomists. John the entire group) and derived characters
Ray also aimed at publishing a complete (traits whose structure and functions
system of nature, which included works differs from those of ancestral characters).
on mammals, reptiles, birds, fishes and One or more derived characters which
insects. The Swedish biologist Carolus appeared during evolution resulted
Linnaeus (1707 - 1788) father of modern in the formation of new subspecies.
taxonomy and founder of modern In a cladogram each evolutionary
systematics developed a scientific system step produces a branching and all the
of taxonomy and binomial nomenclature,
which is still (with modifications) in use. Figure 1.1. Example of a Cladogram
Aristotle to Linnaeus employed
easily observable single to few traits
for classification of organisms. With 6KDUNV
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members of the branch would possess the 1.4. Three Domains of life
derived character which will not be seen
Three domain classification was proposed
in organisms below the particular branch
by Carl Woese (1977) and his co-workers.
point. Arranging organisms on the basis
They classified organisms based on the
of their similar or derived characters
difference in 16S rRNA genes. The three
which differ from the ancestral characters
domain system adds the taxon ‘domain’
produced a phylogenetic tree or cladogram
higher than the kingdom. This system
(Figure 1.1).
emphasizes the separation of Prokaryotes
Depending on the system of
into two domains, Bacteria and Arachaea,
classification, organisms were classified
and all the eukaryotes are placed into the
into two or three kingdoms. Later into four,
domain Eukarya. Archaea appears to have
five, six and now into seven kingdoms.
more in common with the Eukarya than
R.H.Whittaker (1969) proposed the Five
the Bacteria. Archaea differ from bacteria
kingdom Classification, the Kingdoms
in cell wall composition and differs from
defined by him were Monera, Protista,
bacteria and eukaryotes in membrane
Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia based on
composition and rRNA types.
the cell structure, mode of nutrition,
mode of reproduction and phylogenetic
relationships. Table 1. gives a comparative
account of different characteristics of the Thermus aquatics is a
five kingdoms. bacterium which can
Classification has come a long way and tolerate high temperatures.
now takes into an account even molecular The first DNA polymerase enzyme was
level DNA and RNA identification. The isolated from T. aquaticus it is
advancement in molecular techniques used in PCR (Polymerase Chain
and biochemical assays has led to a new Reaction ) for DNA amplification.
classification - The “Three Domain”
classification.
THREE DOMAINS
(Carl Woese, 1977)
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into two Super Kingdoms (Prokaryota and Archaebacteria) and five Eukaryotic
and Eukaryota) and seven kingdoms, Kingdoms (Protozoa, Chromista, Fungi,
two Prokaryotic Kingdoms (Eubacteria Plantae and Animalia).
Hinny Mule
Liger Tigon
Figure 1.2 Sterile offsprings
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1.6. Nomenclature
Giza, Inimene, Emberi, Manna,
Doanna, Umano …….
In all probability these words must be
new to you…but they all mean “Human”
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Activity
___________________________________________
The main objective of this activity is to check the students understanding about
animals and its characteristics before learning the lesson. Observe the picture given
below, identify the animals and classify them according to you own understanding;
write one character about each class of animals.
Take the students to the school ground and ask them to observe and identify few
invertebrates (insects, earthworm, spiders etc). Ask the students to write few
characteristics of each animal which they have observed.
ICT Corner
Deep Tree
Step – 1
Type the URL in the browser. Click ‘Play Game’ button then use your personal or
school id to login. Otherwise use Guest Pass to enter. Then click the DEEP TREE
icon that is given below The Evolution Lab to start the activity.
Step – 2
Input the common name of any animal in the SEARCH tab given at the bottom of
the activity window, select the appropriate Zoological name from the list appeared.
Step – 3
7KH&ODVVL¿FDWLRQDQGWKHSODFHRIWKHVSHFLHVLQWKHDQLPDO.LQJGRPFDQEHYLHZHGE\
clicking the Icon placed next to the search tab.
Step – 4
7ZR GL൵HUHQW VSHFLHV FDQ EH FRPSDUHG E\ FOLFNLQJ RQ WKH 5(/$7( EXWWRQ JLYHQ DW
the bottom of the activity window. The relation between those species can be learnt by
clicking the DNA icon appeared.
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Summary
Earth has numerous habitats with a wide The taxonomical hierarchy includes seven
range of living organisms inhabiting it. categories namely kingdom, phylum, class,
Living organisms show a variety of unique order, family, genus and species. The process
characters different from non-living matter. of assigning scientific names to animal or
Classification is the process by which taxonomic group is called nomenclature. Each
anything is grouped in a convenient category scientific name has two components, generic
based on some easily observable characters. name and a specific epithet. The important
Taxonomy is the science of arrangement of component of the taxonomical tools are field
living organisms. R. H. Whittaker proposed visits, survey, identification, classification,
the five kingdom classification. Three preservation and documentation. Molecular
domain classification was proposed by Carl taxonomical tools are more accurate, authentic
Woese and his co-workers. and significant for taxonimical classification.
Evaluation
1. A living organism is differentiated from 2. A group of organisms having similar
non-living structure based on traits of a rank is
a. Reproduction a. Species
b. Growth b. Taxon
c. Metabolism c. Genus
d. Movement d. Family
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References
1. Peter H. Raven, George B. Johnson, Holt Rinehart & Winston Harcourt
Susan R. Singer, Jonathan B. Losos Education Company.
(2004) Biology 7th Edition Published 3. Peter H. Raven, George B. Johnson,
by McGraw-Hill Science. Kenneth A. Mason, Jonathan B. Losos,
2. Janet L. Hopson and John Postlethwait Susan R. Singer (2013) Biology 9th Edition.
(2006) Modern Biology Published by Published by McGraw-Hill Science.
17
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UNIT I Chapter 2
Kingdom Animalia
Chapter Outline
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Animals which possess two pairs show bilateral symmetry (Figure 2.5).
of symmetrical sides are said to be It is an advantageous type of symmetry
biradially symmetrical (Figure 2.4). in triploblastic animals, which helps in
Biradial symmetry is a combination of seeking food, locating mates and escaping
radial and bilateral symmetry as seen in from predators more efficiently. Animals
ctenophores. There are only two planes of that have dorsal and ventral sides, anterior
symmetry, one through the longitudinal and posterior ends, right and left sides
and sagittal axis and the other through are bilaterally symmetrical and exhibit
the longitudinal and transverse axis. (e.g., cephalisation, in which the sensory and
Comb jellyfish – Pleurobrachia) brain structures are concentrated at the
Animals which have two similar anterior end of the animal (Figure 2.6).
halves on either side of the central plane
2.1.4. Coelom
The presence of body cavity or coelom
is important in classifying animals. Most
animals possess a body cavity between the
body wall and the alimentary canal, and is
Radial symmetry in Pentamerous radial lined with mesoderm.
sea anemone symmetry in starfish
Animals which do not possess a body
Figure. 2. 3 Radial and Pentamerous cavity are called acoelomates. Since there
radial symmetry is no body cavity in these animals their
body is solid without a perivisceral cavity,
this restricts the free movement of internal
organs. (e.g., Flatworms)
In some animals, the body cavity
is not fully lined by the mesodermal
epithelium, but the mesoderm is
formed as scattered pouches between
the ectoderm and endoderm. Such a
body cavity is called a pseudocoel and
Figure 2.4 Biradial symmetry
is filled with pseudocoelomic fluid.
in comb jelly
Animals that possess a pseudocoel are
called pseudocoelomates e.g., Round
worms. The pseudocoelomic fluid in
the pseudocoelom acts as a hydrostatic
skeleton and allows free movement of
the visceral organs and for circulation of
nutrients.
Eucoelom or true coelom is a fluid-
filled cavity that develops within the
Figure 2.5 Bilateral symmetry in Insects mesoderm and is lined by mesodermal
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Grade: 2. Bilateria
The eumetazoans other than Radiata,
show organ level of organisation and are Sycon Hyalonema
bilaterally symmetrical and triploblastic.
The grade Bilateria includes two
taxonomic levels called Division.
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&ROODUHWWH
(G.hemi –half; chorde-string) &ROODU
Muscular,
Anus
Pharyngeal
Mouth
List the three features common to all
post-anal tail slits or clefts
chordates at sometime in their life.
Figure 2.19 A Typical Chordate
32
Figure 2.20 Classification of Phylum Chordata
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Frog Toad
Crocodile Chameleon
TURTLE Vs TORTOISE
Turtles spend most of their life in the water Tortoises spend most of their life on land.
Carapace is laterally compressed and streamlined. Carapace is usually dome-shaped.
Mostly live in the water or are always found near it. Are primarily terrestrial.
Most of them have webbed feet. Feet are short and sturdy with bent legs.
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75%
18%
94%
16%
7%
15%
50%
11%
77%
Fishes Mammals Birds Insects Molluscs Crustraceans
Reptiles Amphibians Arachinids Others
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Activity
___________________________________________
Objectives:
Some Groups of organisms with their distinguishing characteristics are given. Con-
struct a cladogram, interpret and analyze the cladogram in terms of how it shows
common ancestry and degrees of evolutionary relationship.
Procedure:
Step 1. Refer your text book and identify the characteristics of the given animals. In
the data table provided, place an “x” in the box if the animal has the characteristic.
Step 2: Below the Data Table on the Worksheet, make a Venn diagram, placing animals
in groups to illustrate those characteristics which different animals have in common.
Step 3: Using the Venn diagram draw a cladogram to illustrate the ancestry of these
animals. The diagram should reflect the shared characteristics as time proceeds.
Step 4: Draw the Venn diagram to reflect the shared characteristics of the given ani-
mal and draw a cladogram.
Set#4 Amnion
(Amniotic sac)
Set#6 Placenta
Total ‘X’ s
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43
Classification of Kingdom Animalia
Vertebrata (Craniata)
Chordata
44
Porifera Cnidaria Ctenophora Platylelminthes Nematoda Annelida Arthropoda Mollusca Echinodermata Hemichordata
Biradial
ti on
Radial
nta
me
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Seg
ia
tom ata
Acoelomata
tos lom
Pseud
Pro zocoe
i
Sch omia
Deuterost mata
lo
ocoelo
Enterocoe
mata
R ad
iata
(Di
Eucoelomata
plo
Para blas
zo tic) Bilateria
a
(Triploblastic)
Eumetazoa
Metazoa
Kingdom Animalia
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ICT Corner
Cladogram
Step – 1
Type the URL given below in the browser. Press ‘Play Game’ button then use your
personal or school id to login. Otherwise use Guest Pass to enter and start the activity.
Step – 2
Initially you will be provided with two species and their characteristics. You should
drag them into the small box provided and match them.
Step – 3
Use the mouse to drag and place the characteristics on the tree.
Step – 4
If you correctly match the tree, the game will proceed to the next level. If you fail
to match them start from the beginning and play the game again until you learn the
characteristics.
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Summary
Kingdom Animalia comprises of a broad characterized by the presence of notochord,
range of animal species, from tiny parasitic solid ventral nerve cord and gill slits. Kingdom
nematodes to the largest mammal the blue Animalia are classified into eleven animal
whale. The basic fundamental features phyla as Porifera, Cnidaria, Ctenophora,
such as levels of organisation, diploblastic Platyhelminthes, Aschelminthes, Annelida,
and triploblastic organisation, patterns Arthropoda, Mollusca, Echinodermata,
of symmetry, coelom, segmentation and Hemichordata and Chordata. Chordata
notochord have enabled us to broadly is the largest phylum with three sup
classify the animal kingdom. Besides the phyla Urochordata, Cephalochordata
fundamental features, there are many other and Vertebrata. Subphylum Vertebrata
distinctive characters which are specific includes two divisions, Agnatha and
for each phyla or class. Gnathostomata. Agnatha comprises of the
Animals are broadly classified class Cyclostomata. Gnathostomata includes
into invertebrates and chordates. The jawed fishes (Pisces) and Tetrapoda which
animals which lack vertebral column are includes the classes amphibia, reptilia, aves
called invertebrates. The chordates are and mammals.
Glossary
Alternation of generation – Alternation Mersentery – A thin double walled epithelial
of haploid sexual and diploid asexual membrane that support alimentary canal
generation in the life cycle of an animal. and other organs in the abdominal cavity.
Autonomy – Breaking of a body part. Regeneration – Act of growing a new body
Dioecious – Animals in which male part which has been injured or lost.
and female reproductive organs occur in
separate individuals.
Hermaphrodite – Animals with both male
and female reproductive organs.
Evaluation
1. The symmetry exhibited in cnidarians is 4. In which of the following organisms, self
a. Radial b. Bilateral fertilization is seen.
c. Pentamerous radial d. Asymmetrical a. Fish b. Round worm
2. Sea anemone belongs to phylum c. Earthworm d. Liver fluke
a. Protozoa b. Porifera 5. Nephridia of Earthworms are performing
c. Coelenterata d. Echinodermata the same functions as
3. The excretory cells that are found in a. Gills of prawn
platyhelminthes are b. Flame cells of Planaria
a. Protonephridia b. Flame cells c. Trachea of insects
c. Solenocytes d. All of these d. Nematoblasts of Hydra
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6. Which of the following animals has a 16. Which of the following is not correctly
true coelom ? paired?
a. Ascaris b. Pheretima a. Humans – Ureotelic
c. Sycon d. Taenia solium b. Birds – Uricotelic
7. Metameric segmentation is the main c. Lizards – Uricotelic
feature of d. Whale – Ammonotelic
a. Annelida b. Echinodermata 17. Which of the following is an egg laying
c. Arthropoda d. Coelenterata mammal?
8. In Pheretima locomotion occurs with a. Delphinus b. Macropus
help of c. Ornithorhynchus d. Equus
a. circular muscles 18. Pneumatic bones are seen in
b. longitudinal muscles and setae a. Mammalia b. Aves
c. circular, longitudinal muscles and c. Reptilia d. Sponges
setae 19. Match the following columns and select
d. parapodia the correct option.
9. Which of the following have the highest Column – I Column – II
number of species in nature? (p) Pila (i) Devil fish
a. Insects b. Birds (q) Dentalium (ii) Chiton
c. Angiosperms d. Fungi (r) Chaetopleura (iii) Apple snail
10. Which of the following is a crustacean? (s) Octopus (iv) Tusk shell
a. Prawn b. Snail a. p – (ii), q – (i), r – (iii), s – (iv)
c. Sea anemone d. Hydra b. p – (iii), q – (iv), r – (ii), s – (i)
11. The respiratory pigment in cockroach is c. p – (ii), q – (iv), r – (i), s – (iii)
a. Haemoglobin b. Haemocyanin d. p – (i), q – (ii), r – (iii), s – (iv)
c. Oxyhaemoglobin d. Haemoerythrin 20. In which of the following phyla, the adult
12. Exoskeleton of which phylum consists of shows radial symmetry but the larva
chitinous cuticle? shows bilateral symmetry?
a. Annelida b. porifera a. Mollusca b. Echinodermata
c. Arthropoda d. Echinodermata c. Arthropoda d. Annelida
13. Lateral line sense organs occur in 21. Which of the following is correctly
a. Salamander b. Frog matched?
c. Water snake d. Fish a. Physalia – Portugese man of war
14. The limbless amphibian is b. Pennatula – Sea fan
a. Icthyophis b. Hyla c. Adamsia – Sea pen
c. Rana d. Salamander d. Gorgonia – Sea anemone
15. Four chambered heart is present in 22. Why are spongin and spicules important
a. Lizard b. Snake to a sponge?
c. Scorpion d. Crocodile 23. What are the four characteristics
common to most animals?
