Chapter 2 Literature Synthesis

CHAPTER 2 – LITERATURE SYNTHESIS

2.1 Introduction

A brief introduction to the research was given in Chapter one. However, this chapter
intends to synthesise the current knowledge level regarding the research area and to
establish the significance of the research problem. When prepare communication
plan, understanding of industrial practice on communication also critical as well as
theoretical knowledge. Therefore, later part of this literature review will allocate to
study communication in construction industry. Construction project are always being
a team effort, the discussion regarding interpersonal communication and project team
communication will be carried out to understand the communication behaviour of
individuals and teams. Further, failures for the effective communication in team and
direction for the successful communication will also be conversed in the latter part of
this chapter.

2.2 Project Communication

The construction industry needs to communicate better not only with the outside
world but also among its’ distinct professionals. Project communication is a
professional practice (Cheng et al., 2001); therefore, majority of people within the
construction project who communicate most often are the distinct professions such as
the contractor, the client and the architect (James et al, 2004). Further, Project
Communication handbook (2003, p.8) stated,

“The project team must provide timely and accurate information to all
stakeholders (people affected by a project). Members of the project team
prepare information in a variety of ways to meet the needs of various project
stakeholders. Team members also incorporate feedback from these
stakeholders.”

Therefore, information is always rotating within the project. Generally, the

information (message)is flowed from top level to lower level of organisation
hierarchy and data (feedback) is generated from lower level to top level (Ruuska

Department of Civil Engineering 8

Chapter 2 Literature Synthesis

1996). Figure 2.1 illustrates top level managers have contacted with more
information. Therefore, they should have adequate ability to manage information
other than managing the project. As a consequence of managing the information,
project communication management is essential for construction project managers.

Amount of Information Data

(Feed Back)

Information
(message)

Figure 2.1: Information exchange in project

2.3 Project Communication Management

According to PMI (1996), Project communication management includes the process

required to ensure timely and appropriate generation, collection, dissemination,
storage and ultimate disposition of project information. The project communication
management processes provide the critical link among people and information that
are necessary for successful communication. Everyone involved in the project should
understand how communication affect the project as a whole (PMI, 2004) and project
manager responsible for managing communication with the project team and their
stakeholders.

Project communication management consists of four processes: communication

planning; information distribution; performance reporting; and, manage stakeholders

Department of Civil Engineering 9

Chapter 2 Literature Synthesis

(for example see, Mehra, 2003, PMBOK guide, 2004, Fawaz, 2008). Each process is
linked together with other processes and their knowledge area as shown in Figure
2.2. Arrows expose bond of processes. All process are explained in next section in
detailed manner.

Communication Information
Planning Distribution

Performance Manage
Reporting Stakeholders

Figure 2.2: Project communication management process

2.3.1 Communication planning

Project managers spend about 90% of their time invested in communication (Jennifer
and Andrew, 2007); therefore, it is essential to provide adequate planning for them to
communication. Such planning focuses on who needs what information, when and
how they need it. Malladi (2007) stated, a project manager must identify the
stakeholders’ requirements for communication, determine what information is
actually needed, and then plan to deliver the needed information on a pre-set
schedule or based on project conditions.

Communication planning is typically completed early in the project (PMBOK guide,

2004). As part of this planning, the modality of the communication is documented.
Some stakeholders may prefer a hard copy document rather than an electronic
method. Later in the project these needs can change. Throughout the project, the
needs of the stakeholders, the type of information requested, and the modality of the
information should be reviewed for accuracy and updated if needed. Developing a
communication plan for the project is one major task of project communication

Department of Civil Engineering 10

Chapter 2 Literature Synthesis

management and it creates the path to exchange information among stakeholders. As

a first step of developing communication plan, identify the communication
requirement of stakeholders is essential.

