Determining the Neogene behavior of the Nazca plate by

geohistory analysis
J.P. Le Roux*  Departamento de Geologı́a, Facultad de Ciencias Fı́sicas y Matemáticas, Universidad de Chile,
Carolina A. Gómez 
Casilla 13518, Correo 21, Santiago, Chile
Danisa M. Olivares 
Heather Middleton* Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) Petroleum, Riverside Corporate
Park, Delhi Road, North Ryde, NSW 2113, Australia

ABSTRACT
Geohistory analysis was performed on Neogene deposits south
and north of La Serena, central Chile, to determine the behavior
of the crust since the middle Miocene. The tectonic history of both
study areas was found to be similar, but the timing of uplift and
downwarp events at the two localities differs by 1.3 and 0.8 m.y.,
respectively, which we attribute to the approach and passing of the
Juan Fernández Ridge. From trigonometric relationships between
the ridge trend, the plate vector, and the trend between the study
areas, we calculated a plate-convergence rate of 6.2 cm/yr between
11.8 and 10.5 Ma and 10.1 cm/yr between 7.7 and 6.9 Ma. Rapid
uplift commenced ca. 2.3 Ma, with a delay of 0.3 m.y. between the
two study areas. Trigonometric constraints suggest the presence of
a hitherto unsuspected oceanic plateau trending ;0148, subducted
below the present continental margin. Flat-plate subduction may
thus be better developed where it is assisted by the combined buoy-
ancy of ridge clusters instead of single subducting plateaus.

Keywords: Nazca plate, Juan Fernández Ridge, flat-plate subduction,

plate tectonics.

INTRODUCTION
Direct quantitative measurement of relative plate motion can be
performed only for plates separated by a spreading ridge (Somoza,
1998). Where the latter is absent, estimation of the convergence rates
must be based on plate circuits, which are subject to uncertainties in
the interpretation of the marine magnetic record. There may also be
more than one possible plate circuit, as in the case of the Nazca–South
American plates, where either the Nazca–Pacific–Antarctica–India–
Africa circuit (Pilger, 1983) or the Nazca–Pacific–Antarctica–Africa–
South America circuit (Pardo-Casas and Molnar, 1987) can be used.
Using alternative circuits often leads to different results.
We discuss a different approach to determine the relative plate-
convergence rate, based on geohistory analysis. Applying this tech-
nique to Neogene deposits 146 km apart in central Chile, the tectonic
behavior of the crust was determined at each locality. The convergence
rate was calculated from the time lapse between related uplift and
downwarp events in the two areas.
GEOLOGIC BACKGROUND
The Central Andes Range began to develop during the late Oli-
gocene (28.5–23.8 Ma), when the Farallon plate broke up into the
Nazca and Cocos plates (Herron and Heirtzler, 1967) and a major re-
organization of plate kinematics and boundaries took place. The mag-
matic arc widened and shifted eastward, while the plate-convergence
direction was reoriented from northeast to east-northeast (Pilger, 1983).
Somoza (1998), using new plate reconstruction parameters (e.g., Teb-
bens and Cande, 1997), a revised Cenozoic time scale (Cande and
Kent, 1995), and applied software, concluded that the rate of plate
collision accelerated to ;14 cm/yr at that time, confirming studies by
*E-mails: jroux@cec.uchile.cl; Heather.Middleton@csiro.au.
Figure 1. Map showing location of measured stratigraphic sections
(black triangles), isobaths, and trigonometric relationships used to
determine relative plate-convergence rates. Dashed line indicates
former extent of Tongoy Bay.
Cisternas and Frutos (1994). For the period since 16 Ma, Somoza
(1998) used the second plate circuit to calculate the following velocities
for central Chile at 308S: 12.6 cm/yr between 16 and 10.8 Ma, 10.9
cm/yr between 10.8 and 4.9 Ma, and 7.8 cm/yr after 4.9 Ma. The
present rate of convergence as predicted by the NUVEL-1A model of
DeMets et al. (1994) is 8.0 cm/yr.
The Chilean coastal sector between 298009S and 308309S, repre-
senting the northern and southern limits of the two areas discussed
here (Fig. 1), is within the Chilean flat-slab zone, extending from 268S
to 338S (Barazangi and Isacks, 1976). Within this zone, the subducting
Nazca slab has a mean dip angle of ,108, which has been attributed
to the buoyancy effect of the Juan Fernández Ridge in this sector (Pil-
ger, 1981; Nur and Ben-Avraham, 1981). The ridge currently is op-
posite the Chilean coastline between 338 and 348S and trends 0808,
parallel to the Nazca plate vector (Gutscher, 2002). However, it also
has a northeast-trending arm currently subducted beneath the continen-
tal crust, which rapidly migrated southward against the continental
margin after ca. 22 Ma. According to the reconstructions of Yañez et

q 2005 Geological Society of America. For permission to copy, contact Copyright Permissions, GSA, or editing@geosociety.org.
Geology; March 2005; v. 33; no. 3; p. 165–168; doi: 10.1130/G21101.1; 3 figures; 1 table. 165
 TABLE 1. DATA USED IN GEOHISTORY ANALYSIS