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24. List the features that all vertebrates show Notochord, cephalisation, dorsal nerve
at some point in their development. cord and radial symmetry
25. Compare closed and opened circulatory 30. Why flatworms are called acoelomates?
system 31. What are flame cells?
26. Compare Schizocoelom with 32. Concept Mapping - Use the following
enterocoelom terms to create a concept map that shows
27. Identify the structure that the archenteron the major characteristic features of the
becomes in a developing animal. phylum nematoda:
28. Observe the animal below and answer Round worms, pseudocoelomates,
the following questions digestive tract, cuticle, parasite, sexual
dimorphism
33. In which phyla is the larva trochopore
found?
34. Which of the chordate characteristics do
tunicates retain as adults?
35. List the characteristic features that
distinguish cartilaginous fishes with
living jawless fishes
a. Identify the animal
36. List three features that characterise bony
b. What type of symmetry does this fishes.
animal exhibit?
37. List the functions of air bladder in fishes.
c. Is this animal Cephalized?
38. Write the characteristics that contributes
d. How many germ layers does this to the success of reptiles on land.
animal have?
39. List the unique features of bird’s
e. How many openings does this endoskeleton.
animal’s digestive system have?
40. Could the number of eggs or young ones
f. Does this animal have neurons? produced by an oviparous and viviparous
29. Choose the term that does not belong in female be equal? Why?
the following group and explain why it
does not belong?
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UNIT II Chapter 3
Learning Objectives:
Learning Objectives: Groups of cells that are similar in structure
• Recognises the types of and perform common or related functions
tissues based on their are called ‘tissues’.
characteristic features Tissues are organized in specific
• Understands the proportions and patterns to form organs
description, location, like lungs, heart, stomach, kidneys, ovaries,
functions and testes etc; hence the tissues are called the
modification of tissues. ‘living fabrics’. If two or more organs
perform common physical and chemical
• Understands the significance of
functions they are called ‘organ systems’,
muscles, connective and neural
Eg: digestive system, respiratory system,
tissues.
circulatory system, excretory system, etc.
In multicellular organisms, cells do not Most organs contain different types of
operate independently, instead, they tissues and their arrangement determines
form tight cell communities that live and the organ’s structure and functions.
work together. Individual body cells are The study of tissues, or histology,
specialized, with each type performing complements the study of gross anatomy.
specific functions that helps to maintain Together they provide the structural basis
homeostasis and benefits the body as a for understanding organ physiology.
whole. Cell specialization is obvious. How
the muscle cell looks and acts differs greatly 3.1. Animal Tissues
from skin cells. Cell specialization allows Animal tissues are classified according to the
the body to function in co-ordinated ways. size, shape and function of the cells. There
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Simple Compound
1. Squamous
2. Cuboidal
3. Columnar
Stratified Transitional
4. Ciliated
5. Pseudostratified
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are four primary (basic) tissue types that Simple epithelium is composed of
interweave to form the ‘fabric’ of the body. a single layer of cells. They are found in
They are, the epithelial tissue (covering), the organs of absorption, secretion and
the connective tissue (support), the muscle filtration. Simple epithelial tissue is further
tissue (movement) and the nervous tissue classified into squamous epithelium,
(control) (Figure 3.1). cuboidal epithelium, columnar epithelium,
ciliated epithelium and pseudostratified
3.2 Epithelial Tissue epithelium (Figure 3.2). The squamous
epithelium is made of a single thin layer
Epithelial tissue is a sheet of cells that
of flattened cells with irregular boundaries.
covers the body surface or lines the body
They are found in the kidney glomeruli, air
cavity. It occurs in the body as a covering,
sacs of lungs, lining of heart, blood vessels
as a lining epithelium and as glandular,
and lymphatic vessels and are involved in
epithelium. The functions of epithelium
functions like forming a diffusion boundary
includes protection, absorption, filtration,
and filtration in sites where protection is not
excretion, secretion and sensory reception.
important. The cuboidal epithelium is made
Based on the structural modification of
of a single layer of cube like cells. This tissue
the cells, the epithelial tissues are classified
is commonly found in the kidney tubules,
into simple epithelium and compound
ducts and secretory portions of small glands
epithelium or stratified epithelium.
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and surface of the ovary. Its main functions its functions are protection, secretion and
are secretion and absorption. The columnar absorption. Ciliated forms line the trachea
epithelium is composed of single layer of tall and the upper respiratory tract. The non
cells with round to oval nuclei at the base. It ciliated forms, line the epididymis, large
lines the digestive tract from the stomach to ducts of a glands and tracts of male urethra
the rectum. The two modifications of this
lining are the presence of microvilli on the
apical surface of the absorptive cells and Important epithelial tissue disorders:
Goblet cell which secretes the protective
Eczema, Psoriasis, Epithelial carcinoma
lubricating mucus. The functions of this
and severe asthma
epithelium include absorption, secretion
of mucus, enzymes and other substances.
If the columnar cells bear cilia on their free Some of the cuboidal or columnar cells
surfaces they are called ciliated epithelium. get specialized for secretion and are called
This ciliated type propels mucus by ciliary glandular epithelium (Figure 3.3). They are
actions and it lines the small bronchioles, mainly of two types: unicellular, consisting
fallopian tubes and uterus. Nonciliated of isolated glandular cells (goblet cells of
type lines most of the digestive tract, gall the alimentary canal), and multicellular,
bladder and secretory ducts of glands. consisting of cluster of cells (salivary gland).
Pseudo-stratified epithelial cells are On the basis of the mode of pouring of
columnar, but unequal in size. Although the their secretions, glands are divided into two
epithelium is single layered yet it appears categories namely exocrine and endocrine
to be multi-layered because the nuclei lie at glands. Exocrine glands secrete mucus, saliva,
different levels in different cells. Hence, it is earwax, oil, milk, digestive enzymes and other
also called pseudostratified epithelium and cell products. These products are released
Glandular Epithelium
Unicellular Multicellular
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through ducts or tubes. In contrast endocrine Their main function is to provide protection
glands do not have ducts. Their secretions against chemical and mechanical stresses.
called hormones are secreted directly into the They cover the dry surface of the skin, the
fluid bathing the gland. The exocrine glands moist surface of buccal cavity, pharynx,
are classified as unicellular and multicelluar inner lining of ducts of salivary glands and
glands. The multicelluar glands are further of pancreatic ducts. There are four types of
classified based on the structure as simple compound epithelium namely, stratified
and compound glands, based on their squamous epithelium, cuboidal epithelium,
secretory units as tubular, alveolar (Acinus) columnar epithelium and transitional
and tubulo alveolar. Based on the mode of epithelium. Stratified squamous
secretion exocrine glands are classified as epithelium is of two types called keratinized
merocrine, holocrine and apocrine. type which forms the dry epidermis of the
Compound epithelium is made of more skin and the non keratinized type forms
than one layer (multi-layered) of cells and the moist lining of the oesophagus, mouth,
thus has a limited role in secretion and conjunctiva of the eyes and vagina. Stratified
absorption(Figure 3.4). The compound cuboidal epithelium mostly found in
epithelia may be stratified and transitional. the ducts of sweat glands and mammary
glands. Stratified columnar epithelium
has limited distribution in the body, found
around the lumen of the pharynx, male
urethra and lining of some glandular ducts.
Multi-layered
cells Stratified epithelia are “built” for
protection or to resist abrasion. What
are the simple epithelia better at?
Figure 3.4 Compound Epithelium
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Connective Tissues
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tissue contains high proportion of elastic and pliable and resists compression. Cells
fibres. It allows recoil of tissues following of this tissue (chondrocytes) are enclosed
stretching. It maintains the pulsatile in small cavities within the matrix
flow of blood through the arteries and secreted by them (Figure 3.6). Most of
the passive recoil of lungs following the cartilages in vertebrate embryos are
inspiration. It is found in the walls of replaced by bones in adults. Cartilage is
large arteries; ligaments associated with present in the tip of nose, outer ear joints,
vertebral column and within the walls ear pinna, between adjacent bones of the
of the bronchial tubes. vertebral column, limbs and hands in
Specialised connective tissues are adults.
classified as cartilage, bones and blood. The Bones have a hard and non-pliable
intercellular material of cartilage is solid ground substance rich in calcium salts
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ICT Corner
Step – 1
Use the URL to open ‘The Online Epithelium’page. Click any of the organ given in
the list to view the interactive epithelial tissues present in that organ.
Step – 2
Click the play icon to load the 3D interactive. The loaded 3DTissue can be viewed
360 degree by click and drag of the mouse.
Step – 3
Roll the mouse over the interactive diagram and click the number on the diagram. A
brief description of the parts will appear, description can be viewed by selecting the
parts given at the bottom of the activity window.
Step – 4
Additional information regarding the particular epithelial tissue can be learned from the
descriptions given below the 3D interactive diagram.
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Activity
___________________________________________
1. Students are asked to identify the unlabelled slides of tissues and to classify them. Similar
exercise can also be accomplished by projecting unlabelled histological images on a
screen. They can identify the slides of different tissues through microscope
2. The preparation of smear of stratified squamous epithelia from the inner lining of cheek
allows the students to make their own slides using biological stain. They will have the
experience of examining their cheek cells.
Glossary
Acinus – Cells arranged into a circular substances during inflammatory and allergic
secretory unit reactions.
Adipocyte – Large cell (up to 200 microns) Macrophages – Immune cells derived from
with only a thin film of cytoplasm due to the monocytes; engaged in phagocytosis of
presence of a large fat droplet. microbes and debris.
Adipose tissue – A group of adipocytes.
Bone – Specialized connective tissue with a Evaluation
mineralized (hydroxyapatite) matrix. 1. The main function of the cuboidal
Collagen – A triple helix protein which epithelium is
allows for great tensile strength. a. Protection b. Secretion
Goblet cell – special mucus secreting c. Absorption d. Both (b) and (c)
columnar epithelial cell located in the 2. The ciliated epithelium lines the
respiratory tract and intestine. a. Skin b. Digestive tract
Lacunae – A cavity or depression especially c. Gall bladder d. Trachea
in the bone 3. What type of fibres are found in
Mast cells – Cells filled with basophilic connective tissue matrix?
granules found in numbers in connective a. Collagen b. Areolar
tissue and releases histamine and other c. Cartilage d. Tubular
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UNIT II Chapter 4
Chapter Outline
4.1 Earthworm
4.2 Cockroach
4.3 Frog A function to each organ and each organ to its
own function is seen in all animals.
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of the body, called the peristomium. can be protruded or retracted and their
Overhanging the mouth is a small flap principal role is in locomotion.
called the upper lip or prostomium. The external apertures are the mouth,
The last segment has the anus called the anus, dorsal pores, spermathecal openings,
pygidium. In mature worms, segments genital openings and nephridiopores.
14 to 17 may be found swollen with a The dorsal pores are present from the
glandular thickening of the skin called the 10th segment onwards. The coelomic
clitellum. This helps in the formation of the fluid communicates to the exterior
cocoon. Due to the presence of clitellum, through these pores and keeps the body
the body of an earthworm is divided into surface moist and free from harmful
pre clitellar region (1st – 13th segments), microorganisms. Spermathecal openings
clitellar region (14th – 17th segments) and are three pairs of small ventrolateral
the post – clitellar region (after the 17th apertures lying intersegmentally between
segment). In all the segments of the body the grooves of the segments 6/7, 7/8 and
except the first, last and clitellum, there is 8/9. The female genital aperture lies on
a ring of chitinous body setae. This body the ventral side in the 14th segment and a
setae arises from a setigerous sac of the pair of male genital apertures are situated
skin and it is curved as S – shaped. Setae latero-ventrally in the 18th segment.
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Anatomy
Longest species of
Earthworm The body wall of the earthworm is very
moist, thin, soft, skinny, elastic and
Microchaetus rappi
consists of the cuticle, epidermis, muscles
is an African giant
and coelomic epithelium. The epidermis
earthworm, can reach a length of 6.7
consists of supporting cells, gland cells,
meter (22 feet). Drawida nilamburansis
basal cells and sensory cells. A spacious
is a south Indian (Kerala) species of
body cavity called the coelom is seen
earthworm and can reach a maximum
between the alimentary canal and the body
length up to 1 meter (3 feet).
wall. The coelom contains the coelomic
fluid and serves as a hydrostatic skeleton,
Nephridiopores are numerous and found in which the coelomocytes are known
throughout the body of the earthworm to play a major role in regeneration,
except a few anterior segments, through immunity and wound healing. The
which the metabolic wastes are eliminated. coelomic fluid of the earthworm is
Table 4.1: Morphological and anatomical differences between Lampito mauritii and
Metaphire posthuma
S.No Characters Lampito mauritii Metaphire posthuma
1. Shape and size Cylindrical Cylindrical
80 mm – 210 mm in length 115 – 130 mm in length
3.5mm - 5.0 mm in width 5 mm in width
2. Colouration Light Brown Dark Brown
3. Segmentation 165 – 190 Segments About 140 Segments
4. Clitellum th th
14 – 17 Segments (4) 14th – 16th Segments (3)
5. Spermathecal Three pairs 6/7, 7/8 and 8/9 Four pairs 5/6, 6/7, 7/8 and
opening 8/9
6. Pharynx rd th
3 – 4 segment Runs up to 4th Segment
7. Oesophagus 5th segment 8th segment
8. Gizzard 6th segment 8th – 9th segment
9. Intestine 7th segment to anus 15th segment to anus
10. Intestinal caeca Absent Present in 26th segment
11. Lateral hearts 8 pairs from 6th to 13th segments 3 pairs from 7th to 9th
segments
12. Pharyngeal th _ th
5 9 segment 4th – 6th segment
nephridia
13. Micronephridia 14th to last segment 7th to last segment
14. Meganephridia 19th to last segment 15th to last segment
15. Male genital pore 18th segment 18th segment
16. Female genital 14th segment 14th segment
pore
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Digestive system
The digestive system of the earthworm
consists of the alimentary canal and the
digestive glands. The alimentary canal
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length of the body from the mouth to
vessel. The dorsal vessel receives blood The earthworm’s receptors are
from various organs in the body. The stimulated by a group of slender
ventral vessel supplies blood to the various columnar cells connected with nerves.
organs. Blood glands are present in the The Photoreceptors (sense of light) are
anterior segments of the earthworm. They found on the dorsal surface of the body.
produce blood cells and haemoglobin Gustatory (sense of taste) and olfactory
which is dissolved in the plasma and gives receptors (sense of smell) are found
red colour to the blood. in the buccal cavity. Tactile receptors
(sense of touch), chemoreceptors (detect
Nervous System chemical changes) and thermoreceptors
The bilobed mass of nervous tissue (changes in temperature) are present in
called supra - pharyngeal ganglia, lies on the prostomium and the body wall.
the dorsal wall of the pharynx in the 3rd
segment, is referred as the “brain”. The How do the earthworm’s sense activity
ganglion found below the pharynx in the in their habitat without eyes, ears or a
4th segment is called the sub-pharyngeal nose?
ganglion (Figure. 4.4). The brain and the
sub - pharyngeal ganglia are connected by
a pair of circum-pharyngeal connectives. Excretory System
They run one on each side of the pharynx. Excretion is the process of elimination
Thus a nerve ring is formed around the of metabolic waste products from the
anterior region of the alimentary canal. The body. In earthworm, excretion is effected
double ventral nerve cord runs backward by segmentally arranged, minute coiled,
from the sub - pharyngeal ganglion. The paired tubules called nephridia. There are
brain along with other nerves in the ring three types of nephridia; (i) pharyngeal or
integrates sensory inputs and command tufted nephridia – present as paired tufts
muscular responses of the body. in the 5th - 9th segments (ii) Micronephridia
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Figure 4.8 Periplaneta americana: (a) External features (b) Head dorsal and ventral view
(c) Male and Female ventral view of posterior segment of abdomen
the hind wings when at rest, and is called sexes, genital apertures are surrounded by
elytra or tegmina. The second pair of sclerites called gonapophysis. Male bears
wings arises from the metathorax and are a pair of short and slender anal styles in
used in flight. The abdomen in both male the 9th sternum which are absent in the
and female consists of 10 segments. Each female. In both sexes, the 10th segment
segment is covered by the dorsal tergum, bears a pair of jointed filamentous
the ventral sternum and between them a structures called anal cerci and bears a
narrow membranous pleuron on each side. sense organ that is receptive to vibrations
In females, the 7th sternum is boat shaped in air and land. The 7th sternum of male
and together with the 8th and 9th sterna has a pair of large and oval apical lobes or
forms a brood or genital pouch whose gynovalvular plates which form a keel like
anterior parts contains female gonopore, structure which distinguishes the male
spermathecal pores, collaterial glands and from the female.
posterior parts constitutes the oothecal
chamber in which the cocoons are formed.