2.3.1.1 Identifying communication requirements

Stakeholders will need different types of information depending on their interest in

the project and the priority of the project. As Jennifer and Andrew (2007, p470)
mentioned,

“Figuring out what kind of communication your stakeholders need from the
project so that they can make good decisions. Your project will produce a lot
of information; you don’t want to overwhelm every member of your project
team with all of it.”

Therefore, project manager will need to complete an analysis of the identified

stakeholders to determine what information they actually need and how often the
information is needed.

Project manager and the project team can identify the demand for communication on
the basis of the following requirements (Fawaz, 2008);

 Project structure within the performing organisation

 Stakeholder responsibility
 Departments and disciplines involved with the project work
 Number of individuals involved in the project and their environment
 Number and type of external communication needs

Department of Civil Engineering 11

Chapter 2 Literature Synthesis

Stakeholders

Communication
channels

Figure 2.3: Communication Channels

The project manager will need to identify the number of communication channels
within a project. To calculate the number of communication channels: N (N-1)/2,
where N represents the number of identified stakeholders (Mehra, 2003).For
example, if a project has 5 stakeholders, the formula would read 5(5-1)/2 for a total
of 10 communication channels as illustrated in Figure 2.3.After identified the
communication requirement, project managers should think about which mode shall
be used for distribute the information. With new technology construction industry
was used different type of modalities to exchange information.

2.3.1.2 Exploring communication modalities

As part of the communications planning, the project manager should identify all of
the required and approved methods of communicating. Communication modalities
can also include meetings, reports, memos, emails, etc.(PMBOK guide, 2004). The
project manager should identify which are the preferred methods of communicating
based on the conditions of the message to be communicated. According to the
PMBOK guide (2004), attributes of a communication plan:

 Communication item: Information that will be distributed to stakeholders;

 Purpose: The reason for the distribution of that;
 Frequency: How often that information will be distributed;
 Start/end dates: The time frame for the distribution of information;

Department of Civil Engineering 12

Chapter 2 Literature Synthesis

 Format/ medium: The layout of the information and the method of

transmission; and,
 Responsibility: The team member charged with the distribution of
information.

As the next step of communication planning project managers have to prepare a

communication plan with using identified communication requirement and
communication modalities.

2.3.1.3 Creating the communication plan

Based on stakeholder analysis, the project manager and the project team can
determine what communications needed. A Communication Management Plan can
organise and document the process, types, and expectations of communications
(Fawaz, 2008). It provides:

 A system to gather, organise, store, and disseminate appropriate information

to the appropriate people. The system includes procedures for correcting and
updating incorrect information that may have been distributed;
 Details on how needed information flows through the project to the correct
individuals. The communication structure documents where the information
will originate, to whom the information will be sent, and in what modality the
information is acceptable;
 Specifics on how the information to be distributed should be organised, the
level of expected detail for the types of communication, and the terminology
expected within the communications;
 Schedules of when the various types of communication should occur. Some
communication, such as status meetings, should happen on a regular
schedule; other communications may be prompted by conditions within the
project;
 Methods to retrieve information as needed; and,

Department of Civil Engineering 13

Chapter 2 Literature Synthesis

 Instructions on how the Communications Management Plan can be updated s

the project progresses.

According to Project communication handbook (2003), flow of creating

communication plan shown in Figure 2.4.

Begin process

Gather planning inputs

Identify stakeholders

Determine stakeholder
needs

Identify communication method

Prepare communication plan

draft

Distribute communication plan

draft

Any changes from Yes

stakeholders
Incorporate changes
No

Finalize project
communication plan

End process

Figure 2.4: Flow of communication planning

Source: Project communication handbook (2003, p.12)

Department of Civil Engineering 14

Chapter 2 Literature Synthesis

 Gather planning inputs: Collect data for communication planning from both
external and internal environment of the organisation.
 Identify stakeholders: The project manager must identify the stakeholders
on the project, determine what their needs and expectations and then manage
and influence those expectations to ensure a successful project.
 Determine stakeholder needs: Project stakeholders have information and
communication needs. Identifying the information needs of the stakeholders
and determining a suitable means of meeting those needs are considered
under determine stakeholder needs.
 Identify communication method: Project team members and stakeholders
use different communication methods at particular times during the project
lifecycle. Therefore project managers should be able select most appropriate
communication method exchange information.
 Prepare communication plan draft: After collecting data, identify and
determine stakeholders needs and find appropriate mode for exchange
information, project manager prepare draft plan for communication.