Age Cumula- Global sea Depth of Reference

(Ma) tive level deposition surface
thick- (m) (m) (m)
ness
(m)
Carrizalillo units
2 (t) 14.6 6 1.2 Sr 2 123 6 20 220 6 20 101 6 40
3 (m) 13.7 6 1.1 3 114 6 31 265 6 25 46 6 56
4 (b) 12.9 6 1.1 4 81 6 34 2120 6 20 243 6 54
5 (m) 12.0 6 1.1 5 23 6 44 2170 6 30 2152 6 74
6 (m) 10.3 6 1.1 7 21 6 21 2120 6 20 2128 6 41
7 (b) 8.6 6 1.1 8 5 6 19 220 6 20 223 6 39
7 (t) 7.3 2 1.0 Sr, F 9 20 6 6 220 6 20 29 6 26
8 (b) 5.6 6 0.7 Sr 11 25 6 29 250 6 10 236 6 39
9 (b) 5.2 6 0.7 17 34 6 35 250 6 10 233 6 45
9 (m) 4.5 6 0.7 27 23 6 26 2170 6 30 2174 6 56
9 (t) 3.9 6 0.5 Sr 36 38 6 23 250 6 10 248 6 33
10 (b) 3.9 2 0.5 Sr, F 36 32 6 19 2170 6 30 2174 6 49
10 (t) 3.7 6 0.5 40 37 6 22 2170 6 30 2173 6 52
Figure 2. Concept of geohistory analysis. Left diagram shows strati- 11 (m) 3.1 6 0.4 F, M 44 213 6 28 2120 6 20 2177 6 48
graphic column subdivided into units; labeled arrows indicate mean 12 (m) 2.3 6 0.4 F, M 49 0 6 29 2200 6 60 2249 6 89
unit ages. In right diagram at 10 Ma, global sea level (dashed line) 13 (m) 1.9 6 0.5 Sr 55 28 6 26 220 6 20 283 6 46
was at 125 m and depositional depth was at 250 m, so that 14 (m) 1.0 6 0.5 Sr 58 26 6 26 210 6 5 274 6 31
Terrace 0.3 6 0.1 I 58 0 6 3 0 258 6 3
sediment-water interface was at 225 m (25 2 50) below present sea Final 0.0 58 0 105 47
level (solid line). Reference surface (RS) was at 230 m (225 2 5), uplift
subtracting 5 m thickness to part of unit dated at 10 Ma. At 5 Ma,
global sea level dropped to 220 m, depositional depth was 225 m, Tongoy units
sediment-water interface at 245 m (220 2 25), and reference surface 3 (m) 11.9 6 1.0 Sr 2 18 6 43 220 6 20 24 6 63
at 265 m (245 2 5 2 15). 4 (m) 11.2 6 1.2 D 4 8 6 33 2120 6 20 2116 6 53
5 (m) 10.6 6 1.1 9 23 6 24 280 6 20 292 6 44
6 (m) 10.1 6 1.1 13 1 6 18 220 6 20 232 6 38
7 (t) 9.5 6 0.7 D 18 21 6 17 240 6 20 259 6 37
al. (2002), the southward migration velocity was ;25 cm/yr between 8 (m) 9.0 6 1.0 Sr 22 1 6 17 210 6 5 231 6 22
9 (m) 7.3 6 1.0 27 23 6 6 240 6 20 244 6 26
12 and 10 Ma and ;33 cm/yr after 10 Ma. Using a strike of 0308 for 10 (m) 6.3 6 1.0 30 18 6 18 210 6 5 222 6 23
the northeast-trending sector of the Juan Fernández Ridge (Fig. 3 of 11 (b) 5.3 2 0.1 D, M 33 9 6 7 2100 6 40 2124 6 47
12 (b) 5.0 6 0.7 Sr 39 38 6 37 220 6 20 221 6 57
Yañez et al., 2002), a strike of 0108 for the mean coastline trend, and 13 (m) 4.3 6 0.5 40 48 6 28 210 6 5 22 6 33
a plate vector of 0808 gives relative plate velocities of 11.1 cm/yr (12– 14 (m) 2.2 6 0.5 Sr 49 21 6 27 2100 6 40 2150 6 67
10 Ma) and 14.7 cm/yr (since 10 Ma). Whereas the first velocity cor- 14 (t) 1.8 6 0.5 Sr 56 29 6 26 2100 6 40 2165 6 66
15 (m) 1.7 6 0.5 M 58 23 6 24 220 6 20 281 6 44
responds reasonably well to the 12.6 cm/yr between 16 and 10.8 Ma 16 (m) 1.4 6 0.5 63 21 6 25 240 6 20 2104 6 45
calculated by Somoza (1998), the last velocity indicates an acceleration Terrace 0.3 6 0.1 I 63 0 6 3 0 263 6 3
of plate movement instead of the gradual deceleration proposed by the Final 0.0 63 0 105 42
uplift
latter author.
Note: t—top of unit; m—middle of unit; b—base of unit; Sr—Sr-date; F—
foraminifer date; M—macrofossil date; I—isotope stage; D—diatom date.
METHODOLOGY
Geohistory analysis is usually applied in petroleum geology to