One of the fastest
In males, the genital pouch lies at the hind
moving land insects is
end of the abdomen bound dorsally by
the cockroach. They
9th and 10th terga and ventrally by the 9th
can move as fast as
sternum. It contains the dorsal anus and
5.4 Km per hour.
ventral male genital pore. In both the
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Nervous system
The nervous system of cockroach consists
of a nerve ring and a ganglionated
double ventral nerve cord, sub- Figure 4.12 Periplaneta americana:
oesophageal ganglion, circum– Circulatory system
oesophageal connectives and double
ventral nerve cord (Figure 4.13). Three thoracic ganglia are present, one in
The nerve ring is present around the each thoracic segment and six abdominal
oesophagus in the head capsule and is ganglia in the abdomen.
formed by the supra-oesophagial ganglion In cockroach, the sense organs are
called the ‘brain’, The brain is mainly a antennae, compound eyes, labrum,
sensory and an endocrine centre and lies maxillary palps, labial palps and anal cerci.
above the oesophagus. Sub-oesophageal The receptor for touch (thigmo receptors)
ganglion is the motor centre that controls is located in the antenna, maxillary palps
the movements of the mouth parts, legs and cerci. The receptor for smell (olfactory
and wings. It lies below the oesophagus receptors) is found on the antennae. The
and formed by the fusion of the paired receptor for taste (gustatory receptors)
gangalia of mandibular, maxillary and is found on the palps of maxilla and
labial segments of the head. A pair of labium. Thermoreceptors are found on
circum–oesophageal connectives is present the first four tarsal segments on the legs.
around the oesophagus, connecting the The receptor chordotonal is found on the
supra-oesophageal ganglia with the sub- anal cerci which respond to air or earth
oesophageal ganglion. The double ventral borne vibrations. The photoreceptors
nerve cord is solid, ganglionated and arises of the cockroach consists of a pair of
from the sub-oesophageal ganglion and compound eyes at the dorsal surface of
extends up to the 7th abdominal segment. the head. Each eye is formed of about
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lying ventral to the anus. A utricular or present around the female genital aperture.
mushroom shaped gland is a large accessory These gonapophyses guide the ova into the
reproductive gland, which opens into the ootheca as ovipositors. (Figure 4. 14).
anterior part of the ejaculatory duct. The Ootheca is a dark reddish to blackish
seminal vesicles are present on the ventral brown capsule about 12mm long which
surface of the ejaculatory duct. These sacs contains nearly 16 fertilized eggs and
store the sperms in the form of bundles dropped or glued to a suitable surface,
called spermatophores. The duct of phallic usually in crack or crevice of high relative
or conglobate gland also opens near the humidity near a food source. On an average,
gonopore, whose function is uncertain. each female cockroach produces nearly 15
Surrounding the male genital opening are – 40 oothecae in its life span of about one
few chitinous and asymmetrical structures to two years. The embryonic development
called phallomeres or gonapophyses which occurs in the ootheca, which takes nearly 5
help in copulation. – 13 weeks. The development of cockroach
The female reproductive system of is gradual through nymphal stages
cockroach consists of a pair of ovaries, (paurometabolus). The nymph resembles
vagina, genital pouch, collaterial glands, the adult and undergoes moulting. The
spermathecae and the external genitalia. A nymph grows by moulting or ecdysis about
pair of ovaries lies laterally in the 2nd and 6th 13 times to reach the adult form.
abdominal segment. Each ovary is formed of Many species of cockroaches are wild.
a group of eight ovarian tubules or ovarioles, About 30 cockroach species out of 4,600
containing a chain of developing ova. The are associated with human habitats. About
lateral oviducts of each ovary unite into a four species are well known as pests.
broad median common oviduct known as They destroy food and contaminate with
vagina, which opens into the genital chamber. their offensive odour. The mere presence
The vertical opening of the vagina is the of cockroaches is a sign of unhygienic
female genital pore. A pair of spermathecae condition and they are also known to be
is present in the 6th segment, which opens carriers of a number of bacterial diseases.
by a median aperture in the dorsal wall of The cockroach allergen can cause asthma
the genital pouch. During copulation, the to sensitive people.
ova descend to the genital chamber, where
they are fertilized by the sperms. A pair
of white and branched collaterial glands Diploptera punctata, a
present behind the ovaries forms a hard viviparous cockroach,
egg case called Ootheca around the eggs. produces a nutritionally
Genital pouch is formed by the 7th , 8th and 9th dense crystalline "milk"
abdominal sterna. The genital pouch has two to feed their live-born young. It
chambers, a genital chamber into which the is found in Myanmar, China, Fiji,
vagina opens and an oothecal chamber where Hawaii, and India. Scientists think
oothecae are formed. Three pairs of plate like Cockroach milk could be the super
chitinous structures called gonapophyses are food of the future.
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COCKROACHES
Cockroaches have been around since the time of dinosaurs!
Oriental Cockroach
Brown-banded Various They are actually from
Cockroach kinds of Africa. They are large and
The wings of male Cockroach very dark compared
cockroaches are larger to other cockroaches.
than the female’s They usually travel
wings. Brown-banded through sewer pipes
cockroaches often hide and drains. They prefer
their eggs in or under dirty places and cooler
furniture. They usually temperatures than other
live for 5-6½ months. cockroaches.
Viviparous Cockroach
Facts
4.3 The Common Indian Green Frog - with gills. It is poikilothermic, i.e., their
Rana hexadactyla body temperature varies with the varying
environmental temperature.
About 360 million years ago, amphibians
were the first vertebrates to live on land. Classification
Amphibians are diverse, widespread,
Phylum : Chordata
and abundant group since the early
diversification. There are about 4,500 Class : Amphibia
species of amphibians. Frog is an Order : Anura
amphibian and hence placed in the class Genus : Rana
Amphibia [Greek. Amphi - Both, bios –
Species : hexadactyla
life]. The largest order, with more than
3,900 species, is Anura, which includes
the frogs and toads. Rana hexadactyla is Morphology of Frog
placed in the order Anura. Frogs live in The body of a frog is streamlined to
fresh water ponds, streams and in moist help in swimming. It is dorso-ventrally
places. They feed on small animals like flattened and is divisible into head and
insects, worms, small fishes, slugs, snails, trunk. Body is covered by a smooth, slimy
etc. During its early development a frog skin loosely attached to the body wall.
is fully aquatic and breathes like a fish The skin is dark green on the dorsal side
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behind the external nostrils and are frog after leaping. Each
protected by a thin movable lower eyelid, forelimb consists of an
thick immovable upper eyelid and a third upper arm, fore arm and
transparent eyelid called nictitating a hand. Hand bears four
membrane. This membrane protects the digits. Hind limbs are
eye when the frog is under water. A pair large, long and consist
of tympanic membranes forms the ear
drum behind the eyes on either side. Frogs
Why three chambered heart of frog is
have no external ears, neck and tail are
not as efficient has the four chambered
absent. Trunk bears a pair of fore limbs
heart of birds and mammals?
and a pair of hind limbs. At the posterior
end of the dorsal side, between the hind
limbs is the cloacal aperature. This is
the common opening for the digestive, of thigh, shank and foot. Foot bears five
excretory and reproductive systems. long webbed toes and one small spot called
the sixth toe. These are adaptations for
Fore limbs are short, stumpy, and
leaping and swimming. When the animal
helps to bear the weight of the body. They
is at rest, the hind limbs are kept folded in
are also helpful for the landing of the
the form of letter ‘Z’. Sexual dimorphism
is exhibited clearly during the breeding
season. The male frog has a pair of vocal
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sacs and a copulatory or nuptial pad on
the ventral side of the first digit of each
forelimb (Figure 4.16). Vocal sacs assist
in amplifying the croaking sound of frog.
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the female frogs.
Nostrils
Nictitating Maxillary
Membrane teeth
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Figure 4.16 Male Rana hexadactyla with Figure 4.17 The Buccal Cavity of
vocal sacs and nuptial pad Rana hexadactyla
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Anatomy
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into the buccal cavity. On the floor of the
buccal cavity lies a large muscular sticky
tongue. The tongue is attached in front
and free behind. The free edge is forked.
When the frog sights an insect it flicks out
its tongue and the insect gets glued to the Figure: 4.18. Digestive System of
sticky tongue. The tongue is immediately Rana hexadactyla
withdrawn and the mouth closes. A row
of small and pointed maxillary teeth is
(Figure 4. 18). Liver secretes bile which
found on the inner region of the upper jaw
is stored in the gall bladder. Pancreas, a
(Figure. 4.17) In addition vomerine teeth
digestive gland produces pancreatic juice
are also present as two groups, one on each
containing digestive enzymes.
side of the internal nostrils. The lower jaw is
devoid of teeth. The mouth opens into the Food is captured by the bilobed
buccal cavity that leads to the oesophagus tongue. Digestion of food takes place
through the pharynx. Oesophagus is a by the action of Hydrochloric acid and
short tube that opens into the stomach gastric juices secreted from the walls of
and continues as the intestine, rectum the stomach. Partially digested food called
and finally opens outside by the cloaca chyme is passed from the stomach to the
first part of the intestine, the duodenum.
The duodenum receives bile from the gall
Anus The opening at bladder and pancreatic juices from the
the lower end of the pancreas through a common bile duct.
alimentary canal in Bile emulsifies fat and pancreatic juices
mammals through which digest carbohydrates, proteins and lipids.
solid waste leaves the body. Final digestion takes place in the intestine.
Cloaca The common chamber into Digested food is absorbed by the numerous
which the intestinal, urinary and genital finger-like folds in the inner wall of
tracts open. It is present in birds, reptiles, intestine called villi and microvilli. The
amphibians, elasmobranch fishes and undigested solid waste moves into the
monotremes. The cloaca has an opening rectum and passes out through the cloaca.
for expelling its contents from the body Respiratory System
and in females it serves as the depository
for sperm. Frog respires on land and in the water by
two different methods. In water, skin acts
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as aquatic respiratory organ (cutaneous called pericardium. There are two thin walled
respiration). Dissolved oxygen in the anterior chambers called auricles (Atria) and
water gets, exchanged through the skin by a single thick walled posterior chamber called
diffusion. On land, the buccal cavity, skin ventricle. Sinus venosus is a large, thin walled,
and lungs act as the respiratory organs. triangular chamber, which is present on the
In buccal respiration on land, the mouth dorsal side of the heart. Truncus arteriosus is
remains permanently closed while the a thick walled and cylindrical structure which
nostrils remain open. The floor of the is obliquely placed on the ventral surface of the
buccal cavity is alternately raised and heart. It arises from the ventricle and divides
lowered, so air is drawn into and expelled into right and left aortic trunk, which is further
out of the buccal cavity repeatedly through divided into three aortic arches namely carotid,
the open nostrils. Respiration by lungs is systemic and pulmo-cutaneous. The Carotid
called pulmonary respiration. The lungs trunk supplies blood to the anterior region of
are a pair of elongated, pink coloured sac- the body. The Systemic trunk of each side is
like structures present in the upper part joined posteriorly to form the dorsal aorta.
of the trunk region (thorax). Air enters They supply blood to the posterior part of the
through the nostrils into the buccal cavity body. Pulmo-cutaneous trunk supplies blood
and then to the lungs. During aestivation to the lungs and skin. Sinus venosus receives
and hibernation gaseous exchange takes the deoxygenated blood from the body parts by
place through skin. two anterior precaval veins and one post caval
vein. It delivers the blood to the right auricle; at
The Blood-Vascular System the same time left auricle receives oxygenated
Blood vascular system consists of a heart with blood through the pulmonary vein. Renal
three chambers, blood vessels and blood. portal and hepatic portal systems are seen in
Heart is covered by a double-walled membrane frog (Figure. 4.19 and 420).
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The blood consists of plasma [60%] System is divided into sympathetic and
and blood cells [40 %], red blood cells, parasympathetic nervous system. They
white blood cells, and platelets. RBCs are control involuntary functions of visceral
loaded with red pigment, nucleated and organs. CNS consists of the Brain and
oval in shape. Leucocytes are nucleated, Spinal cord. Brain is situated in the cranial
and circular in shape (Figure 4.21). cavity and covered by two meninges
called piamater and duramater. The brain
The Nervous System is divided into forebrain, midbrain and
The Nervous system is divided into the hindbrain. Fore brain (Prosencephalon)
Central Nervous System [CNS], the is the anterior most and largest part
Peripheral Nervous System [PNS], and consisting of a pair of olfactory lobes and
the Autonomous Nervous System [ANS]. cerebral hemisphere (as Telencephalon)
Peripheral Nervous System consists of and a diencephalon. Anterior part of the
10 pairs of cranial nerves and 10 pairs olfactory lobes is narrow and free but is
of spinal nerves. Autonomic Nervous fused posteriorly. The olfactory lobes
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Figure 4.23 Rana hexadactyla - Male Figure 4.24 Rana hexadactyla - Female
Reproductive System Reproductive System
contain a small cavity called olfactory and opens into the cloaca. A thin walled
ventricle. The mid brain (Mesencephalon) unpaired urinary bladder is present ventral
includes two large, oval optic lobes and to the rectum and opens into the cloaca.
has cavities called optic ventricles. The
hind brain (Rhombencephalon) consists Reproductive system
of the cerebellum and medulla oblongata. The male frog has a pair of testes which
Cerebellum is a narrow, thin transverse are attached to the kidney and the dorsal
band followed by medulla oblongata. The body wall by folds of peritonium called
medulla oblongata passes out through the mesorchium. Vasa efferentia arise from
foramen magnum and continues as spinal each testis. They enter the kidneys on both
cord, which is enclosed in the vertebral side and open into the bladder canal. Finally,
column (Figure 4.22). it communicates with the urinogenital duct
that comes out of kidneys and opens into
Excretory system
the cloaca (Figure 4.23).