As the next step, draft plan will be implemented in the project. While draft plan
implementing, project managers discover the fault of draft plan and is there any fault
change the draft plan. Even though finalised the plan after finish the changes, plan
will be change until end of the project.

2.3.2 Information distribution

Information distribution is the process of ensuring that the appropriate stakeholders

get the appropriate information when and how they need it (Fawaz, 2008).
Essentially, information distribution is the implementation of the Communications
Management Plan. The Communications Management Plan details how the
information is to be created and dispersed and also how the dispersed information is
archived. There are three elements that serve as inputs to information distribution:

Department of Civil Engineering 15

Chapter 2 Literature Synthesis

 Work results: Work results, serve as inputs to communication because they

show progress (or lack of progress), quality issues, and other relevant
information(Fawaz, 2008);
 Communications management plan: This plan serves as the guide on how
to communicate on project issues within the performing organisation (project
communication hand book, 2003); and,
 Project plan: The comprehensive project may have information,
requirements, or described conditions that are integrated with
communications.

The most common type of communication between a sender and a receiver is verbal
communication (Jennifer and Andrew, 2007). As Fawaz (2008, p07) stated

“When verbal communications are involved, the project manager should

remember that half of communication is listening. This means the project
manager must confirm the receiver understands the message being sent.”

The confirmation of the sent message can be seen in the recipient’s body language,
feedback, and verbal confirmation of the sent message. There are five terms that
describe the process of communicating (Fawaz, 2008).

 Para lingual: T he pitch, tone, and inflections in the sender’s voice affect the
message being sent.
 Feedback: The sender confirms the receiver understands the message by
directly asking for a response, questions for clarification, or other
confirmation of the sent message.
 Active listening: The receiver confirms the message is being received
through feedback, questions, prompts for clarity, and other signs of
confirmation of the received message.
 Effective listening: The receiver is involved in the listening experience by
paying attention to visual clues from the speaker and Para lingual
characteristics and by asking relevant questions.
 Nonverbal: Facial expressions, hand gestures, and body language contribute
to the message.

Department of Civil Engineering 16

Chapter 2 Literature Synthesis

The words in an oral message, actually only 7% account for the message. The
tonality of the message accounts for 38 % of the message. The remaining55 % of the
message is body language (Mehra, 2003). The medium in communication can help or
hinder the message. For example, when a project manager talks to a stakeholder in
person, the stakeholder has the advantage not only of hearing the message and tone
but also of seeing the body language. Take out body language in a conversation and
the message is interpreted by just the words and tonality.

According to the project communication handbook (2003), information can be

distributed through project meetings; hard-copy documentation; databases; faxes;
email; telephone calls; video conferences; and, project web site as well as other
methods, according to project demands and as technology provides.

To get the feedback for communication plan, project managers should examine the
result of information distribution. Information distribution results in the following:
 Project records: Project records are vital to the project team. Project records
are the memos, correspondence, emails, and any other project-relevant
information. It’s important to secure and organize this information throughout
the project for future reference (PMBOK guide, 2004);
 Project reports: Reports are formal communication on project activities,
status, and conditions. Management, customers, and policies within the
performing organisation may have differing requirements for when reports
are required language (Mehra, 2003); and,
 Project presentations: Presentations are useful in providing information to
customers, management, the project team, and other stakeholders. The
delivery and degree of formality of the presentation should be appropriate for
the conditions and information being delivered within the project (Fawaz,
2008).

