Professional Documents
Culture Documents
1 Vector Spaces
• Steinitz Exchange Lemma: Let V be a FDVS over F. Let {v1 , . . . , vm } be LI and
{w1 , . . . , wn } span V . Then:
– m ≤ n.
– after reordering, {v1 , . . . , vm , wm+1 , . . . , wn } spans V .
• If V is a FDVS and U ≤ V , then dim(V ) = dim(U ) + dim(V /U ).
P P
• Direct Sum: For V1 , . . . , Vn ≤ V , Vi is direct iff Vj ∩ i6=j Vi = {0} ∀ j.
2 Linear Maps
• Rank-Nullity: For V a FDVS over F and α : V → W we have r(α) + n(α) = dim(V ).
• Every m × n matrix A is equivalent to
I 0
r ,
0 0
where r = r(A).
• Any invertible matrix can be written as a product of elementary matrices.
U ◦ = {α ∈ V ∗ : ∀ u ∈ U, α(u) = 0}.
so r(α) = r(α∗ ).
1
• We have:
◦
– ker(α∗ ) = Im(α) ,
◦
– Im(α∗ ) ≤ ker(α) , with equality if V, W are FD.
• There is a natural homomorphism ˆ· : V → V ∗∗ , v 7→ v̂ st v̂(ε) = ε(v). If V is FD, ˆ· is an
isomorphism.
• Û ≤ U ◦◦ (equality if V is FD; then U ∼
= Û = U ◦◦ ).
• For V a FDVS over F:
– (U1 + U2 )◦ = U1◦ ∩ U2◦ ,
– (U1 ∩ U2 )◦ = U1◦ + U2◦ .
Use this to prove that det AB = det A det B by defining dA (v1 , . . . , vn ) = det (Av1 | · · · |Avn ),
and applying dA on columns of B.
•
A B
= det A det B.
0 C
2
5 Endomorphisms
Here V is a FDVS.
• α ∈ L(V ) is triangulable iff χα (t) can be written as a product of linear factors over F.
Proof. ⇐: Consider a root λ of χα (t) and a basis for Vλ . Extend to basis for V , then α is
represented by
λIk ∗
.
0 C
Consider the induced linear map ᾱ = V /Vλ → V /Vλ , which is represented by C. Apply
induction.
• α ∈ L(V ) is diagonalisable iff p(α) = 0 for some p(t) ∈ F[t] which is a product of distinct
linear factors.
Proof. ⇐: Define
Y t − λi
qj (t) = , πj = qj (α).
λj − λi
i6=j
Then
X
q(t) = qj (t) = 1 ⇒ q(α) = ι,
so
X
V = Im(πj ).
P
(α − λj ι) πj = 0 ⇒ Im(πj ) ≤ Vλj . Show directness by applying πj on v ∈ Vλj ∩ i6=j Vλi .
Proof.
Consider
an eigenspace Vλi of α and assume q(β) = 0. Then β(Vλi ) ≤ Vλi and
q β|Vλ = q(β)|Vλ = 0, so we can diagonalise β|Vλ .
i i i
Then 1 ≤ gλ ≤ aλ , 1 ≤ cλ ≤ aλ .
From now on F = C.
3
• For α ∈ L(V ) with JNF A, the number of Jordan blocks Jm (λ) with m ≥ r in A is
n (α − λι)r − n (α − λι)r−1 .
Proof. Define Y
pj (t) = (t − λi )ci .
i6=j
4
• Let ϕ be a symmetric bilinear form on a FDVS V over a field F in which 2 6= 0. Then
there exists a basis B of V such that [ϕ]B is diagonal.
• For ϕ a symmetric bilinear form on V , a FDVS over C, there is a basis B of V such that
Ir 0
[ϕ]B = ,
0 0
where r = r(φ).
• For ϕ a symmetric bilinear form on V , a FDVS over R, there is a basis B of V such that
Ip
[ϕ]B =
−Iq ,
0
where p + q = r(φ).
Signature: s(ϕ) = p − q.
Sylvester’s Law of Inertia: p, q are uniquely determined for each ϕ (so signature is
well-defined).
5
Polarisation identity: Given a function Q : V → R, v 7→ ϕ(v, v) for some Hermitian ϕ, we
can determine φ by
1
ϕ(u, v) = Q(u + v) − Q(u − v) + iQ(u − iv) − iQ(u + iv) .
4
We can similarly define the rank and signature of a Hermitian form. Sylvester’s law of
inertia applies as well.
Inner products are equivalent to (certain) norms (via the polarisation identity).
• Gram-Schmidt Process: For a countable LI set {v1 , v2 , . . . }, there exists a sequence
(en ) of ON vectors such that span{v1 , . . . , vk } = span{e1 , . . . , ek } ∀ k.
6
7.2 Spectral Theory
7.2.1 Self-Adjoint Maps
• If α ∈ L(V ) is self-adjoint, then:
– α has real eigenvalues,
– eigenvectors of α with different eigenvalues are orthogonal.
• If V is a FD inner product space and α ∈ L(V ) is self-adjoint, then V has an orthonormal
basis of eigenvectors of α.
Proof. χα has a complex root λ, which is real by above. Consider eigenvector v, prove α
preserves U = hvi⊥ , apply induction.
Proof. Use φ as an inner product (i.e. turn [φ] into I), then diagonalise ψ.
So for A, B ∈ Mn (R)/Mn (C) with A positive definite, there exists some orthogonal/unitary
matrix Q such that QT AQ / Q† AQ, QT BQ / Q† BQ are both diagonal.