Elimination of nitrogenous waste and salt Female reproductive system (Figure 4.24)
and water balance are performed by a well consists of paired ovaries, attached to the
developed excretory system. It consists of a kidneys, and dorsal body wall by folds of
pair of kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder and peritoneum called mesovarium. There is
cloaca. Kidneys are dark red, long, flat organs a pair of coiled oviducts lying on the sides
situated on either sides of the vertebral of the kidney. Each oviduct opens into the
column in the body cavity. Kidneys are body-cavity at the anterior end by a funnel
Mesonephric. Several nephrons are found like opening called ostia. Unlike the male
in each kidney. They separate nitrogenous frog, the female frog has separate genital
waste from the blood and excrete urea, so ducts distinct from ureters. Posteriorly the
frogs are called ureotelic organisms. A oviducts dilated to form ovisacs before they
pair of ureters emerges from the kidneys open into cloaca. Ovisacs store the eggs
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temporarily before they are sent out through Economic importance of Frog
the cloaca. Fertilization is external. • Frog is an important animal in the food
Within few days of fertilization, the eggs chain; it helps to maintain our ecosystem.
hatch into tadpoles. A newly hatched So ‘frogs should be protected’.
tadpole lives off the yolk stored in its body.
• Frog are beneficial to man, since they
It gradually grows larger and develops
feed on insects and helps in reducing
three pairs of gills. The tadpole grows and
insect pest population.
metamorphosis into an air – breathing
carnivorous adult frog (Figure 4.25). Legs • Frogs are used in traditional medicine
grow from the body, and the tail and for controlling blood pressure and for
gills disappear. The mouth broadens, its anti aging properties.
developing teeth and jaws, and the lungs • In USA, Japan, China and North East of
become functional. India, frogs are consumed as delicious
food as they have high nutritive value.
Adult frog
Eggs
Embryo
Young frog
Metamorphosis External
of Frog gill stage
Tailed frog
stage
Internal
gill stage
Fore limb
stage Hind limb
stage
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Activity 2
92
Organ and Organ System
Concept Map
Earthworm Cockroach Frog
Skeletal
Musculature Longitudinal smooth and cardiac
Alary
circular
93
Gizzard Muscular sticky tongue,
Digestion Typhlosole Crop, Gizzard Maxillay teeth and
Vomerine teeth, Liver,
Pancreas.
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Supra –
Nervous system pharyngeal Nerve ring,
Ganglion CNS,PNS,ANS
ganglia
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12. Choose the wrong statement among 18. Comment on the functions of alary
the following: muscles?
a. In earthworm, a single male genital 19. Name the visual units of the
pore is present. compound eyes of cockroach.
b. Setae help in locomotion of 20. How does the male frog attracts the
earthworms. female for mating?
c. Muscular layer in the body wall 21. Write the types of respiration seen in
of earthworm is made up of only frog.
circular muscles. 22. Differentiate between peristomium
d. Typhlosole is part of the intestine and prostomium in earthworm.
of earthworm. 23. Give the location of clitellum and
13. Which of the following are the sense spermathecal openings in Lampito
organs of Cockroach? mauritii.
a. Antennae, compound eyes, 24. Differentiate between tergum and a
maxillary palps, anal cerci sternum.
b. Antennae, compound eye, 25. Head of cockroach is called
maxillary palps hypognathous. Why?
c. Antennae, ommatidia, maxillary 26. How respiration takes place in
palps, sternum cockroach?
d. Antennae, eyes, maxillary palps, 27. What are the components of blood in
and tarsus of walking legs frog?
14. What characteristics are used to 28. Draw a neat labeled diagram of the
identify the earthworms? digestives system of frog.
15. What are earthworm casts? 29. Explain the reproductive system of
16. How do earthworms breathe? frog
17. Why do you call cockroach a pest? 30. Explain the reproductive system of
frog
References
1. Ekambaranatha Ayyar, Anantha 4. Kotpal R. L , (2012), Modern text book
th
Krishnan, 5 Edition- (1987); Manual of Zoology; Vertebrates [Diversity – II]
of Zoology, Vol I Invertebrata - – 3rd Edition; Rastogi Publications.
S.Viswanathan Publishers and Printers
5. John H. Postlethwait and Janet L. Hopson
Pvt. Ltd.,
; Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Modern
2. Ekambaranatha Ayyar, Anantha Biology; A Harcourt Education Company,
th
Krishnan, 5 Edition- (1987); Manual of Orlando. Austin. NewYork. San Diego.
Zoology, Vol II Chordata –S.Viswanathan Toronto. London.
Publishers and Printers Pvt. Ltd.,
6. Sultan Ismail, A (1992), The Earthworm
3. Jordan E. L, Verman P. S, Revised Book, Other India Press, India.
Edition- (2009); Invertebrate Zoology,
S. Chand & Company Ltd.,
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the nutrients, water and electrolytes from Mechanical digestion is initiated in the
the external environment into every buccal cavity by chewing with the help of
cell in the body through the circulatory teeth and tongue. Chemical digestion is
system. through salivary enzymes secreted by the
salivary glands.
Alimentary canal faces Each tooth is embedded in a socket
a conflict between in the jaw bone; this type of attachment
the need of nutrient is called thecodont. Human beings and
absorption and to keep many mammals form two sets of teeth
our intestinal tract free from pathogenic during their life time, a set of 20 temporary
bacteria and virus. About 7 litres of milk teeth (deciduous teeth) which gets
digestive juice are poured into the replaced by a set of 32 permanent teeth
alimentary canal and are reabsorbed (adult teeth). This type of dentition is
each day. If this does not happen the called diphyodont. The permanent teeth
body gets rapidly dehydrated and may are of four different types (heterodont),
lead to reduction in the blood pressure.
namely, Incisors (I) chisel like cutting
teeth, Canines (C) dagger shaped tearing
teeth, Pre molars (PM) for grinding, and
5.1. Digestive system Molars (M) for grinding and crushing.
The process of digestion involves intake Arrangement of teeth in each half of the
of the food (Ingestion), breakdown of the upper and lower jaw, in the order of I, C,
food into micromolecules (Digestion), PM and M can be represented by a dental
absorption of these molecules into the formula, in human the dental formula is
blood stream (Absorption), the absorbed 2123/2123.
substances becoming components of
Mineral salts like calcium and
cells (Assimilation) and elimination of
magnesium are deposited on the teeth and
the undigested substances (Egestion).
form a hard layer of ‘tartar’ or calculus
Digestive system includes the alimentary
called plaque. If the plaque formed on
canal and associated digestive glands.
teeth is not removed regularly, it would
spread down the tooth into the narrow
5.1.1. Structure of the alimentary canal gap between the gums and enamel and
The alimentary canal is a continuous, causes inflammation, called gingivitis,
muscular digestive tract that begins with which leads to redness and bleeding of the
an anterior opening, the mouth and gums and to bad smell. The hard chewing
opens out posteriorly through the anus. surface of the teeth is made of enamel and
The alimentary canal consists of mouth, helps in mastication of food.
buccal cavity, pharynx, oesophagus, Tongue is a freely movable muscular
stomach, intestine, rectum and anus organ attached at the posterior end by
(Figure. 5.1). The mouth is concerned the frenulum to the floor of the buccal
with the reception of food and leads to the cavity and is free in the front. It acts as a
buccal cavity or oral cavity (Figure. 5.2). universal tooth brush and helps in intake
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food, chew and mix food with saliva, to oesophagus into the stomach (Figure. 5.1).
swallow food and also to speak. The upper If the cardiac sphincter does not contract
surface of the tongue has small projections properly during the churning action of the
called papillae with taste buds. stomach the gastric juice with acid may
The oral cavity leads into a short flow back into the oesophagus and cause
common passage for food and air called heart burn, resulting in GERD (Gastero
pharynx. The oesophagus and the trachea Oesophagus Reflex Disorder).
(wind pipe) open into the pharynx. Food The stomach functions as the temporary
passes into the oesophagus through a storage organ for food and is located in
wide opening called gullet at the back of the upper left portion of the abdominal
the pharynx. A cartilaginous flap called cavity. It consists of three parts – a cardiac
epiglottis prevents the entry of food into portion into which the oesophagus opens;
the glottis (opening of trachea) during a fundic portion and a pyloric portion that
swallowing. Two masses of lymphoid opens into the duodenum. The opening
tissue called tonsils are also located at the of the stomach into the duodenum is
sides of the pharynx. guarded by the pyloric sphincter. It
Oesophagus is a thin long muscular periodically allows partially digested food
tube concerned with conduction of the to enter the duodenum and also prevents
food to a ‘J’ shaped stomach passing regurgitation of food. The inner wall of
through the neck, thorax and diaphragm. stomach has many folds called gastric
A cardiac sphincter (gastro oesphageal rugae which unfolds to accommodate a
sphincter) regulates the opening of large meal.
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Figure 5.6 Salivary glands
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Falciform ligament
Diaphragm
Pancreas
Duodenum
Pancreatic duct
(duct of Wirsung)
Sphincter of Jejunum
Oddi
Hepatopancreatic duct
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Oesophagus
Cardiac
sphincter Stomach
Epithelium
Pyloric
sphincter
Gastric
Small rugae
intestine
Chief cell
Parietal cell
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Liver:
5
The liver secrete bile. Bile helps Stomach:
4
the small intestine by breaking
downs fats and making them 2 Gastric juice contain HCl and
easier to absorb. gastric enzymes.
Gall bladder stores
bile secretion. 6 3
Hydrochloric acid (HCl) helps to
digest proteins and other foods
Do you know? The liver is also by pepsin enzymes while
an important detoxification
organ. It helps to filter and
5 minimizing harmful bacteria.
elimate harmful toxins from
our body.
4 Pancreas 7
8
Small intestine:
6 The pancreas is connected to the
Most of the nutrients form duodenum where three important
food are digested digestive enzmyes are made:
and absorbed in the
small intestine. Protease Lipase Amylase
Do you know? 7 Helps
digest
Helps Helps digest
digest carbohydrates
Small intestine is lined protein
with mucosa, a layer of fats
tissue that helps to
absorb nutrients, Fun fact:
produce digestive There are two kinds of fibre, and
enzymes, and make
mucus to protect the 8 both support a healthy colon.
delicate intestinal wall. Soluble Insolube fibre
Large intestine (Colon):
9 fibre soaks
up toxins
(”roughage”) moves
bulk through the
and waste intestine to help
Most of the bacteria living in the with regular
in the digestive tract digestive bowel movements.
can be found in the large
intestine. This is where 9 system
the digestive process
comes to an end.
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chylomicrons which are then transported substance for their activities and
into the lacteals within the intestinal villi incorporate into their protoplasm, this
and eventually empty into lymphatic duct. process is called assimilation.
The lymphatic ducts ultimately release
the absorbed substances into the blood 5.4 Egestion
stream. While the fatty acids are absorbed The digestive waste and unabsorbed
by the lymph duct, other materials are substances in the ileum enter into the
absorbed either actively or passively by the large intestine and it mostly contains
capillaries of the villi (Figure. 5.9). Water fibre called roughage. The roughage is
soluble vitamins are absorbed by simple utilized by symbiotic bacteria in the large
diffusion or active transport. Transport of intestine for the production of substances
water depends upon the osmotic gradient. like vitamin K and other metabolites.
Absorption of substances in the All these substances are absorbed in the
alimentary canal takes place in mouth, colon along with water. The waste is then
stomach, small intestine and large intestine. solidified into faecal matter in the rectum.
However maximum absorption takes The faecal matter initiates a neural reflex
place in the small intestine. Absorption causing an urge or desire for its removal.
of simple sugars, alcohol and medicines The egestion of faeces through the anal
takes place in the stomach. Certain drugs opening is called defaecation. It is a
are absorbed by blood capillaries in the voluntary process and is carried out by a
lower side of the tongue and mucosa of peristaltic movement.
mouth. Large intestine is also involved
in absorption of more amounts of water, 5.5 Caloric value of
vitamins, some minerals and certain carbohydrates, proteins
drugs. and fats
1. What features of the small intestine We obtain 50% energy from carbohydrates
enables it to absorb digested food 35% from fats and 15% from proteins. We
efficiently? require about 400 to 500 gm of carbohydrates,
2. What happens to the protein 60 to 70 gm of fats and 65 to 75 gm of proteins
molecules in food, from the time it per day. Balanced diet of each individual will
is swallowed, to the time its products vary according to their age, gender, level of
are built up in the cytoplasm of a physical activity and others conditions such
muscle cell. as pregnancy and lactation.
Carbohydrates are sugar and starch.
Absorbed substances are transported These are the major source of cellular fuel
through blood and lymph to the liver which provides energy. The caloric value of
through the hepatic portal system. From carbohydrate is 4.1 calories per gram and its
the liver, nutrients are transported to all physiological fuel value is 4 Kcal per gram.
other regions of the body for utilization. Lipids are fats and derivatives of fats,
All the body tissues utilize the absorbed are also the best reserved food stored in
our body which is used for production of
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energy. Fat has a caloric value of 9.45 Kcal inner lining of colon called colitis. The
and a physiological fuel value of 9 Kcal per most common symptoms of colitis are
gram. rectal bleeding, abdominal cramps, and
Proteins are source of amino acids diarrhoea.
required for growth and repair of body Protein energy malnutrition: (PEM)
cells. They are stored in the body only
Growing children require more amount of
to a certain extent; large quantities are
protein for their growth and development.
excreted as nitrogenous waste. The
Protein deficient diet during early stage
caloric value and physiological fuel value
of children may lead to protein energy
of one gram of protein are 5.65 Kcal and 4
malnutrition such as Marasmus and
Kcal respectively. According to ICMR
Kwashiorkor. Symptoms are dry skin,
(Indian Council of Medical Research
pot-belly, oedema in the legs and face,
and WHO (World Health Organization),
stunted growth, changes in hair colour,
the daily requirement of protein for an
weakness and irritability. Marasmus is an
average Indian is 1gm per 1 kg body
acute form of protein malnutrition. This
weight.
condition is due to a diet with inadequate
carbohydrate and protein. Such children
5.6. Nutritional and digestive are suffer from diarrhoea, body becomes
disorders lean and weak (emaciated) with reduced
Intestinal tract is more prone to bacterial, fat and muscle tissue with thin and folded
viral and parasitic worm infections. This skin.
infection may cause inflammation of the Indigestion: It is a digestive disorder
in which the food is not properly digested
leading to a feeling of fullness of stomach.