Department of Civil Engineering 17

Chapter 2 Literature Synthesis

2.3.3 Reporting project performance

Throughout the project, the management, customers and other stakeholders need
updates on the project performance. Performance reporting is the process of
collecting, organising, and disseminating information on how the project resources
are being used to complete the project objectives (Fawaz, 2008) and it generally
provides information on scope, schedule, cost and quality (PMBOK guide, 2004).
The project plan is one of the key inputs to performance reporting. The project plan
contains the work breakdown structure, the project scope and requirements, and other
documentation that can be used to measure project progress and performance
(Mehra, 2003). Other inputs to performance reporting are work performance
information, performance measurement, forecasted completion, quality control
measurement, approved change requests and deliverables.

The project manager will host performance review meetings to determine the
progress and level of success the project team is having with the project work.
Performance review meetings focus on the work that has been completed and how
the work results are living up to the time and cost estimates. The project manager and
the project team will also examine quality and its’ effect on the project as a whole
(project communication hand book, 2003). At the end, project manager must lead a
discussion on pending or past risks and determine any new risks and overall risk
possibility and impact on the project’s success (Fawaz, 2008).

2.3.4 Manage stakeholders

According to Juliano (1995) defines stakeholders are an individual, individuals, team

or teams affected by the project (see Figure 2.5). Once the project start, even though
in briefing stage there may be number of parties pay attention to the project because
of need to fulfill their needs. This may happen with knowing or unknowing the
project management.

Department of Civil Engineering 18

Chapter 2 Literature Synthesis

Financial End Users

institutions
Competitors

Public
authorities
Contractor
Construction
Project
Media
Sub
Sub Contractors
contractors

Third parties
Consultant
Client/
customers

Figure 2.5: Project Stakeholders

Source: Karlsen(2002, p.20)

The number of stakeholders interested in the project can dramatically increase the
complexity. Each of these stakeholders usually has their own interest in the project
and this may cause different priorities and conflicts (Karlsen, 2002).Therefore
communication plan is very critical to project managers identify stakeholders as well
as manage them. Stakeholder management is the process of controlling
communication to adjust as per the needs of the stakeholders (Mehra, 2003).
According to the PMBOK guide (2004) Communication management plan and
organisational process assets are two major input for the manage stakeholders.

Exploration of literature about the project communication management is critical for

prepare communication plan. But examining what is happened in communication in
construction industry is also essential as same as theoretical survey. Therefore, the
relationship of communication and construction industry is briefly discussed in next.

Department of Civil Engineering 19

Chapter 2 Literature Synthesis

2.4 Communication in Construction

Proper communication is essential for successful delivery of a construction project.

In construction project management, because of its’ decentralised nature that is
caused by geographical distribution of projects participants, the different
responsibilities of various parties, and different time to join the construction teams; it
has highlighted the importance of communication (Tai and Wang, 2008).
Communication difficulties during the projects process can directly lead to a sharp
increase in the volume of unnecessary expenditure, and also affect the progress and
quality of the project (Anumba et al., 1997).Therefore, proper communication is
essential to the success of any type of construction projects.

The efficiency and effectiveness of the construction process strongly depend on the
quality of communication. In literature, it can be identified four main reasons for
why improvements in communication are needed.

 The improvement in the communication within the building team, in project

teams, and between project manager and contractors could reduce failure
(Franks, 1998).
 More open communication at all levels could lead to innovations and better
technical solutions (Lenard and Eckersley, 1997).
 Communication improvements in early phases of projects would positively
influence the quality as perceived by all stakeholders involved (Emmit and
Gorse, 2003).
 Improved communication during the briefing might lead to better decision
making, for example less haste in moving to solutions and better ways of
looking at the requirements first (Nutt, 1998).

According to Tai and Wang (2008), communication in construction projects is a very

complex issue, and it is very difficult to understand comprehensively and grasp the
whole picture. They define three major reasons for complex of communication in
construction project.