obtain the thermal history of potential source rocks (Van Hinte, 1978). The paleobathymetry of each unit was determined from a detailed
It consists of determining the age and paleobathymetry of the units facies analysis of outcrops, as well as a paleontological analysis using
composing a single stratigraphic section, relating the depositional microfossils and macrofauna. Depths were assigned to different facies
depths to the global sea level at the time, and calculating the progres- as follows: foreshore—0 m; estuary—10 m; upper shoreface—20 m;
sive elevation of a reference surface relative to the present sea level middle shoreface—50 m; lower shoreface—80 m; inner shelf or bay—
(Fig. 2). The cumulative thickness of the units must be taken into 120 m; outer shelf—170 m; uppermost continental slope—230 m. The
account, and a correction is usually made for compaction. However, depth ranges for these environments are shown in Table 1. Because the
because the reference stratigraphic sections in our two study areas are sedimentary facies at the two study areas are very similar, the possible
only 58 and 63 m thick, compaction should not only have been neg- error in water depths is probably of the same order. The relative water
ligible, but also similar. This aspect was therefore not considered. depths are more important than the absolute depths (which cannot be
The stratigraphic units at both localities were dated by 87Sr/86Sr determined accurately) when geohistory analysis is based on a com-
isotopes as well as macrofauna, foraminifers, diatoms and shark teeth. parison of two curves determined in the same way, as in this study.
Sr dating was performed on the mass spectrometer of the Common- The global sea-level curves of Haq et al. (1988), as recalibrated
wealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO; Aus- by Hardenbol et al. (1998), were used for the analysis. These third-
tralia) using the curve of McArthur et al. (2001), which approaches a order curves show sea-level variations on a scale of 0.5–3 m.y., so that
precision of 0.1 m.y. for this specific time frame. However, the cu- possible dating errors could have a significant effect on the final tec-
mulative (maximum) error could be 61.2 m.y. if analytical errors are tonic curves. For this reason, the following procedure was used: for a
taken into account. The age ranges obtained from microfossils were given date of, e.g., 14.6 6 1.2 Ma, the global sea level was determined
adapted to comply with stratigraphic constraints as well as the Sr ages from the curve for every 0.1 m.y. increment between 15.8 and 13.4
of overlying and underlying units. Where no absolute dates could be Ma, in this case giving 25 points, reflecting the entire range of sea
obtained, ages were assigned by correlating the paleobathymetry with levels within the period represented by the maximum error ca. 14.6
prominent highstands or lowstands on the global sea-level curve (Har- Ma. The mean sea level for this period was used in the analysis. In
denbol et al., 1998), together with age interpolation from the nearest Table 1, the error given for global sea levels is the standard deviation
underlying and overlying, dated units, taking account of the unit thick- around the mean.
nesses and assuming a constant rate of sedimentation. Subtracting the depositional depth of each stratigraphic unit, as