Many research
It may be due to inadequate enzyme
findings have proven
secretion, anxiety, food poisoning, over
that usage of chemical
eating, and spicy food.
preservatives and
artificial enhancers lead to highly Constipation: In this condition, the
harmful effects. It includes heart faeces are retained within the rectum
ailments, hypertension, infertility, because of irregular bowel movement due
gastrointestinal disorders, early puberty to poor intake of fibre in the diet and lack
in girls, weakening of bones, damage of physical activities.
in organs like kidney and liver, chronic Vomiting: It is reverse peristalsis.
obstructive pulmonary diseases, Harmful substances and contaminated
headache, allergies, asthma, skin rashes food from stomach are ejected through
and even cancer. Remember that the mouth. This action is controlled by
nothing will beat and overtake the taste the vomit centre located in the medulla
and safety of homemade foods. "East or oblongata. A feeling of nausea precedes
west home preparation is the best." vomiting.
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+HULQD
Obesity: It is caused due to the storage
'LDSKUDJP of excess of body fat in adipose tissue. It
may induce hypertension, atherosclerotic
heart disease and diabetes. Obesity may
be genetic or due to excess intake of food,
endocrine and metabolic disorders.
6WRPDFK
Degree of obesity is assessed by body
mass index (BMI). A normal BMI range
for adult is 19-25; above 25 is considered as
obese. BMI is calculated as body weight in
Figure 5.10 Hiatus hernia Kg, divided by the square of body height in
meters. For example, a 50 Kg person with a
Peptic ulcer: It refers to an eroded height of 160 cms would have a BMI of 19.5.
area of the tissue lining (mucosa) in That is BMI = 50/1.62 = 19.5
the stomach or duodenum. Duodenal
ulcer occurs in people in the age group
of 25 - 45 years. Gastric ulcer is more Nobel Prize for the
common in persons above the age of 50 year 2005 was awarded
years. Ulcer is mostly due to infections to Robin Warren and
caused by the bacterium Helicobacter Barry Marshall for the
pylori. It may also be caused due to discovery of Helicobacter pylori which
uncontrolled usage of aspirin or certain causes peptic ulcer.
antiinflammatory drugs.
Activity
Test for Starch: Add a few drops of iodine to the given warm food sample. If any
starch is present in the given food sample it will change the colour of the iodine
from brown to blue-black.
Test for protein: Mix the given food sample with 3mL of water in a test tube. Shake
the mixture, and then add a few drops of Biuret solution. If protein is present, the
colour of the solution will change to purple.
Test for glucose: Mix the given food sample with 3mL of water in a test tubes. Shake
the mixture, and then add a few drops of Benedict’s solution. Keep the test tube in
a water bath and heat carefully. If glucose is present, the colour of the solution will
change from blue to green to brick red depending upon the amount of glucose.
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ICT Corner
Let's Digest
ctions called peristalasis. stomach acid from going
(refluxing) into the oesop
5
er secrete bile. Bile helps Stomach:
mall intestine by breaking
s fats and making them 2 Gastric juice contain HCl
to absorb. gastric enzymes.
adder stores
cretion. 6 3
Hydrochloric acid (HCl) h
digest proteins and othe
u know? The liver is also by pepsin enzymes while
portant detoxification
It helps to filter and
5 minimizing harmful bact
e harmful toxins from
dy.
8 4 Pancreas
intestine:
6
activity to know
s to protect the
ate intestinal wall. Soluble Insolube fib
e intestine (Colon):
9 fibre soaks
up toxins
(”roughage
bulk throug
and waste intestine to
of the bacteria living in the with regula
digestive tract digestive bowel mov
e found in the large
ine. This is where 9 system
gestive process
s to an end.
process of digestion.
Do you Up to 70% of our natural immun
e are more then know? system support is in the digestive
0 trillion
Step – 1
Use the URL to open the ‘Interactive Digestive System’ page. Click the ‘View
Digestive System’.
Step – 2
Roll the mouse over the interactive diagram and place the cursor on any of the parts
to learn about the parts.
Step – 3
Click the ‘Explore the digestive system’ to observe the process of digestion right from
the mouth to the anus.
Step – 4
During the exploration, questions will be asked and only correct answers will lead you
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Summary
Alimentary canal
Organs Functions Secretions
Mouth Receive food, starts mechanical
digestion by chewing with the help —
of teeth and tongue.
Pharynx Swallowing —
Esophagus conduction of the food to stomach —
Stomach Stores and churns food. Initiates Mucus protects stomach. HCL activates
protein digestion. Limited enzymes and kills germs. Pepsin digests
absorption. protein. Gastrin hormone stimulates HCl
and pepsinogen secretion.
Small Completes digestion and absorbs Mucus protects gut wall. Peptidases
Intestine nutrients digest proteins. Maltase, lactase and
sucrase digest sugars. Lipase digests
lipids. Nuclease digests nucleic acids.
Cholecystokinin triggers the release
of pancreatic juices and bile from the
gallbladder.
Large Reabsorbs water, ions, vitamins.
—
Intestine Stores wastes.
Rectum Expels wastes —
Anus Opening for waste elimination —
115
Concept Map
Digestive system
116
Mechanical Chemical Cardiac portion
Muscularis digestion digestion Duodenum
Ascending colon
Vermiform
By By appendix
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Rectum
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Evaluation
1. Choose the incorrect sentence from the 3. Which of the following hormones
following: stimulate the production of pancreatic
a. Bile juice emulsifies the fat. juice and bicarbonate?
b. Chyme is a digestive acidic food a. Angiotensin and epinephrine
in stomach. b. Gastrin and insulin
c. Pancreatic juice converts lipid c. Cholecysokinin and secretin
into fatty acid and glycerol.
d. Insulin and glucagon
d. Enterokinase stimulates the
secretion of pancreatic juice. 4. The sphincter of Oddi guards
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15. Assertion : (A) Large intestine also shows 18. Bile juice contains no digestive enzymes,
the presence of villi like small intestine. yet it is important for digestion. Why?
Reason: (B) Absorption of water takes 19. List the chemical changes that starch
place in large intestine. molecule undergoes from the time it
a. Both A and B are true and B is the reaches the small intestine.
correct explanation of A 20. How do proteins differ from fats in their
b. Both A and B are true but B is not energy value and their role in the body?
the correct explanation of A 21. Digestive secretions are secreted only
c. A is true but B is false when needed. Discuss.
d. A is false but B is true 22. Label the given diagram.
16. Which of the following is not true
regarding intestinal villi?
a. They possess microvilli.
b. They increase the surface area.
c. They are supplied with capillaries A
E
and the lacteal vessels. B
References
1. Guyton and Hall. J. E, (2006) Textbook 3. Elaine N. and Katja (2010). Human
of Medical Physiology- Eleventh Anatomy and Physiology Eighth
Edition Elsevier saunders. International Edition, Benjamin Cummings,
Edition. Pearson. New York.
2. Brooker et.al. (2008), Biology Volume
two Plants and Animals, The MacGraw
Hill companies,inc.
Web links
Multiple interactive informational http://www.bbc.co.uk/science/humanbody/
activities and resources
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Respiration
Chapter Outline
Learning Objectives:
Learning Objectives: We inhale and exhale air. Why is breathing
so important for life? What happens when
• Learns to describe we breathe? Why energy is required for the
the gross structure of body to perform various life processes?
the human gaseous Where does the energy come from? We
exchange system eat food for energy. Though the above
• Observes and raised questions look disconnected, we
draws the tissues should know that the process of breathing
and organs associated with the is connected to the process of release of
respiratory system energy from food. Oxygen is utilized by the
• Understands the process of organisms to breakdown the biomolecules
gaseous exchange and transport of like glucose and to derive energy. During
respiratory gases this breakdown carbondioxide, which is
• Knows the problems associated a harmful gas is also released. It is very
with oxygen transport obvious that oxygen has to be provided
to cells continuously and the CO2 to be
• Gains knowledge on the ill–effects
released immediately by the cells. So the
of smoking.
need of a respiratory system is essential
for life.
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are carried upwards to pass down the Bronchi have ‘C’ shaped curved
gullet during normal swallowing. During cartilage plates to ensure that the air
swallowing a thin elastic flap called passage does not collapse or burst as the
epiglottis prevents the food from entering air pressure changes during breathing.
into the larynx and avoids choking of The bronchioles are without cartilaginous
food. rings and have rigidity that prevent them
The trachea is semiflexible tube from collapsing but are surrounded by
supported by multiple cartilaginous rings smooth muscle which contracts or relaxes
which extends up to the midthoracic to adjust the diameter of these airways.
cavity and at the level of the 5th thoracic The fine respiratory bronchioles
vertebra where it divides into right and terminate into highly vascularised thin
left primary bronchi, one bronchus to each walled pouch like air sacs called alveoli
lung. Within the lungs the bronchi divides meant for gaseous exchange (Figure 6.2,
repeatedly into secondary and tertiary 6.3). The diffusion membrane of alveolus
bronchi and further divides into terminal is made up of three layers – the thin
bronchioles and respiratory bronchioles. squamous epithelial cells of the alveoli, the
endothelium of the alveolar capillaries and
It is advised not to talk or laugh louder the basement substance found in between
while eating. Can you give the reason? them. The thin squamous epithelial cells
of the alveoli are composed of Type I and
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Ribs are moved by the intercostal muscles. the lungs (intrapulmonary pressure)
External and internal intercostal muscles is less than the atmospheric pressure
found between the ribs and the diaphragm likewise expiration takes place when the
helps in creating pressure gradients. pressure within the lungs is higher than
Inspiration occurs if the pressure inside the atmospheric pressure.
Rib cage
Air gets Air
Rib cage inhaled. exhaled.
smaller.
expands.
Lung
Diaphragm
Inspiration Expiration
Why do some people snore? – Breathing with a hoarse sound during sleep is caused
by the vibration of the soft palate. Snoring is caused by a partially closed upper air
way (nose and throat) which becomes too narrow for enough air to travel through the
lungs. This makes the surrounding tissues to vibrate and produces the snoring sound.
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Inspiratory
Inspiratory capacity
reserve volume
(IRV)
Vital
Resting tidal capacity
volume
(VT = 500 ml)
Volume
(ml)
Expiratory
reserve volume
(ERV)
Functional
Residual residual
volume capacity
Minimal volume
(30-120ml)
,QVSLUHGDLU ([SLUHGDLU
2 PP
2 PP Breathing through nose is healthier
&2 PP &2 PP
than through mouth– Why?
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dioxide. Due to pressure gradients, O2
2 PP from the alveoli enters into the blood
&2 PP and reaches the tissues. CO2 enters
into the blood from the tissues and
&2 2 reaches alveoli for elimination. As the
3XOPRQDU\ 3XOPRQDU\
solubility of CO2 is 20–25 times higher
DUWHULHV YHLQV than that of O2, the partial pressure of
2 PP 2 PP
&2 PP &2 PP CO2 is much higher than that of O2
(Tab.6.1 and Figure 6.6).
Respiratory pigments
Haemoglobin
Haemoglobin belongs to the class
of conjugated protein. The iron
6\VWHPLF +HDUW 6\VWHPLF
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2 PP 2 PP
&2 PP &2 PP
constitutes only 4% and the rest
(Carrying (Carrying
colourless protein of the histone class
deoxygenated oxygenated
blood) blood)
globin. Haemoglobin has a molecular
&2 2 weight of 68,000 and contains four
atoms of iron, each of which can
combine with a molecule of oxygen.
7LVVXHV Methaemoglobin
2 PP
&2 PP If the iron component of the haem
moieties is in the ferric state, than
Figure 6.6 Exchange of gases at the alveolus
and the tissue with blood and transport of the normal ferrous state, it is called
oxygen and carbondioxide methaemoglobin. Methaemoglobin
Partial pressure mm Hg
Respiratory
gases Atmospheric Deoxygenated Oxygenated
Alveoli Tissues
air Blood blood
O2 159 104 40 95 40
CO2 0.3 40 45 40 45
Table 6.1 Partial pressure of Oxygen and Carbon dioxide (in mmHg) in comparison to
those gases in the atmosphere
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does not bind O2. Normally RBC contains temperature favours the dissociation of
less than 1% methaemoglobin. oxygen from oxyhaemoglobin.
A sigmoid curve (S–shaped) is obtained
6.5 Transport of gases when percentage saturation of haemoglobin
6.5.1 Transport of oxygen with oxygen is plotted against pO2. This
curve is called oxygenhaemoglobin
Molecular oxygen is carried in blood in
dissociation curve (Figure 6.7). This
two ways: bound to haemoglobin within
S–shaped curve has a steep slope for pO2
the red blood cells and dissolved in
values between 10 and 50mmHg and then
plasma. Oxygen is poorly soluble in water,
flattens between 70 and 100 mm Hg.
so only 3% of the oxygen is transported
Under normal physiological
in the dissolved form. 97% of oxygen
conditions, every 100mL of oxygenated
binds with haemoglobin in a reversible
blood can deliver about 5mL of O 2 to the
manner to form oxyhaemoglobin
tissues.
(HbO 2). The rate at which haemoglobin
binds with O 2 is regulated by the partial 6.5.2 Transport of Carbon–dioxide
pressure of O 2. Each haemoglobin
carries maximum of four molecules Blood transports CO2 from the tissue cells
of oxygen. In the alveoli high pO 2, low to the lungs in three ways
pCO 2, low temperature and less H + i. Dissolved in plasma About
concentration, favours the formation of 7 – 10% of CO2 is transported in a
oxyhaemoglobin, whereas in the tissues dissolved form in the plasma.
low pO2, high pCO 2, high H + and high
ii. Bound to haemoglobin About
20 – 25% of dissolved CO2 is
3HUFHQWDJHVDWXUDWLRQRIKDHPRJORELQZLWKR[\JHQ
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ions. When CO2 diffuses into the RBCs, CO2 + H2O carbonic anhydrase H2CO3
it combines with water forming carbonic
carbonic anhydrase HCO3– + H+
acid (H2CO3) catalyzed by carbonic
anhydrase. Carbonic acid is unstable and The HCO3– moves quickly from the RBCs
dissociates into hydrogen and bicarbonate into the plasma, where it is carried to the
ions. lungs. At the alveolar site where pCO2 is
Carbonic anhydrase facilitates the low, the reaction is reversed leading to the
reaction in both directions. formation of CO2 and water. Thus CO2
trapped as HCO3– at the tissue level it is
Inspiration Expiration
Respiratory centre initiates the stimuli Respiratory centre terminates the stimuli
during inspiration. during expiration.
Impulses are carried to the inspiratory The diaphragm and inspiratory muscles
muscles through nerves. relax.
Diaphragm and inspiratory muscles Chest wall contracts and the thoracic
contract. volume gets reduced.
The thoracic volume increases as the The intra pulmonary pressure is reduced.
chest wall expands.
The intra pulmonary pressure is The alveolar pressure increases than the
reduced. atmospheric pressure.
The alveolar pressure decreases than Air is sent out due to the contraction of
the atmospheric pressure alveoli.