Department of Civil Engineering 20

Chapter 2 Literature Synthesis

 There are many participants with different communication channels, and it is

almost impossible to collect all the data on communication.
 The lifecycle of construction projects may very long, and there are different
tasks at different stages. Ever changing parties who adopt varying forms of
communication are required to complete these tasks making it impossible to
collect all the communication information about all the tasks.
 Each participant is not a person but an organisation. Different organisations
have different organisational structures. The different departments of these
organisations communicate with the outside world through specific
individuals. This gives more variables to construction project communication.

Construction project is always been as a team effort. Numbers of individuals, parties

as well as stakeholders are involved to success the project goal. Therefore, effective
communication within project team is helped to reduce uncertainties of individuals
and minimise project managers’ time wasting on communication planning.

2.4.1. Project team communication

According to Emmitt and Gorse (2003), construction relies heavily on the co-
ordination of many deferent specialists and it is usually referred as a team effort.
Communication between the management and design during the construction process
is a function of team interaction. Team communication in construction project is
becoming increasingly important due to the growing technical and organisational
complexity of construction projects (Emmitt and Otter, 2008) and also growing
recognition of the need to understand the needs of the individuals and how they
communicate within project teams if communication is to be effective (Emmitt and
Gorse, 2007). The contribution of more than one individual to a problem, increase
the number of perspectives, the depth of expertise and knowledge and the amount of
information available from which to make informed decisions. When team members
come from different organisations, which have different organisational cultures and
which also use a variety of information systems. Individuals also have different

Department of Civil Engineering 21

Chapter 2 Literature Synthesis

levels of understanding, opinions, skills and rates of adoption of the available

communication tools as well as preferences for specific means of communication
(Gorse, 2002). As Emmitt and Otter (2008) discussed, due to the use of the various
communication tools, team communication might become ineffective without clear
guidance from management and involvement and commitment from all team
members. Therefore manage communication within project team and its environment
is also one of major task of project manager. For the success of team communication,
individual’s knowledge, ability, experience and skills are very significant. Therefore,
interpersonal communication is also key fact to build a superior communication in
construction.

2.4.2. Interpersonal communication

An essential skill of all professionals is the ability to express them self clearly and
concisely. Interpersonal or face-to-face communication is of the most common forms
of communication (Emmitt and Gorse, 2003), be it between in designers in the office
or operatives on the site. Interpersonal communication is used to gain more
information, to question areas of uncertainty and to communicate decision to others.

Interpersonal relationships are developed in response to the interpersonal to the

interpersonal behaviour of each individual, their responses being reaction to the
actions of others (Kerps, 1989).Face-to-face communication tends to be natural and
maximum feedback. Two people in close proximity sending, receiving and
processing both verbal and non-verbal motivation will result in an almost natural
interaction, which is usually less guarded and structured than other forms of
exchange (Trenholm and Jensen 1995).Messages given out and received include
facial expression, eye movement, dress, body language, physical movement, posture,
verbal information and speed of reaction is the advantages of face-to-face
communication.

Department of Civil Engineering 22

Chapter 2 Literature Synthesis

2.5 Barriers to Effective Communication

Barriers to communications can create interferences or disturbances and impact the

effectiveness of the communication. Project Manager should look for such barriers and try to
minimize (or better still, eliminate) the source/cause. The study carried out by Mehra
(2003) pointed out 11 factors in communication made problematic:

1. Physical –noise, distance, time, environment, physical medium;

2. Cultural - ethnic, religious, and social differences;
3. Perceptional - viewing what is said from your own mind-set;
4. Words - we assign a meaning to a word often because of culture, experience, etc.;
reasons which results in improper encoding of message;
5. Experiential - lack of similar experience;
6. Emotional - personal feelings at the moment or doing other things besides
listening;
7. Linguistic - different languages or vocabulary;
8. Non-verbal - non-word messages;
9. Gestures - misunderstood gestures are a major barrier; and,
10. Variations in language - accent, dialect.