166 GEOLOGY, March 2005


Figure 3. Fourth-order polynomial curves fitted to data from Carri-
zalillo and Bahı́a Tongoy, showing behavior of basement from ca. 15
Ma to present. Inflection points are used to calculate velocity of plate
convergence (masl—meters above present-day sea level).
well as the cumulative thickness of the units from the base upward,
from the mean global sea level at the time, yielded the elevation of
the reference surface relative to present sea level. These elevations
were plotted against the corresponding ages of the units, to which a
fourth-order polynomial curve was fitted. This particular fit was chosen
because it best models the large-scale tectonic movements of the crust,
reducing the effect of local tectonics such as faulting, as well as
smoothing out possible individual errors in the analysis. Using a Mi-
crosoft Excel spreadsheet to fit the curve also ensured that the analysis
was unbiased.
TECTONIC BEHAVIOR OF THE CRUST AS REVEALED BY
GEOHISTORY ANALYSIS
The two study areas examined here are 100 km north-northwest
and 57 km southwest of La Serena, respectively. The northern study
area is north of the fishing hamlet of Carrizalillo, and the southern
study area extends south from Bahı́a Tongoy (Fig. 1).
The succession at Carrizalillo consists of Neogene sandstones,
mudrocks, conglomerates, and coquinas of the Coquimbo Formation,
deposited in a continental shelf to upper continental slope environment
(Le Roux et al., 2004). Geohistory analysis reveals the tectonic behav-
ior of the Paleozoic basement in this area from ca. 15 Ma to the present.
Figure 3 shows that the Carrizalillo area subsided more than 210 m
between 14.6 and 11.8 Ma at a rate of 0.07 mm/yr. From 11.8 to 7.7
Ma, it rose ;80 m at a rate of 0.02 mm/yr, before subsiding 140 m at
0.03 mm/yr until 2.4 Ma. Thereafter uplift of 210 m at a rate of 0.09
mm/yr is registered. Le Roux et al. (2005) attributed the uplift between
11.8 and 7.7 Ma to the approach and subduction of the Juan Fernández
Ridge below this area, followed by subsidence in the ridge’s wake as
it migrated toward the south.
GEOLOGY, March 2005
In the Bahı́a Tongoy section, the Coquimbo Formation is repre-
sented by a similar succession of sandstones, mudrocks, coquinas, and
conglomerates, deposited within a paleobay that extended at least 30
km farther inland than the present bay (Fig. 1). Geohistory analysis
applied to this area (Fig. 3) reveals behavior of the crust very similar
to that at Carrizalillo. A paleokarst surface a few meters below the
oldest unit, dated as 11.9 Ma, indicates subaerial exposure, so that
subsidence of at least 75 m occurred from about that time until 10.5
Ma. This was followed by uplift (0.02 mm/yr) of ;55 m until 6.9 Ma.
Thereafter, until 2.1 Ma, 110 m of subsidence took place at a rate of
0.02 mm/yr. Uplift totaling ;175 m at a rate of 0.08 mm/yr occurred
after 2.1 Ma. The uplift between 10.5 and 6.9 Ma can be attributed to
the approach and subduction of the Juan Fernández Ridge.
A line connecting the two key stratigraphic sections has a trend
of 0058 over a distance of 146 km, as determined by the global posi-
tioning system. Using a strike of 0308 for the northeast-trending arm
of the Juan Fernández Ridge and a plate vector trend of 0808 (Yañez
et al., 2002; Gutscher, 2002), the southward migration rate of the ridge
can be calculated from the inflection points on the two curves. The
beginning of basement uplift took place at 11.8 and 10.5 Ma in the
Carrizalillo and Bahı́a Tongoy sections, respectively, representing a de-
lay of 1.3 m.y. Between 11.8 and 10.5 Ma, the ridge traveled 146 km
along the trend line between the two sections in 1.3 m.y., at a velocity
of 11.2 cm/yr. The start of basement subsidence occurred at 7.7 and
6.9 Ma, respectively, with a difference of 0.8 m.y., which reflects a
southward migration rate of 18.3 cm/yr for this period. The rate of
plate convergence can be calculated from the trigonometric relation-
ships between the line connecting the two key stratigraphic sections,
the trend of the northeastern arm of the Juan Fernández Ridge, and the
trend of the plate vector (Fig. 1). These data yield mean velocities of
6.2 cm/yr between 11.8 and 10.5 Ma and 10.1 cm/yr between 7.7 and
6.9 Ma. The first velocity is much slower than the rate of 12.6 cm/yr
proposed by Somoza (1998) or the rate of 11.1 cm/yr obtained from
Yañez et al. (2002) before 10.8 Ma. The subsequent 10.1 cm/yr velocity
indicates an acceleration in the relative plate motion ca. 7.7 Ma, in
agreement with the 10.9 cm/yr velocity proposed by Somoza (1998),
but not with the deceleration calculated by this author. Yañez et al.
(2002) also showed a relative acceleration of plate motion for this