Air flows into the alveoli until the Air flows out of the alveoli until
alveolar pressure equalizes the the alveolar pressure equalizes the
atmospheric pressure and the alveoli atmospheric pressure and the alveoli get
get inflated. deflated.
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transported to the alveoli and released headache, shortness of breath, nausea and
out as CO2. Every 100mL of deoxygenated dizziness due to poor binding of O2 with
blood delivers 4mL of CO2 to the alveoli haemoglobin. When the person moves on
for elimination. a long–term basis to mountains from sea
level is body begins to make respiratory
6.6 Regulation of Respiration and haematopoietic adjustments.
To overcome this situation kidneys
A specialised respiratory centre present accelerate production of the hormone
in the medulla oblongata of the hind erythropoietin, which stimulates the
brain called respiratory rhythm centre bone marrow to produce more RBCs.
is responsible for this regulation.
When a person descends deep into
Pneumotaxic centre present in pons varoli
the sea, the pressure in the surrounding
region of the brain moderates the function
water increases which causes the lungs
of the respiratory rhythm centre to ensure
to decrease in volume. This decrease in
normal breathing. The chemosensitive
volume increases the partial pressure of
area found close to the rhythm centre is
the gases within the lungs. This effect can
highly sensitive to CO2 and H+. And H+
be beneficial, because it tends to drive
are eliminated out by respiratory process.
additional oxygen into the circulation, but
Receptors associated with the aortic arch
this benefit also has a risk, the increased
and carotid artery send necessary signals
pressure can also drive nitrogen gas into
to the rhythm centre for remedial action.
the circulation. This increase in blood
The role of O2 is insignificant in the
nitrogen content can lead to a condition
regulation of respiratory rhythm.
called nitrogen narcosis. When the
diver ascends to the surface too quickly a
Particulate matter PM 2.5 in the air condition called ‘bends’ or decompression
is increasing day by day which causes sickness occurs and nitrogen comes
respiratory illness. Central Pollution out of solution while still in the blood
Control Board (CPCB) reports that the forming bubbles. Small bubbles in the
quality of air is not good due to soot and blood are not harmful, but large bubbles
smoke. So some cities in India are using can lodge in small capillaries, blocking
CNG (Compressed Natural Gas) as fuel.
Allergy is caused by
allergens. When we
6.7 Problems in Oxygen enter a polluted area,
transport immediately we start
sneezing and coughing. The allergens
When a person travels quickly from sea
in that place affect our respiratory tracts
level to elevations above 8000ft, where
and the responses to the allergens start
the atmospheric pressure and partial
within minutes. Allergens provoke an
pressure of oxygen are lowered, the
inflammatory response. A common
individual responds with symptoms
manifestation of allergy is Asthma.
of acute mountain sickness (AMS)–
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blood flow or can press on nerve endings. Pneumonia– Inflammation of the lungs
Decompression sickness is associated due to infection caused by bacteria or
with pain in joints and muscles and virus is called pneumonia. The common
neurological problems including stroke. symptoms are sputum production, nasal
The risk of nitrogen narcosis and bends is congestion, shortness of breath, sore
common in scuba divers. throat, etc.
During carbon–dioxide poisoning, Tuberculosis– Tuberculosis is caused by
the demand for oxygen increases. As the Mycobacterium tuberculae. This infection
O2 level in the blood decreases it leads mainly occurs in the lungs and bones.
to suffocation and the skin turns bluish Collection of fluid between the lungs and
black. the chest wall is the main complication of
this disease.
6.8 Disorders of the
Occupational respiratory disorders–
Respiratory system The disorders due to one’s occupation
Respiratory system is highly affected by of working in industries like grinding or
environmental, occupational, personal stone breaking, construction sites, cotton
and social factors. These factors may be industries, etc. Dust produced affects the
responsible for a number of respiratory respiratory tracts.
disorders. Some of the disorders are Long exposure can give rise to
discussed here. inflammation leading to fibrosis.
Asthma – It is characterized by narrowing Silicosis and asbestosis are occupational
and inflammation of bronchi and respiratory diseases resulting from
bronchioles and difficulty in breathing. inhalation of particle of silica from sand
Common allergens for asthma are dust, grinding and asbestos into the respiratory
drugs, pollen grains, certain food items tract. Workers, working in such industries
like fish, prawn and certain fruits etc. must wear protective masks.
Emphysema– Emphysema is chronic
breathlessness caused by gradual 6.9 Effects of Smoking
breakdown of the thin walls of the alveoli Today due to curiosity, excitement or
decreasing the total surface area of a adventure youngsters start to smoke and
gaseous exchange. i.e., widening of the later get addicted to smoking. Research
alveoli is called emphysema. The major says about 80% of the lung cancer is due
cause for this disease is cigarette smoking, to cigarette smoking.
which reduces the respiratory surface of
Smoking is inhaling the smoke from
the alveolar walls.
burning tobacco. There are thousands of
Bronchitis– The bronchi when it gets known chemicals which includes nicotine,
inflated due to pollution smoke and tar, carbon monoxide, ammonia, sulphur–
cigarette smoking, causes bronchitis. The dioxide and even small quantities of arsenic.
symptoms are cough, shortness of breath Carbon monoxide and nicotine damage
and sputum in the lungs. the cardiovascular system and tar damages
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the gaseous exchange system. Nicotine is smokers than non–smokers. Smoking also
the chemical that causes addiction and is a causes cancer of the stomach, pancreas and
stimulant which makes the heart beat faster bladder and lowers sperm count in men.
and the narrowing of blood vessels results Smoking can cause lung diseases by
in raised blood pressure and coronary heart damaging the airways and alveoli and results
diseases. Presence of carbon monoxide in emphysema and chronic bronchitis. These
reduces oxygen supply. Lung cancer, cancer two diseases along with asthma are often
of the mouth and larynx is more common in referred as Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary
Sumanan noticed that his close friend was Disease (COPD). When a person smokes,
addicted to cigarette smoking. He advised nearly 85% of the smoke released is inhaled
his friend and explained the ill–effects of by the smoker himself and others in the
smoking. As a Biology student, explain vicinity, called passive smokers, are also
what advice he might have given to his affected. Guidance or counselling should be
friend regarding the ill–effects of smoking. done in such users to withdraw this habit.
AMAZING FACTS
• The World TB Day is March 24.
• Direct Observation Therapy (DOTs) can treat about 95% of the TB patients.
• The surface area of the lungs is roughly the same size as a tennis court (525 feet
long).
• It is possible to live with one lung.
• The highest recorded ‘sneeze speed’ is 165 km per hour.
• Adults breathe around 12 – 16 times per minute where as new borns breathe
around 30–60 times per minute.
• Yawning helps us to breathe more oxygen to the lungs. When our brain senses the
shortage of O2, it send a message to CNS to imbalance to O2 demand and trigger
us to yawn.
• Breathing through mouth results in bladder shrinkage and creates an urge to
urinate in the middle of the night.
• Most people can hold their breath between 30 seconds to one minute.
• Hiccups are due to eating too fast or having occasional spasms of the diaphragm.
Activity
To test the presence of CO2 in exhaled air Take two test tubes A and B with few mL
of clear lime water. Blow exhaled air into A with a help of a straw and pass normal air
into B with a help of a syringe for about 15 times and observe the changes that occur in
the tubes A and B. The lime water (Calcium Hydroxide) in the test tube A turns milky.
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ICT Corner
Respire
Step – 1
Use the URL to reach the ‘Respiratory System’ page. In the grid select ‘Nasal cavity’
and explore its structure and the functions.
Step – 2
Now click back button on the top of the window or use the ‘Backspace’ key. Select
‘Pharynx’ from the grid and explore its anatomical regions.
Step – 3
Follow the above steps to explore each part and its functions.
Step – 4
Use the reference given below the page to acquire additional details.
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Concept map
Mechanism of Respiraon
136
The contracon of external
ribs ribs The diaphragm relaxes and
intercostal muscle causes
obliquely up obliquely rises to resume its original
the ribs to move anteriorly
dome shape.
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Diaphragm Diaphragm
down up
Respiratory
system
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Bronchioles
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Glossary
Apnoea – Temporary stopping of Herring-Breuer reflex – a defensive
respiration. mechanism against over dilation of lungs.
Book gills – Respiratory organs in aquatic Hypoxia – the failure of tissues for any
Limulus. reason to receive an adequate supply of
oxygen.
Book lungs – Respiratory organs of
Scorpions and most spiders. Pneumothorax – presence of air in the
pleural cavity which causes collapsing of
COLD – Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease.
lungs.
Dyspnoea – painful respiration.
Vocal cords – sound regulating cords also
Epiglottis – a thin elastic cartilaginous flap called larynx or voice box.
which covers the glottis and prevents the
Yawning – prolonged inspiration due to
entry of food into the larynx.
increase in CO2 concentration.
Haemoglobin – iron containing red
pigment of RBCs of vertebrates, gives red
colour to blood.
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13. Column I represents diseases and (S) FRC iv. Volume of air exhaled
column II represents their symptoms. after inspiration.
Choose the correctly paired option
(a) P – i , Q – ii , R – iii , S – iv
Column I Column II
(b) P – ii , Q – iii , R – iv , S – i
(P) Asthma (i) Recurring of (c) P – ii , Q – iii , R – i , S – iv
bronchitis (d) P – iii , Q – iv , R – i , S – ii
(Q) Emphysema (ii) Accumulation of
W.B.CS in alveolus 16. Make the correct pairs.
(R) Pneumonia (iii) Allergy Columan–I Column–II
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Learning Objectives:
• Understands the consuming process. Nervous system is
importance of body required to coordinate activities by sending
fluids. nerve impulses that involves energy.
• Identifies and All living cells have to be supplied with
describes the blood nutrients, oxygen and other substances and
cells, different have to remove CO2 and waste products
types of blood groups and blood from them. It is therefore essential to have
coagulating factors.
efficient mechanisms for transport of these
• Differentiate the blood vessels and substances to and from the cells. Different
its properties groups of animals have evolved different
• Understands the human circulatory methods of transport. Very small organisms
system. like the sponges and coelenterates lack
• Understands the cardiac cycle and a circulatory system. Water from their
relate with the peaks of ECG. surroundings enters their body cavity to
• Identifies the disorders of facilitate the cells to exchange substances
circulatory system. by diffusion. More complex organisms use
special fluids and well organized transport
Animals particularly larger animals like
systems within their body to transport
mammals, are more active. They depend on
such materials by bulk flow or connective
locomotion to find food which is an energy
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diffusion.
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Within our body the transport system JODQGV
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from one place to another and assisting in WUDFW )RRG
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immune cells to the sites of infection. 6ROLG
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These processes contribute to overall IDHFHV
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Platelets are also called thrombocytes Table 7.1 Distribution of antigens and
that are produced from megakaryocytes antibodies in different blood groups
(special cells in bone marrow) and lack Blood Agglutinogens Agglutinin
nuclei. Blood normally contains 1, 50,000 group (antigens) on (antibodies)
-3, 50,000 platelets mm23 of blood. They the RBC in the plasma
secrete substances involved in coagulation A A Anti B
or clotting of blood. The reduction in B B Anti A
platelet number can lead to clotting AB AB No antibodies
disorders that result in excessive loss of O No antigens Anti A and Anti B
blood from the body.
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STIMULUS
Tissue damage
Muscle spasm,
platelet plug
formation
Thrombin acts
enzymatically on
fibrinogen
coloured fluid through a meshwork called continually diffusing out of the blood
serum (Plasma without fibrinogen is capillaries into the body tissues. The end
called serum). Heparin is an anticoagulant of a vessel is shown in Figure 7.5. Lymph
produced in small quantities by mast fluid must pass through the lymph nodes
cells of connective tissue which prevents before it is returned to the blood. The
coagulation in small blood vessels. lymph nodes that filter the fluid from
the lymphatic vessels of the skin are
7.1.5 Composition of lymph and its highly concentrated in the neck, inguinal,
functions axillaries, respiratory and digestive tracts.
About 90% of fluid that leaks from The lymph fluid flowing out of the lymph
capillaries eventually seeps back into nodes flow into large collecting duct
the capillaries and the remaining 10% is which finally drains into larger veins
collected and returned to blood system that runs beneath the collar bone, the
by means of a series of tubules known as subclavian vein and is emptied into the
lymph vessels or lymphatics. The fluid blood stream. The narrow passages in
inside the lymphatics is called lymph. The the lymph nodes are the sinusoids that
lymphatic system consists of a complex are lined with macrophages. The lymph
network of thin walled ducts (lymphatic nodes successfully prevent the invading
vessels), filtering bodies (lymph nodes) microorganisms from reaching the blood
and a large number of lymphocytic cell stream. Cells found in the lymphatics are
concentrations in various lymphoid the lymphocytes. Lymphocytes collected
organs. The lymphatic vessels have in the lymphatic fluid are carried via the
smooth walls that run parallel to the blood arterial blood and are recycled back to the
vessels, in the skin, along the respiratory lymph. Fats are absorbed through lymph
and digestive tracts. These vessels serve in the lacteals present in the villi of the
as return ducts for the fluids that are intestinal wall.
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Arteries
Capillaries
The blood vessels that carry blood away
from the heart are called arteries. The Capillary beds are made up of fine
arteries usually lie deep inside the body. networks of capillaries. The capillaries are
The walls of the arteries are thick, non- thin walled and consist of single layer of
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Endothelium Endothelium
Venule Arteriole
Endothelium
Capillary
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complete separation of oxygenated blood left ventricle. The valves of the heart allows
from the deoxygenated blood. Pulmonary the blood to flow only in one direction, i.e.,
and systemic circuits are evident. This from the atria to the ventricles and from the
type of circulation is called complete ventricles to the pulmonary artery or the
double circulation. aorta. These valves prevent backward flow
of blood.
7.4 Human circulatory system The opening of right and left ventricles
The structure of the heart was described into the pulmonary artery and aorta are
by Raymond de viessens, in 1706. Human guarded by aortic and pulmonary valves
heart is made of special type of muscle and are called semilunar valves. Each
called the cardiac muscle. It is situated in semilunar valve is made of three half-
the thoracic cavity and its apex portion is moon shaped cusps. The myocardium
slightly tilted towards left. It weighs about of the ventricle is thrown into irregular
300g in an adult. The size of our heart is muscular ridges called trabeculae corneae.
roughly equal to a closed fist. The structure The trabeculae corneae are modified
of heart and the L.S of heart are shown in into chordae tendinae. The opening
Figure 7.7 (a) and (b). Heart is divided into and closing of the semilunar valves are
four chambers, upper two small auricles or achieved by the chordae tendinae. The
atrium and lower two large ventricles. The chordae tendinae are attached to the lower
walls of the ventricles are thicker than the end of the heart by papillary muscles. Heart
auricles due to the presence of papillary receives deoxygenated blood from various
muscles. The heart wall is made up of parts of the body through the inferior
three layers, the outer epicardium, middle venacava and superior venacava which
myocardium and inner endocardium. The open into the right auricle. Oxygenated
space present between the membranes is blood from lungs is drained into the left
called pericardial space and is filled with auricle through four pulmonary veins.
pericardial fluid.