The following are the barriers to communication in the construction industry as

explained by Adeleke (2004):

 Lack of detailed drawings, these may not give full description of the mind
of the designer;
 Inexperience of the site agents or clerk of works will lead to
misinterpretation which can cause a lot of damages and changes to the
original design;
 Poor and horrible writing or lettering can mislead the clerk of works or the
other operative;
 Geographical location where communication cannot be easily passed;
 Poor recording of bills of quantities and omission of items or rates;

Department of Civil Engineering 23

Chapter 2 Literature Synthesis

 Fear of the authority especially the senior staff can cause one
of the junior staffs to make mistakes during a face-to face communication;
 Inferiority complex of artisans and operatives can also lead to
misinterpretation of information; and,
 Telephone message wrongly received is also a barrier.

Adeleke (2004) also explained that in order to overcome barriers of communication

within the construction industry, management tends to concentrate on doing so at a
personal level while effort may be geared up in site level.

Using Feedback

Using feedback is the process of obtaining information on performance in order to

take collective actions where necessary (Wells, 1978). He also stated that it entails
the communication ensuring that his message is well understood by the receiver and
action is taken.

Using reinforcement of backup

As stated by Adeleke (2004), certain information can be communicated

in more than one pattern. For example information may be passed verbally and also
backed up by a written letter.

Using a direct sample of language

This is the most efficient way of eradicating barriers of effective communication.

When one speaks or gives orders in a plan and Simple
language then the other party easily understands. The use of ambiguous words will
be eradicated.

2.6 Strategies for Effective Communication

Effective communication in the construction industry will enhance the rate of

productivity i.e. safe material wastage, safety to operatives and gives room for

Department of Civil Engineering 24

Chapter 2 Literature Synthesis

continuity of contract between the client and the contractor in the ways explained
below by Carter (2003) as listed:

 If working drawings are well prepared, detailed and handled with

utmost seriousness and by an experienced clerk of works, site agent, there
will be no problem during setting out, excavation and
setting of blocks using the actual dimensions and shapes. And since there will
be no alteration or demolition, performance will be increased.
 Artisans will have free hand to perform the duties as expected. There will be
no repetition of materials usage therefore reducing waste.
 There will be a good relationship between client and workers
 Duration of completion of the project will be reduced there by giving no
room for liquidated and ascertained damages or any extra costs for both
parties.
 Maximum profit will be realized by the contractor and maximum satisfaction
will be achieved by the client.
 There will be no argument or dispute between the clerk and the artisans
between consultants and contractor and between client and contractor.

2.7 Significance of the Research Problems

Communication is a tool, an objective and a skill that required to success of

construction industry. Manage communication in construction is one of the critical
task of project managers. Literature synthesis explained the importance of effective
communication for the project and how project manager should manage the
communication with in the project as well as with its external environment by using
main four processes (eg. communication planning, information distribution,
performance reporting and manage stakeholders) and barriers for effective
communication and overcome barriers adopting strategies at project level of project
communication management.

Department of Civil Engineering 25

Chapter 2 Literature Synthesis

Communication plan provide a basic to project manager for manage communication.

Even though communication plan so important to project managers, it is difficult to
find proper communication plan for construction project in Sri Lankan construction
industry. Therefore, this research is focused to identify how Sri Lankan project
managers manage communication in the project and identify project manager’s
actual practice of communication planning, information distribution, performance
reporting, manage stakeholders and team management with communication in the
construction industry.

2.8 Summary

This chapter discussed key concepts relating to communication and communication

management relevance to construction project managers through a comprehensive
literature review and synthesis. Based on the above literature findings significance of
the research problems were established. The next chapter describes research
methodology of this study.
.

Department of Civil Engineering 26