period, but their velocity is much higher.
Rapid uplift started north of Carrizalillo at 2.4 Ma and south of
Bahı́a Tongoy at 2.1 Ma; these dates are partly based on the presence
of wave-cut marine terraces at 105 and 58 m above sea level, respec-
tively, over the key stratigraphic sections. The cause of this uplift can-
not be attributed to the Juan Fernández Ridge, as it had already mi-
grated past these localities at that time. The rapid uplift ca. 2.3 Ma
also seems to contradict the deceleration to ;8 cm/yr determined by
DeMets et al. (1994) and Somoza (1998). Furthermore, if the 0.3 m.y.
difference between the uplift near Carrizalillo and Bahı́a Tongoy had
been caused by direct plate movement, uplift would have occurred first
at Bahı́a Tongoy and then at Carrizalillo because of the 0808 plate
vector trend and 0058 trend between the measured sections. This timing
in uplift hints at the presence of a hitherto-unsuspected northeast-
striking ridge, similar to the northeastern sector of the Juan Fernández
Ridge, subducted perhaps beneath Carrizalillo, but not yet having
reached its peak at Bahı́a Tongoy, where the uplift has been consid-
erably less. If the same trigonometric relationships are used for this
postulated ridge as applied to the Juan Fernández Ridge, an unlikely
convergence rate of 26.8 cm/yr is obtained. However, if a ridge trend
of 0148 is used instead of 0308, the calculated plate velocity would be
8.0 cm/yr.
The presence of another, as-yet unnamed ridge beneath this part
of the continent is compatible with seismicity data (Fig. 1 of Pardo et
al., 2002), which show shallow earthquake epicenters spread over a
167
wide area from ;278 to 328S and 688 to 728W, north of the eastward
extension of the Juan Fernández Ridge. Bathymetric contours also
show an elevated area on the seafloor around the Pájaros Islands half-
way between Carrizalillo and Bahı́a Tongoy, which may represent the
surface expression of such a ridge (Fig. 1).
Buoyant overthickened oceanic crust related to plateaus such as
the Juan Fernández Ridge has been generally considered as the best
explanation for flat-plate subduction (e.g., McGeary et al., 1985;
Gutscher, 2002). However, there are similar ridges along the South
American continental margin where the subducting slab does not have
the unusually shallow dip, as in the sector between 268 and 338S (Bar-
azangi and Isacks, 1976). It may therefore be necessary to have a
cluster of subducting plateaus, in this case the Juan Fernández and
Iquique Ridges, the ridge postulated here, and possibly others, to pro-
vide a combined buoyancy sufficient for the development of such low-
angle subduction.
CONCLUSIONS
The Juan Fernández Ridge caused crustal uplift of 55–80 m be-
tween Carrizalillo and Bahı́a Tongoy during the period 11.8–6.9 Ma,
when it migrated southward along the coastline at a mean velocity of
11.2–18.3 cm/yr. The relative plate-convergence rate for this period
accelerated from 6.2 to 10.1 cm/yr. Subsidence in the wake of the Juan
Fernández Ridge between ca. 7.4 and 2.3 Ma was ;120 m. From 2.5
Ma, rapid uplift of ;210 m occurred at Carrizalillo, starting at Bahı́a
Tongoy at 2.1 Ma, where an uplift of only ;175 m is recorded to
present. The fact that uplift started first at Carrizalillo and then mi-
grated to Bahı́a Tongoy, considering the plate vector and trend between
the stratigraphic sections, suggests that direct plate movement can
probably be ruled out as a cause. This timing therefore hints at the
presence of a subducted oceanic plateau similar to the Juan Fernández
Ridge, with a trend of 0148, passing close to Carrizalillo but still to
the west of Bahı́a Tongoy. Unusually low dip flat-plate subduction may
thus be a product of ridge clusters instead of single subducting
plateaus.
The application of geohistory analysis to determine plate-
convergence rates complements other methods based on paleomagnetic
data, in addition to revealing the regional tectonic effects of plate col-
lision. Tectonic movements in turn have an impact on climate, erosion,
coastal sedimentation, and hydrocarbon accumulation, as well as base
and precious metal mineralization, so that studies of the kind discussed
here can make an important contribution to understanding these
processes.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We thank Michelle Kominz and Suzanne Kay for very thorough and help-
ful reviews, which considerably improved this paper. Funding from Project Fon-
decyt 1010691 is gratefully acknowledged.
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Manuscript received 13 August 2004
Revised manuscript received 1 November 2004
Manuscript accepted 2 November 2004
Printed in USA
GEOLOGY, March 2005