7.4.1 Origin and conduction of heart
The two auricles are separated by inter
beat
auricular septum and the two ventricles are
separated by inter ventricular septum The The heart in human is myogenic
separation of chambers avoids mixing of (cardiomyocytes can produce
oxygenated and deoxygenated blood. The spontaneous rhythmic depolarisation that
auricle communicates with the ventricle initiates contractions). The sequence of
through an opening called auriculo electrical conduction of heart is shown in
ventricular aperture which is guarded by Figure 7.8. The cardiac cells with fastest
the auriculo ventricular valves. The opening rhythm are called the Pacemaker cells,
between the right atrium and the right since they determine the contraction
ventricle is guarded by the tricuspid valve rate of the entire heart. These cells
(three flaps or cusps), whereas a bicuspid are located in the right sinuatrial (SA)
(two flaps or cusps) or mitral valve guards node/ Pacemaker. On the left side of the
the opening between the left atrium and right atrium is a node called auriculo
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ventricular node (AV node). Two special potential is required to activate voltage
cardiac muscle fibres originate from the gated calcium (Ca+) channels that causes
auriculo ventricular node and are called rapid depolarisation which results in
the bundle of His which runs down into action potential. The pace maker cells
the interventricular septum and the fibres repolarise slowly via K1 efflux.
spread into the ventricles. These fibres are HEART BEAT- Rhythmic contraction
called the Purkinje fibres. and expansion of heart is called heart
Pacemaker cells produce excitation beat. The contraction of the heart is called
through depolarisation of their cell systole and the relaxation of the heart is
membrane. Early depolarisation is slow called diastole. The heart normally beats
and takes place by sodium influx and 70-72 times per min in a human adult.
reduction in potassium efflux. Minimum During each cardiac cycle two sounds
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are produced that can be heard through PHASE 4: Ventricular systole (ventricular
a stethoscope. The first heart sound ejection) - Increased ventricular pressure
(lub) is associated with the closure of the forces the semilunar valves to open and
tricuspid and bicuspid valves whereas blood is ejected out of the ventricles without
second heart sound (dub) is associated backflow of blood. This point is the end of
with the closure of the semilunar valves. systolic volume (ESV).
These sounds are of clinical diagnostic PHASE 5: (Ventricular diastole) -The
significance. An increased heart rate is ventricles begins to relax, pressure in
called tachycardia and decreased heart the arteries exceeds ventricular pressure,
rate is called bradycardia. resulting in the closure of the semilunar
valves. The heart returns to phase 1 of the
7.4.2 Cardiac Cycle cardiac cycle.
The events that occur at the beginning of
heart beat and lasts until the beginning of 7.4.3 Cardiac output
next beat is called cardiac cycle. It lasts for The amount of blood pumped out by
0.8 seconds. The series of events that takes each ventricle per minute is called cardiac
place in a cardiac cycle. output(CO). It is a product of heart rate
PHASE 1: Ventricular diastole- The (HR) and stroke volume (SV). Heart
pressure in the auricles increases than rate or pulse is the number of beats per
that of the ventricular pressure. AV valves minute. Pulse pressure = systolic pressure
are open while the semi lunar valves are – diastolic pressure. Stroke volume (SV)
closed. Blood flows from the auricles into is the volume of blood pumped out by
the ventricles passively. one ventricle with each beat. SV depends
PHASE 2: Atrial systole - The atria on ventricular contraction. CO = HR X
contracts while the ventricles are still SV. SV represents the difference between
relaxed. The contraction of the auricles EDV (amount of blood that collects in a
pushes maximum volume of blood to ventricle during diastole) and ESV (volume
the ventricles until they reach the end of blood remaining in the ventricle after
diastolic volume (EDV). EDV is related contraction). SV = EDV - ESV. According
to the length of the cardiac muscle fibre. to Frank – Starling law of the heart, the
More the muscle is stretched, greater the critical factor controlling SV is the degree
EDV and the stroke volume. to which the cardiac muscle cells are
stretched just before they contract. The
PHASE 3: Ventricular systole
most important factor stretching cardiac
(isovolumetric contraction) - The
muscle is the amount of blood returning
ventricular contraction forces the AV
to the heart and distending its ventricles,
valves to close and increases the pressure
venous return. During vigorous exercise,
inside the ventricles. The blood is then
SV may double as a result of venous
pumped from the ventricles into the aorta
return. Heart’s pumping action normally
without change in the size of the muscle
maintains a balance between cardiac
fibre length and ventricular chamber
output and venous return. Because the
volume (isovolumetric contraction).
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heart is a double pump, each side can fail triggers baroreceptor reflex. This results
independently of the other. If the left side in increased cardiac output and increased
of the heart fails, it results in pulmonary peripheral resistance which together
congestion and if the right side fails, it increase the mean arterial pressure.
results in peripheral congestion. Frank
– Starling effect protects the heart from 7. 4. 4 Electrocardiogram (ECG)
abnormal increase in blood volume. An electrocardiogram (ECG) records
the electrical activity of the heart over a
period of time using electrodes placed on
When blood volume drops down
the skin, arms, legs and chest. It records
abruptly, what happens to the stroke
the changes in electrical potential across
volume? State whether it increases or
the heart during one cardiac cycle. The
decreases?
special flap of muscle which initiates the
heart beat is called as sinu-auricular node
Blood Pressure or SA node in the right atrium. It spreads
as a wave of contraction in the heart. The
Blood pressure is the pressure exerted on waves of the ECG are due to depolarization
the surface of blood vessels by the blood. and not due to contraction of the heart.
This pressure circulates the blood through This wave of depolarisation occurs before
arteries, veins and capillaries. There are two the beginning of contraction of the
types of pressure, the systolic pressure and cardiac muscle. A normal ECG shows 3
the diastolic pressure. Systolic pressure is waves designated as P wave, QRS complex
the pressure in the arteries as the chambers and T wave as shown in Figure 7.9 and
of the heart contracts. Diastolic pressure is the stages of the ECG graph are shown in
the pressure in the arteries when the heart Figure 7.10.
chambers relax. Blood pressure is measured
using a sphygmomanometer (BP apparatus). P Wave (atrial depolarisation)
It is expressed as systolic pressure / diastolic
It is a small upward wave and indicates the
pressure. Normal blood pressure in man
depolarisation of the atria. This is the time
is about 120/80mm Hg. Mean arterial
taken for the excitation to spread through
pressure is a function of cardiac output and
atria from SA node. Contraction of both
resistance in the arterioles. The primary
atria lasts for around 0.8-1.0 sec.
reflex pathway for homeostatic control of
mean arterial pressure is the baroreceptor PQ Interval (AV node delay)
reflex. The baroreceptor reflex functions
every morning when you get out of bed. It is the onset of P wave to the onset of
When you are lying flat the gravitational QRS complex. This is from the start of
force is evenly distributed. When you stand depolarisation of the atria to the beginning
up, gravity causes blood to pool in the lower of ventricular depolarisation. It is the time
extremities. The decrease in blood pressure taken for the impulse to travel from the
upon standing is known as orthostatic atria to the ventricles (0.12-0.21sec). It is the
hypotension. Orthostatic reflex normally measure of AV conduction time.
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capillary walls and can accumulate in the Hence the arteries close to the heart have
tissues. This increases the diffusion distance increased pressure than the arteries away
and reduces the efficiency of the gas exchange. from the heart. Completely separated circuits
In contrast high pressure is required to force (pulmonary and systemic) allow these two
blood through the long systemic circuits. different demands to be met with.
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Myocardial infarction (Heart failure) the mitral valve, fibrosis of the connective
The prime defect in heart failure is a tissue and accumulation of fluid in the
decrease in cardiac muscle contractility. The pericardial cavity.
Frank- Starling curve shifts downwards and
towards the right such that for a given EDV, 7.8 Cardio pulmonary
a failing heart pumps out a smaller stroke Resuscitation (CPR)
volume than a normal healthy heart. In 1956, James Elam and
When the blood supply to the heart muscle Peter Safar were the first
or myocardium is remarkably reduced it leads to use mouth to mouth
to death of the muscle fibres. This condition resuscitation. CPR is a
is called heart attack or myocardial infarction. life saving procedure
The blood clot or thrombosis blocks the blood that is done at the time of emergency
supply to the heart and weakens the muscle conditions such as when a person’s breath
fibres. It is also called Ischemic heart disease or heart beat has stopped abruptly in case
due to lack of oxygen supply to the heart of drowning, electric shock or heart attack.
muscles. If this persists it leads to chest pain or CPR includes rescue of breath, which is
angina. Prolonged angina leads to death of the achieved by mouth to mouth breathing,
heart muscle resulting in heart failure. to deliver oxygen to the victim’s lungs by
external chest compressions which helps
Rheumatoid Heart Disease to circulate blood to the vital organs. CPR
Rheumatic fever is an autoimmune must be performed within 4 to 6 minutes
disease which occurs 2-4 weeks after after cessation of breath to prevent brain
throat infection usually a streptococcal damage or death. Along with CPR,
infection. The antibodies developed to defibrillation is also done. Defibrillation
combat the infection cause damage to the means a brief electric shock is given to the
heart. Effects include fibrous nodules on heart to recover the function of the heart.
Activity
Ramu was 45 years old when he went to a doctor to check his blood pressure. His pressure was
around 158/98mmHg. The doctor advised him to measure his blood pressure at home for two
weeks. He came to the doctor saying his average blood pressure was around 160/100mmHg.
Doctor concludes that Ramu has high blood pressure or hypertension. If not controlled,
hypertension can lead to heart failure, stroke and kidney failure. He returned to the doctor
after two months after taking the drug, ACH inhibitor. This chemical blocks the production of
angiotensin II, a powerful vasoconstrictor, so his blood pressure returned back to normal.
1. Why are people with high blood pressure at greater risk for having a hemorrhagic stroke?
2. Without medication Ramu’s blood pressure was around 160/100mmHg after two weeks.
Why this pressure was referred to as hypertension by the doctor.
3. Blocking the action of vasoconstrictor lowers the blood pressure? Give reasons.
4. What is the role of ACH inhibitor in reducing blood pressure?
5. What conditions one might expect if the blood pressure is not controlled?
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ICT Corner
7KHYLWDOÀRZ
Step – 1
Type the following URL in the browser. ‘Circulatory System page will open. Select
‘Phases of Cardiac Cycle’ from the grid.
Step – 2
From the given Phases of Cardiac Cycle, Play one after another using ‘Play’ button
and observe the valve movements and blood circulation in the heart.
Step – 3
7KHODVWDQLPDWLRQVKRZVWKHHQWLUHIXQFWLRQVDQGÀRZVRIWKH&DUGLDFF\FOH8VH3OD\
Forward and Backward buttons and observe the nuances of Heart function.
Step – 4
Use the links below the Phases to get more details about the locations, size, chambers
and pericardium structures.
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164
Concept Map
inculding
Neutrophils including Monocytes
Thrombin to form a clot
Granular A granular
Heamoglobin
Fibrin Thoracic duct
can be
consists of includes
Open in arthropods
165
Closed in vertebrates some
Purkinje fibers invertebrates
includes
has
Semilunar valves has
guarding entrance/exits
to The heart Blood Vessels
Veins Two circuits
sends
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Separates
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Summary
Vertebrates circulate blood in their body, to capillary walls. The formed elements of
transport essential substances to the cells blood constitute RBC, WBC and Platelets.
and to carry waste substances from them. The mammalian heart has four
Blood is carried away from the heart, passes chambers, right and left artia and right
through tissues in capillaries and is returned and left ventricles. The separation of
to the heart in veins. Blood pressure drops chambers in the heart results in complete
gradually as it passes along this system. double circulation. The cardiac cycle is a
Arteries have thick, elastic walls which allow continuous process but can be considered
them to withstand high blood pressure. in five stages. Beating of the heart is
Arterioles are small arteries that help to initiated by the sinoatrial node (SAN) or
reduce blood pressure and control the pacemaker which has its own myogenic
amount of blood flow to different tissues. rhythm. Blood pressure is the force exerted
Capillaries are only just wide enough to allow by blood on the walls of blood vessels, and
the passage of red blood cells, and have very it is responsible for moving blood through
thin wall to allow efficient and rapid transfer the vessels.
of materials between blood and cells. Veins
Cardiovascular disease accounts
have thinner walls than arteries and possess
for more deaths each year in the India.
valves that allow blood to flow back to the
Cardiovascular conditions include
heart even at low pressure.
systemic hypertension, atherosclerosis,
Blood consist of plasma and formed coronary artery disease, angina pectoris,
elements. Blood plasma leaks from myocardial infarction and stroke.
capillaries to form tissue fluid. This is Cardiovascular diagnostic techniques and
collected into lymphatics as lymph, and treatments include cardiac angiography,
returned to the blood in the subclavian balloon angioplasty, and coronary artery
veins. Tissue fluid and lymph are almost bypass. The circulatory system contributes
identical in composition. They contain to homeostasis by transporting O2, CO2,
fewer plasma protein molecules than wastes, electrolytes, and hormones from
blood plasma as these proteins are too one part of the body to another.
large to pass through the pores in the
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15. At any given time there is more blood g. Destroyed in the liver and spleen
in the venous system than that of the after circulating in the blood for
arterial system. Which of the following four months.
features of the veins allows this? h. The substances which gives red
a. relative lack of smooth muscles cells their colour.
c. proximity of the veins to lymphatic’s j. Blood that has been changed to a jelly.
17. Distinguish between open and closed m. White cells made in the lymphatic
circulation tissue.
18. Distinguish between mitral valve and n. Blocks wound and prevent
semi lunar valve excessive bleeding.
19. Right ventricular wall is thinner than o. Fragment of cells which are made
the left ventricular wall. Why? in the bone marrow.
20. What might be the effect on a person p. Another name for white blood
whose diet has less iron content? cells.
21. Describe the mechanism by which q. Slowly releases oxygen to blood cells.
the human heart beat is initiated and r. Their function is to help blood clot
controlled. in wounds.
22. What is lymph? Write its function. 25. Select the correct biological term.
23. What are the heart sounds? When Cardiac muscle, atria, tricuspid systole,
and how are these sounds produced? auricles, arteries, diastole, ventricles,
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the heart.
F
d. Another name for atria.
G
e. The main vein.
f. Vessels which carry blood away References
from the heart.
1. Christopher D. Moyes and Patricia
g. Two names for the upper chambers
M. Schulte (2016), Principles of
of the heart.
animal physiology 2nd edition Pearson
h. Thick walled chambers of the heart. publications.
i. Carries blood from the heart to 2. Mary Jones, Richard Fosbery, Jennifer
the lungs. Gregory and Dennis Taylor, Cambridge
j. Takes about 0.8 sec to complete. International AS and A level Biology
k. Valves situated at the point where Course book 4th edition, Cambridge
blood flows out of the heart. University Press.
l. Vessels which carry blood towards 3. Elaine N. Marieb and Katja Hoehn
the heart. (2011), Anatomy and Physiology
m. Carries blood from the lungs to 4th edition Pearson publications.
the heart.
n. The two lower chambers of the heart. Web links
o. Prevent blood from re entering the
1. Online and Interactive Resources
ventricles after entering the aorta.
a. www.fi.edu/learn/heart/blood/blood.
p. Technical name for one heart beat.
html for information about blood.
q. Valves between right atrium and
b. www. abpischools.org.uk it
ventricles.
includes a glossary, questions and
r. Technical name for contraction of animations.
the heart.
c. www.youtube.com/watch?
s. Very narrow blood vessels. v+kcWNjt77uHc for description of
26. Name and Label the given diagrams cardiac cycle. www. brookerbiology.
to show A, B, C, D, E, F, and G com
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12. In classification the category below 19. Which is the first step of taxonomy ?
the level of family is ………. (CET- (MGIMS-2002)
98) a. nomenclature b. classification
a. class b. species c. identification d. hierarchical
c. phylum d. genus arrangement
13. Taxon is ………. (CET-2000) 20. The five kingdom classification was
a. species given by ………. (BYP-2002)
b. unit of classification a. Whittaker b. Linnaeus
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81. The exoskeleton of insect is made up 89. Blood worms are the larvae of (AMU
of 2007)
a. pectin b. lignin a. Hirudinaria
b. Chironomus
c. chitin d. suberin
c. Limulus
82. Collar cells are found in d. Daphnia
a. aschelminthes b. cnidaria 90. Pick the odd pair: (AMU 2008)
c. arthropoda d. sponges a. Porifera : spicules
b. Scyphozoan: coral reef
83. Ommatidia are the units that c. Nematode : pseudocoelomate
constitute the compound eyes in d. Cestoda: proglottid
(AMU 1995).
91. Insect metamorphosis having larval
a. Fish b. Insects stage is called (AFMC 1994)
c. Mammals d. birds a. Incomplete metamorphosis
84. Which of the following animals b. Retrogressive metamorphosis
possesses ink gland? (AMU 2003) c. Heteromorphosis
d. Complete metamorphosis
a. blue whale
b. scorpion 92. Which of the following is not an
c. sea urchin insect? (AFMC 1996)
d. cuttle fish a. Cockroach b. Spider
c. Mosquito d. bedbug
85. Comb plates are present in (AMU
2004) 93. Which of the following enters
intestine by penetrating through
a. echinoderms
skin (AFMC 2003)
b. ctenophores
c. annelids a. hook worm
d. molluscs b. Ascaris
c. Pin worm
86. Which of
the following d. filarialworm
does not belong to phylum
94. In nemathelminthes the coelom is
cnidaria?(AMU2004).
not lined by peritoneum is (AFMC
a. Sea-pen 2004)
b. Sea lily
c. Sea-fan a. acoelom
d. Sea anemone b. pseudocoelom
c. enterocoelom
87. Protonephridia are the excretory
d. haemocoel
structures present in (AMU2005)
95. Leech secretes which of the following
a. Planaria
anticoagulant? (AFMC 2004)
b. Roundworm
c. Tapeworm a. hirudin b. heparin
d. Prawn c. serotonin d. histamine
88. Which of the following is not an 96. Canal system in porifera is not
annelid? (AMU2007) concerned with (AFMC 2005)
a. Leech a. respiration
b. Earthworm b. nutrition
c. Sea mouse c. sexual reproduction
d. Sea cucumbers d. none of these
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97. Johnston’s organ is present in (AFMC 102. Which phylum of the animal
2007) Kingdom is exclusively marine?
a. antenna of insect (orissa 2003,2006)
b. head of cockroach a. porifera b. arthropoda
c. abdomen of housefly
c. echinodermata d. molluscs
d. abdomen of spider
98. Which of the following is not an 103. Study of ticks and mites is
arachnid? (AFMC 2007) Ă͘ Acarology b. Entomology
a. spider b. itchmite c. Malacology d. Carcinology
104. Larva of mosquito is
c. louse d. tick
a. maggot b. caterpillar
99. Fasciola hepatica is (AFMC 2007)
c. grub d. none of these
a. hermaphrodite. Self fertilizing
b. hermaphrodite, cross fertilizing 105. Transparent hairs on catkins and
c. unisexual caterpillars function to ?
d. both (a) and (b) a. trap heat
100. Match the excretory organs listed
b. trap moisture
under column I with the animals
given under column II. Choose c. reflect light
the answer which gives the correct d. drink water.
combination of alphabets of the
106. Which of the following traits is not
column.
the characteristic of echinodermat?
Column I Column II
a. water vascular system
A Nephridia P Hydra
b. trochophore larva
B Malpighian tubules q Leech
c. Aristotle’s lantern
C protonephridia r Shark
d. radial and indeterminate cleavage
D kidneys s Round worms
107. which of the following is
t Cockroack pseudocoelomate ?
a. A = q; B = t; C= s; D = r a. nematode b. chordate
b. A =s ; B= q; C= p; D= t c. echinodermata d. arthropoda
c. A = t; B = q; C = s; D = r 108. Which is not correct for sponges ?
d. A = q; B = s ; C =t ; D= p a. internal fertilization
101. Entomology is concerned with the b. external fertilization
study of …. c. gemmule formation
a. formation and properties of soil d. gametes are formed from
b. agricultural practices epidermal cells.
c. various aspects of human life 109. Triploblastic , schizocoelic,
unsegmented soft bodied animals
d. various aspects of insects.
belongs to the phylum ( J&K 1998)
a. annelid b. mollusca
c. nemathelminthes d. none of the above
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110. Which one of the following animals 118. Which of the following cell type is
belongs to the phylum cnidaria ? capable of giving rise to other cell
( J&K1998) types in sponges?
a. silver fish b. squid a. Pinacocytes
c. jelly fish d. Echidna b. Archaeocytes
111. Palaemon ( prawn ) is a ( J & K 2000 ) c. Thesocytes
a. fish b. insect d. Collencytes
c. soft shell mollusc d. crustacean 119. The infective stage of Entamoeba
112. Tapeworm occurs as a parasite in histolytica is
( J&K 2001) a. cyst
a.liver b. stomach b. spore
c. egg
c. intestine d. all of these. d. trophozoite
113. What distinguishes an insects from 120. Gonads of Obelia occur in
crustacean ? (J&K 2002, 2005) a. on blastocyst
a. number of eyes b. inhydrula stage
c. radial canals of medusa
b. arrangement of nerve cords d. bases of entacles of medusa
c. number of appendages 121. Which one of the following features
is common to leech, cockroach and
d. presence of wings.
scorpion?
114. Leeches are usually ( J&k 2005)
a. nephridia
a. herbivorous b. insectivorous b. ventral nerve cord
c. carnivorous d. sanguvorous c. cephalization
d. antennae
115. Wichereia bancrofit is a common 122. Excretory organs of flatworms are
filarial worm. It belongs to the
a. Malpighian tubules
phylum (J&K 2007) b. Neprons
a. Platyhelminthes c. Protonephridia
b. Nemathelminthes d. Nnepridia
123. Sea cucumbers belong to class
c. Annelid
a. Echinoidea
d. Coelenterate b. Holothuroidea
116. The dioecius animal is (J&K 2008) c. Ophiuroidea
d. Asteroidean
a. Liver fluke b. Aurella
124. One of the following is a very
c. Tapeworm d. Earthworm unique feature of the mammals
117. Malpighian tubles remove excretory (PMT2004, DPMT 1996. 1998)
products from a. Homeothermy
a. Mouth b. Presence of diaphragam
c. Four chambered heart
b. Haemolymph
d. Rib cage
c. Oesophagus 125. Uricotelisum is found in (PMT2004)
d. Alimentary canal a. Mammals and birds
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4. By what the major part of mammalian 10. The number of teeth that grow once
teeth is made up ? (CPMT – 1984) in the human life is (D.P.M.T, B.H.U.-
a. Root 1986)
b. Pulp a. 4
c. Dentin b. 12
d. Enamel c. 20
c. Bile b. Pancreas
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a. All veins carry deoxygenated 19. Which is the correct statement for
blood blood ? (APMEE – 96)
b. All arteries carry deoxygenated a. WBC is more than RBC
blood b. RBC is more than WBC
c. All veins carry deoxygenated c. RBC is less than platelets
blood except one
d. Platelets is less than RBC
d. All arteries carry deoxygenated
blood except one 20. Hepatic portal system starts from
a. Digestive system to liver
15. Regulation and initiation of heartbeat
is indicated by b. Kidney to liver
a. AV Node – bundle of His muscule c. Liver to heart
– SA node – purkinje fiber
d. Liver to Kidney
b. SA Node – purkinje fiber – AV 21. Blood circulation that stats in
Node – Bundle of His muscle capillaries and ends in capaillaries is
c. Purkinje fiber – AV Node – SA called (J & K CET 2010)
node – Bundle of His muscle a. Portal circulation
d. SA Node – AV Node – Bundle of b. Hepatic circulation
His muscle – Purkinje fiber
c. Cardic circulation
16. Where Mitral valve is located and it
join, (BHU-86, 2000, DPMT-86) d. None of these
a. Left atrium and left ventricle 22. Which of the following carries
glucose from digestive tract to liver
b. Left atrium and Right ventricle (PMT-1999,BHU 2001)
c. Right atrium and Left ventricle a. Hepatic artaery
d. Right atrium and Right ventricle b. Hepatic portal vein
17. What is responsible for systole ? c. Pulmonary vein
(BHU-86,2000,DPMT-86,)
d. None of these
a. Entry of blood in lungs
23. Lymph (nodes) glands form
b. Entry of blood in heart
a. Hormones
c. Blood flow out of heart
b. Lymphs
d. Blood flow out of vein
c. Antigens
18. What is the function of lymph ?
(MPPMT-95) d. Antibodies
a. Transport of O2 into brain 24. Which of the following is not a
major organ of lymphatic system
b. Transport of CO2 into lungs (MP PMT 2010)
c. Bring interstitial fluid in blood a. Lymph nodes b. Thymus
d. Bring RBC and WBC in lymph c. Kidney d. Spleen
node
25. Lymph is colourless because
(MP PMT 1999)
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Zoology – Class XI
List of Authors and Reviewers
Advisory Committee Members of Subject Coordinator Translators of Class XI Zoology
Class XI Bio-Zoology Dr. S. Shameem Dr. S. Muthazhagu
Dr. Sultan Ahmed Ismail Deputy Director Associate Professor (Rtd)
Scientist State Council of Educational Research and Training, A.A Govt Arts college, Cheyyar.
Eco-science Research Foundation, Chennai. Chennai Dr. N. Kumanan
Dr. P.K. Kaleena Coordinators
Biology PGT
Associate Professor ADW, GHSS. Mullangurichi, Pudukkottai Dist.
Department of Zoology, Presidency College, Dr. V.T. Shanthi Mrs. R. Amali
Chennai. Senior Lecturer, DIET, Tirur. Biology PGT
Mrs. B. Selvi GHSS, Panruti, Cuddalore.
Reviewers of Class XI Zoology Lecturer, Mr. R. Nagendaran
Dr. Dinesh Kumar SCERT, Chennai Biology PGT
Reader GHSS, Nathamedu, Dharmapuri Dist.
NCERT, New Delhi
Content Writers of Class XI Zoology
Dr. Vareishang Tangu Ms. P. Maheswari Content Readers of Class XI Zoology
Assistant Professor in Zoology RIE, (NCERT) Dr. J. Ebanasar
Lecturer in Zoology
Mysore, Karnataka Associate Professor & Head
DIET, Uthamapalayam, Theni District.
Dr. Chitralekha Ramachandran Dr. S. Ganesapandian Dept. of zoology and wildlife Biology,
Professor (Rtd) Govt. Arts College, Ooty, The Nilgiris Dist.
Biology PGT
Stella Maris College, Chennai. Dr. R. Raja Jeya Sekar
GHSS Sathankulam, Ramanathapuram Dist.
Dr. S. Sambasivam Dr. J. Savarimuthu Michael Asst Professor
Professor (Rtd), PG and Research Department of Zoology,
Zoology PGT
Presidency College, Chennai. South Travancore, Hindu College, Nagercoil, Kanya-
Carmel HSS, Nagercoil, Kanyakumari Dist.
Dr. G. Sivashankar kumari Dist.
Urologist
Mr. M. Sivaguru Dr. Mazher Sulthana
Biology PGT
Stanley Medical College, Chennai. Associate Professor in Zoology (Rtd)
Sri Ramakrishna Vidyasala HSS, Chidambaram,
Dr. S.S. Subramanian Presidency College, Chennai
Cuddalore Dist.
Principal & H.O.D (Physiotherapy)
Mrs. M. Anusua Catherina Chelliah Dr. Usha
Sree Balaji College of Physiotherapy & Associate Professor in Zoology (Rtd)
Biology PGT
Rehabilitation Centre, Chennai. Presidency College, Chennai
Presidency GHSS
Dr. S. Dinakaran Egmore, Chennai Dist. Dr. R. Saravanan
Associate Professor & Head Assistant Professor in Zoology
Dept. of Zoology, The Madhura College, Madurai.
Mr. Alen Godfrey R. Jose Dr. Ambedkar Govt. Arts College,
Biology PGT
Vyasarpadi, Chennai
MCC Mat. HSS, Chetpet, Chennai.
Domain Experts of Class XI Zoology Dr. N. Sarojini
Dr. P. Sarala Mr. S. Maheswaran Assistant Professor in Zoology
Biology PGT
Associate Professor, Department of Zoology, Bharathi Women’s College, Chennai
GHSS, Johilpatti, Virudhunagar Dist.
Quaid-e- Millath College for Women, Chennai. Mr. S. Thiyagarajan
Dr. B. Meena Mr. L. Sivan Pillai Biology PGT
Biology PGT
Associate Professor, Department of Zoology, G.H.S.S. Gomangalampudhur, Pollachi.
Bharath Senior Secondary School, Adyar, Chennai.
Presidency College, Chennai. Mrs. A. Sudha
Dr. E. Malathi Mrs. T. Devikala Biology PGT
Biology PGT
Associate Professor, Queen Mary’s College, Chennai. Municipal GHSS, Pollachi, Coimabatore Dist.
DAV Girls Senior Secondary School, Gopalapuram,
Dr. (Sr.) R. Regina Mary Chennai. Mrs. G. Gomathi
Assistant Professor Biology PGT
Dept. of Zoology, Auxilium College, Katpadi, Vellore. Govt GHSS, Tharamangalam, Salem Dist.
Dr. S. Winkins Santosh Mr. L. Murugaiyan
Asst. Professor Biology PGT
PG and Research Dept. of Advanced Zoology and St. Joseph HSS, Vichoor, Pudukottai Dist.
Biotechnology, Govt. Arts College, Nandanam, Mr. G. Venkateswaran
Chennai. Biology PGT
GHSS, Alivalam, Thiruvarur Dist.
Mrs. Puah G. Prime Rose
Art and Design Team Biology PGT
GHSS, Thittuvizhai, Kanyakumari Dist.
Chief Co-ordinator and
Creative Head Mrs. A. Packialakshmi
Biology PGT
SrinivasanNatarajan GHSS, Thangachimadam, Ramanathapuram Dist.